612523

research-article2015
SGOXXX10.1177/2158244015612523SAGE OpenOpoku-Asare and Siaw

Article

SAGE Open

Rural–Urban Disparity in Students’

October-December 2015: 1­–14
© The Author(s) 2015
DOI: 10.1177/2158244015612523
Academic Performance in Visual Arts sgo.sagepub.com

Education: Evidence From Six Senior

High Schools in Kumasi, Ghana

Nana Afia Amponsaa Opoku-Asare1

and Abena Okyerewa Siaw2

Abstract
Rural–urban disparity in economic and social development in Ghana has led to disparities in educational resources and
variations in students’ achievement in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, senior high schools (SHSs) in rural and
urban schools follow the same curriculum, and their students write the same West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate
Examination (WASSCE), which qualifies them to access higher education in Ghana’s public universities. Urban SHSs are also
recognized nationwide as good schools where students make it to university. Moreover, performance patterns with regard
to admission of SHS graduates into university also vary between rural and urban schools; consequently, some parents do
everything to get their children in urban SHSs, even consenting to placement in visual arts, a program deemed appropriate
only for academically weak students. This study therefore adopted the qualitative-quantitative research approach with
interview, observation, and questionnaire administration to investigate the critical factors that affect academic performance
of SHS students, particularly those in visual arts as case study. Findings from six public SHSs in Kumasi—two each in rural,
peri-urban, and urban areas—revealed that urban schools perform better than rural and peri-urban schools because they
attract and admit junior high school graduates with excellent Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE) grades, have
better infrastructure, more qualified teachers, prestigious names, and character that motivate their students to do well. This
suggests that bridging the rural–urban gap in educational resources could promote quality teaching and learning, and thereby
raise academic achievement for SHS students in Ghana.

Keywords
rural–urban disparity, academic performance, visual arts, senior high school, Ghana

Introduction Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2000 as

cited in Siaw, 2009). Learning is the medium through which
Education is one of the most powerful instruments known for the attainment of individuals and the nation’s educational
reducing poverty and inequality and for laying the basis for goals can be achieved (Aremu & Sokan, 2003). Teaching
sustained economic growth. It raises the productivity and output is therefore measured largely by student learning and
efficiency of individuals and produces skilled manpower that academic achievement (Ankomah, 2002).
is capable of leading economic development. Education is a Teaching is the main way of promoting learning and
process through which the intellectual, moral capacities, achievement among students but teaching and learning are
proper conduct, and technical competency of individuals are what affect knowledge, skills, attitudes, and the capacity of
developed to make them cultural members of their societies young people to contribute to contemporary societies (Mangal,
(Tuan, 2009, as cited in Dorleku, 2013). Teaching and learn-
ing form the central part of education and provide essential 1
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
learning tools and the basic learning content required by 2
Kumasi Polytechnic, Ghana
human beings to survive, to develop their full capacities, live
Corresponding Author:
and work in dignity, participate fully in development, Nana Afia Amponsaa Opoku-Asare, Department of Art Education, Kwame
improve the quality of their lives, to make informed deci- Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi OR38, Ghana.
sions and to continue learning (United Nations Educational, Email: naopoku-asare@knust.edu.gh

Creative Commons CC-BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
(http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of
the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages
(https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
2 SAGE Open

2007). Although the school may have other peripheral objec- Factors That Affect Academic Performance
tives, the major goal of the school is to work toward attain-
ment of academic excellence by students (Adeyemo, 2001, as Academic performance is affected by several factors. The
cited in Babatunde & Olanrewaju, 2014) mainly because vir- attitude of some teachers to their job, which reflects in their
tually everyone concerned with education places premium on poor attendance to lessons, lateness to school, passing of
academic achievement. Excellent academic achievement of unsavory comments about students’ performance that could
children is often the expectation of parents (Osiki, 2001, as damage their ego and poor methods of teaching directly
cited in Babatunde & Olanrewaju, 2014). Academic failure is affect students’ academic performance (Adesemowo, 2005).
not only frustrating to students and their parents; its effects are To Mzokwana (2008), conditions that hinder students’ learn-
equally grave on the society in terms of dearth of manpower in ing and affect their performance include cultural background,
all spheres of the economy and politics (Aremu & Oluwole, psychological problems, curriculum changes, and allocation
2000, as cited in Babatunde & Olanrewaju, 2014). of subjects to teachers without considering their areas of spe-
cialization. Alton-Lee (2001, as cited in Dorleku, 2013) also
adds school climate, curriculum change, teaching methods,
Concept of Academic Performance availability of teaching aids, assessment methods, learners’
In educational institutions, success is measured by academic discipline, school culture, overcrowding in classes, motiva-
performance, or how well students deal with their studies; tion, and students’ background as factors that require atten-
how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to tion to ensure academic success among learners.
them by their teacher, and the extent to which a student, School culture or climate is the heart and soul of the
teacher, or institution has achieved their educational goals school and the essence of the school that draws teachers and
(Ankomah, 2002). As an outcome of education, academic students to love the school and to want to be a part of it
performance refers to the capacity to achieve when one is (Weber, 2000, as cited in Dorleku, 2013). The type of school
tested on what one has been taught (Otoo, 2007), which a learner attends is a factor that has profound influence on the
relates to curriculum content, the learner’s intellect, and learner’s academic achievement. School culture affects
hence depends on the learner’s competence. Also referred to teaching effectiveness. In this sense, Wheeler and Richey
as academic achievement or scholastic functioning (2005) posit that schools that create learning environments
(Babatunde & Olanrewaju, 2014), academic performance of that are safe and supportive for both learners and teachers
students, especially at the secondary school level, is not only ensure high teaching and learning outcomes. Collegial
a pointer to the effectiveness or otherwise of schools but a schools establish learning goals for their students and culti-
major determinant of the future of youths in particular and vate a positive culture that enables students to achieve aca-
nations in general (Aremu & Sokan, 2003, as cited in Osei- demically (Ankomah, 2002; Fleischman & Osher, 2005).
Mensah, 2012). According to Gray, Griffin, and Nasta (2005), students
Performance in school is evaluated in a number of ways, come to school with unique sets of characteristics that include
including examinations as a factor of quality education cultural backgrounds that may assist or impede academic per-
(Adams, 2000, as cited in Yeboah, 2014). Academic perfor- formance. Academic success of students also depends on lan-
mance is measured in terms of examination marks, the grad- guage (Rickford & Wolfram, 2009). Students experience
ing of which concerns the ability of individuals to use the higher failure rates in school if the language they learn at
knowledge and skills acquired. For regular grading, students school is different from the one spoken at home. The problem
demonstrate their knowledge by taking written and oral tests, is compounded if the students do not speak one language or
performing presentations, turning in homework, and partici- do not understand the medium of instruction. Language and
pating in class activities and discussions. Performance results communication styles can therefore hamper student achieve-
are shown in the form of letter or number grades and side ment in school.
notes that describe how well a student has done, which also Gray et al. (2005) also assert that strategies and methods
allows students to be ranked and sorted on a scale that is of teaching have a great influence on student achievement.
numerically obvious, and also as a means of holding teachers The theory of multiple intelligences and concept of learning
and schools accountable for the components of each and styles (Gardner, 1999, as cited in Agbenatoe, 2011) make it
every grade (Bell, 2012). Students are also evaluated by their clear that learners vary in the way they acquire new informa-
performance on standardized tests geared toward specific tion or skill. Thus, no single strategy or teaching method can
ages and based on a set of achievement objectives that stu- satisfy all learners’ needs (Downes, 2010). Consequently,
dents in each group are expected to meet. In the past, aca- Armstrong (2009) recommends that teachers endeavor to
demic performance was often measured more by year than identify the intelligence strengths of their students so that
today, and teachers’ observations made up the bulk of the they can teach to reinforce the students’ specific strengths of
assessment; today’s summation or numerical method of intelligence and learning styles when teaching new materials
determining how well a student is performing is a fairly to meet their students’ learning needs, which can lead to
recent invention (Bell, 2012). higher student achievement. As learning has more to do with
Opoku-Asare and Siaw 3

one’s ability to organize and use ideas and skills to address a what “rural” means (Adedeji & Olaniyan, 2011). Kashaa
problem, teachers ought to teach what students need to know, (2012) simply describes rural areas as deprived, lacking so
understand, and be able to do. Nonetheless, teaching will be many government developmental interventions such as pota-
in vain if students are not actively involved in the learning ble water, electricity, good roads, and school infrastructure to
experience (Singh & Rana, 2004). improve upon the lives of the people. Rural cultures can exist
Classrooms are particular kinds of environments. They in urban areas but differences exist between rural areas and
have distinctive features that influence their inhabitants no urban centers because large rural towns that are not far from
matter how the students or the desks are organized or what urban centers often have more in common with the urban
the teacher believes about education. Furthermore, class- area than they do with remote and isolated small towns.
rooms are multidimensional, they are crowded with people, Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa is concentrated in rural areas
tasks, and time pressures; they have people with differing where 75% of the poor reside. Although rural areas can pro-
goals, preferences, and abilities, inhabitants must share vide family-oriented settings, lower crime rates, fresh air,
resources, and actions can have multiple effects and influ- and an enhanced quality of life, many teachers refuse rural
ence student participation (Doyle, 2006, as cited in Mucherah postings due to concerns about the quality of housing, class-
& Frazier, 2013). The social context created within the class- room facilities, healthcare, school resources, and opportuni-
room, the ways in which communication occurs, teachers’ ties for professional development (Acheampong & Lewin as
and students’ roles, and how opportunities for collaboration cited in Mulkeen, 2005; Armah, 2013; Hedges, 2000) and
are structured influence students’ understanding and con- language barriers (Coultas & Lewin, 2002).
struction of knowledge, and hence affect learning and Ghana’s efforts at raising the living standards of Ghanaians
achievement (Hammond, Austin, Orcutt, & Rosso, 2001, as and ensuring economic growth have, however, left a legacy
cited in Dorleku, 2013). of extreme disparities in development in terms of the demo-
Class size is an important factor with respect to academic graphic and settlement patterns, distribution of social infra-
performance of students. There is consensus among research- structure and levels of economic activity. This has resulted in
ers and educational scholars that students’ achievement substantial differences between urban and rural settings with
decreases as class size increases (Babatunde & Olanrewaju, regard to the distribution and quality of educational facilities
2014). Similarly, overcrowding (Morrow, 2007) in a class- and manpower, just as levels of utilization of resources and
room makes it complicated for teachers to manage each indi- access to tertiary education also differ slightly between urban
vidual’s attention and also make use of various teaching and and rural schools (UNICEF, 1990, as cited in Siaw, 2009).
assessment methods. Where a teacher is limited by space and Increased rural–urban migration has also brought millions of
is unable to provide individual attention and supervision, stu- people living in rural areas to the urban centers. Variations in
dents who are unattended to tend to disturb the class and dis- teacher–student ratios, human resource capacity, provision
tract the attention of other students during lessons (Squires, of educational infrastructure, and other facilities have also
2002). As Jolivette, Scott, and Nelson (2000) posit, the level led to rural, urban, and regional differences in educational
of distractibility within the classroom, the density of class opportunities in different parts of Ghana (Atuahene &
size, and social interaction with specific students or staff are Owusu-Ansah, 2013; Banson, 2010; Osei-Mensah, 2012;
potential barriers to high performance. Owusu-Afriyie, 2009; The President’s Committee on Review
Students’ background is another factor that influences of Education Reforms in Ghana, 2002; Siaw, 2009).
their performance (Weber, 2000, as cited in Dorleku, 2013). Rural schools in Ghana lack good infrastructure and facil-
Students from different backgrounds and cultures bring dif- ities, they have low enrollment, less qualified teachers, and
fering prior knowledge and resources to learning. The back- fewer textbooks, and other teaching and learning materials,
ground of a student is a major contributing factor to the whereas urban schools are generally overstaffed with quali-
teaching-learning process and also serves as a springboard fied teachers, are overenrolled, better funded, and monitored,
for further education (Adedeji & Owoeye, 2002). To help have better infrastructure and adequate resources to work
students who are not learning requires teachers to ensure that with (Anamuah-Mensah, 2002; The President’s Committee
instruction is not inappropriate to the students’ learning on Review of Education Reforms in Ghana, 2002; Siaw,
styles (Hampton, 2009, as cited in Dorleku, 2013). It is criti- 2009). The achievement gap between urban and rural schools
cal therefore that academic performance is investigated so is a pressing problem today because past approaches at clos-
that the negative factors that affect academic achievement ing this gap have been largely urban biased in character
could be mitigated to enable all students to have equal oppor- (UNICEF, 1990, as cited in Siaw, 2009).
tunity to do well in school.
Rural–Urban Disparity in Tertiary Education
Rural–Urban Disparities Performance patterns with regard to admission of SHS grad-
There is no universally accepted definition for a rural area uates into tertiary institutions in Ghana differ between urban
because different countries have different perceptions of and rural schools and also skewed toward the traditionally
4 SAGE Open

élite schools located in urban centers (Kwame Nkrumah Ghana should have equal opportunity to do well in school
University of Science and Technology Planning Unit, 2009). and also access higher education. However, academic perfor-
Available data and various research studies show that stu- mance of students in Ghana’s secondary schools appears to
dents from deprived school districts and in particular rural be at variance with this view. The perception that urban
areas have limited access to quality education (Assié- schools can guarantee better WASSCE results and access to
Lumumba, 2008; Leach & Mitchell, 2006; Mama, 2003; tertiary education than schools in rural settings is a signifi-
Morley et al., 2009; Morley et al., 2010; UNESCO-UIS, cant factor that directly affects students’ choice of programs
2009, 2011, as cited in Atuahene & Owusu-Ansah, 2013). and educational opportunities.
Oakes and Guiton (1995) believe that some urban schools The problem is exacerbated by placement of students in
provide high-quality education and produce high-achieving the visual arts program, which is perceived as a “not so seri-
students, which make them the preferred choice for potential ous subject” that is fit only for low performance students and
students. those who are not intelligent enough to study science, busi-
Performance in the West Africa Senior Secondary ness, and other subjects that involve abstract thinking
Certificate Examination (WASSCE), which qualifies SHS (Adinyira, 2012; Asihene, 2009). The rural–urban differ-
graduates to access higher education in Ghana, depends on ences in levels of educational resources, quality of teachers
the geographical location or region of the high school, aca- and students, students’ entry grades, geographical location,
demic program offered, and the quality of teachers in the prestige of school, character of the community in which a
school (Atuahene & Owusu-Ansah, 2013). Thus, students school is located, and other environmental factors seem to
who have opportunity to attend one of the top-ranked sec- have some influence on student learning and performance in
ondary schools which are staffed with quality teachers and the WASSCE, and achievement of educational goals
have comparatively better educational facilities tend to per- (Agbenatoe, 2011; Asihene, 2009; Owusu-Afriyie, 2009).
form better than their peers who attend mediocre SHSs that In spite of challenges with social and economic develop-
are predominantly located in rural areas in historically disad- ment, Ghana recognizes secondary education as the most
vantaged regions of the country, which have substandard accessible form of higher education with greater potential for
academic infrastructure or facilities. sustaining higher levels of literacy, increasing political
Geographical location and technical factors such as deter- awareness, strengthening democracy, and producing middle-
mination of programs, timetabling, teacher availability, and level manpower for national development (Quist, 2003, as
subject availability also shape decisions that students make cited in Yeboah, 2014). Creating the necessary conditions
in the selection of secondary school subjects (Page, 2007). that will enable citizens in all parts of the country to develop
Such decision making is also influenced by the location of to their highest potential to aid national development requires
the community the student lives in. The selection of areas of bridging the achievement gap between rural and urban
study in high school is thus shaped by the decision maker’s schools. This study is very necessary as it examines the fac-
concept of the school or subject with respect to their geo- tors that contribute to rural–urban differentials in student
graphical areas of location. Manuh, Sulley, and Budu (2007) performance in SHSs in general, and Visual Art education in
also found location and quality of SHS attended as a measure particular, as it has the ability to directly translate secondary
of one’s performance and an indicator of one’s participation education into a consistent economic return (Rihani, 2006).
in higher education in Ghana.
Regardless of these differentials, schools in all parts of
Method
Ghana are governed by the same policy regulations designed
by the Ministry of Education and implemented by the Ghana To verify the perceptions, assumptions, and personal experi-
Education Service ( GES); teaching and learning are guided ences of the apparent rural–urban disparity in student aca-
by a centralized curriculum, a prescribed teaching syllabus demic achievement in Ghana, the study employed a
for the specified subjects in the curriculum, and the use of combination of qualitative and quantitative research designs
same textbooks. Irrespective of a school’s location in Ghana, with interview, observation, and questionnaire administra-
final-year students in all urban and rural SHSs write the same tion “to get an overall understanding of the phenomenon
final external WASSCE that qualifies them for further educa- being researched” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005, p. 133), which
tion in polytechnics, colleges, and universities (Asihene, are the relevant factors that significantly affect teaching,
2009; Osei-Mensah, 2012; Owusu-Afriyie, 2009). learning, and academic performance of students in different
The reality of the rural–urban disparity, however, is that geographic settings in Ghana, using the Senior High School
some parents find it difficult to accept placement of their Visual Arts program as a case study.
children in schools located in rural communities and do The study was conducted in metropolitan Kumasi, the
everything to get them into the well-endowed, “famous,” or capital of Ashanti Region, which offers a diverse range of
prestigious schools located in urban centers where they urban, peri-urban, and rural settings and schools of varying
believe that their wards would make it to the university size, levels of facilities and educational resources. Using the
(Asihene, 2009). All things being equal, all SHS students in GES Approved Classification of Schools in Ashanti Region
Opoku-Asare and Siaw 5

(June 2008) as a guide, six of the 18 public SHSs that offer through a variety of art activities using the relevant tools and
visual arts in the Kumasi metropolis were randomly selected: materials to acquire the relevant knowledge, skills, and aes-
Two schools each were selected to represent communities thetic experiences necessary for the youth of Ghana to appre-
classified on the GES list as rural, peri-urban, and urban, ciate their environment, to equip themselves with trades and
using the purposive sampling technique for in-depth study. vocations, otherwise set up their own businesses to contrib-
The study was limited to the visual arts program, and there- ute their quota as responsible citizens to promote socioeco-
fore excluded teachers and students in the science, business, nomic development (Ministry of Education, 2008; UNESCO,
general arts, home economics, and the other SHS elective 2001).
programs of study. The study respondents comprised both
male and female students so single sex schools were excluded
from the sample.
Components of the Visual Arts Program
Field data to verify the existence of any disparities in The following sections provide a summary of the respective
teaching, learning, and student achievement in SHSs located subjects studied by visual arts students in Ghana’s SHSs. As
in rural, peri-urban, and urban communities in Ghana were specified in the Teaching Syllabus (Ministry of Education,
gathered via observation, interview, and questionnaire 2008, 2010, 2013), each student is required to study any two
administration. Data collection from the three settings lasted of eight elective subjects in addition to General Knowledge
6 weeks. The schools sampled for the study are identified in Art (GKA), which is the core subject and therefore studied
only as Schools A, B, C, D, E, and F; Schools A and B repre- by all students on the visual arts program.
sent the urban cluster of schools, Schools C and D represent
the peri-urban cluster, and Schools E and F represent the GKA.  GKA provides broad-based information on the history
rural cluster. of art, creativity, and appreciation, the basic elements and
From the population of 710 visual arts students (School principles of art, skills in their application to various practi-
A = 105; School B = 200; School C = 162; School D = 80; cal art processes. GKA is a composite subject that was teased
School E = 88; School F = 75) and 20 visual arts teachers, out from all the visual arts subjects studied at the SHS level
data were collected from a simple random sample of 120 to provide the students with broad-based knowledge and
students (66 males; 54 females) and 18 teachers (16 males; skills in the theory and practice of art. The theory aspect is
2 females) across the 6 schools. Each participating school meant to widen the students’ scope of art vocabulary with the
contributed a stratified sample of 20 SHS 1 to 3 students requisite communication skills that would enable them to
and three teachers in each setting. Of the 120 students, talk knowledgeably on the subject. The practical component
64.3% were aged 15 to 18 years and 34.7% were aged 19 serves to reinforce through planned repetition, what is
years or more. The teachers and students answered a learned in the individual subject areas of the visual arts pro-
50-item self-administered questionnaire that had a return gram with emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge, skills,
rate of 96.4%. Data source focused on sociodemographic competences, and attitudes in visual arts for individual and
characteristics, access to logistic support, motivation and national development.
attitude toward lessons. Informal interviews and direct
observation of classroom and art studio activities con- Textiles.  The textiles syllabus is structured and geared toward
ducted over 12 weeks provided additional data for filtering the diversification of the local industry to generate more jobs
data obtained from questionnaire responses. In all, 30 vis- and alleviate poverty. Among other things, the subject
its of 20- to 45-min observation per visit in each school focuses on providing students with knowledge of the behav-
were adopted to obtain a holistic view of teaching and ior or characteristics of fibers, yarns, and fabrics when in
learning processes across the six schools. use; fabric designing, construction, decoration, and finishing
Combining different methods to gather data from differ- processes; career opportunities and entrepreneurial practice
ent sources (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010; Leedy & Ormrod, in textiles.
2005) enabled a comprehensive description of the factors
that affect academic performance of students in SHSs located Graphic design. Graphic design focuses on effective visual
in rural, peri-urban, and urban environments. communication. It involves equipping students with skills in
drawing, painting, illustration, block, and solid screen print-
ing, engraving, etching, lithography, among others, to con-
Discussion of Findings
vey messages to the public.
Art education in a way helps students respond to culture,
psychology, sociology, philosophy, anthropology, and reli- Picture Making.  Picture Making focuses on drawing, paint-
gion of the society as portrayed in artifacts. Art education ing, printing, collage, mosaic, appliqué, pyrography, and
serves as a foundation for advanced training and provides photography. It equips students with skills in drawing, com-
opportunity for students to acquire skills in apprenticeship. position, organization, and other skills needed by students of
The SHS program is meant to foster and promote creativity visual and industrial arts.
6 SAGE Open

Sculpture. Sculpture focuses on skills in creating aestheti- Table 1.  WAEC Grading System for Examinations.
cally pleasing two- and three-dimensional objects either by
WASSCE SSSCE
carving, modeling, casting or construction and assemblage, Marks grade equivalent Remarks
using materials such as stone, metal, clay, and wood.
100-80 A1 A Excellent
Ceramics. Ceramics focuses on acquisition of skills in the 79-70 B2 B Very good
use of clay for the design and production of pottery, bricks, 69-65 B3 C Good
tiles, and other ceramic wares. The syllabus includes identi- 64-60 C4 D Credit
fication, preparation, and use of indigenous and contempo- 59-55 C5 Credit
54-50 C6 Credit
rary materials, tools, and equipment for ceramics.
49-45 D7 E Pass
44-40 E8 Pass
Leatherwork. The syllabus deals with the processing of
39 and below F9 F Fail
hides and skins of animals into leather, and skills in using
relevant tools and techniques in the design and production Note. WAEC = West Africa Examinations Council; WASSCE = West
of leather articles for different uses. It equips students with Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination; SSSCE = Senior
Secondary School Certificate Examination.
skills in designing, cutting, assembling, coloring, and fin-
ishing of leather.
Table 2.  BECE Results for 2002 for the Three Locations.
Basketry.  The syllabus deals with the making of containers Location
by plaiting, weaving, coiling of pliable natural and synthetic
fibers and materials using awls, pliers, and sharp knives or Urban Peri-urban Rural
scissors, needles and scissors.
No. of No. of No. of
BECE grade students % students % students %
Entry Basic Education Certificate Examination
6-12  72 67.3  0 00.0  5  6.0
(BECE) Grades of Students in Sampled Schools 13-24  31 29.0 28 50.0 51 61.5
For objective assessment of possible variations in the 25+   4  3.7 28 50.0 27 32.5
achievement strengths of student respondents in rural, peri- Total 107 100 56 100 83 100
urban, and urban schools, and analysis of factors that influ- Note. BECE = Basic Education Certificate Examination.
ence academic achievement in the three settings, the entry
BECE grades of students in the six schools were compared
and discussed. BECE is externally organized and graded by reflect the students’ graduating WASSCE results for the
the West Africa Examinations Council (WAEC), which clas- various visual arts subjects across the three settings as seen
sifies candidates who obtain BECE Aggregate 6 to 12 as in Tables 3 to 6.
“distinction” or “good” students, Aggregate 13 to 24 achiev- It must be emphasized that BECE applicants who entered
ers as “average,” and Aggregate 25 and above achievers as SHS in 2002 graduated in 2004. From the WASSCE results
“weak” students (Asihene, 2009; Dorleku, 2013; Hayford, for 2004, 45 (10%) of the total urban student population of
2007). Table 1 shows the WAEC grading system for BECE 429 scored Grade “A” and as many as 222 (51.7%) made
and WASSCE (previously Senior Secondary School Grades B and C; only 22 (5.1%) students failed in the urban
Certificate Examination, SSSCE). Table 2 also shows the schools. The majority of the rural and peri-urban students
sampled students’ entry BECE grades. scored Grade E: 162 (60.9%) and 61(46.5%) out of the total
It can be seen from Table 2 that of the 107 students population of 266 and 131 students in the respective areas,
admitted into the urban schools in 2002, 72 (or 67.3%) had while the peri-urban setting recorded the highest failures of
aggregate 6 to 12 (distinction) with no student in the peri- 79 (29.7%) of the total number presented as shown in
urban school obtaining a distinction. In the rural schools, Tables 3 to 6.
five students had “distinction” and as many as 51 of the 83 The 2003 results shown in Table 7 are not much different
students admitted had BECE aggregate 13 to 24 as against from the 2002 WASSCE results. The urban schools did not
31 in the urban setting. It is also seen that the rural schools admit any student with Grade 25 or above but took 13 (31.0%)
recorded the highest average (13-24) grades, whereas the average performance students out of the 42 students they
peri-urban schools recorded the highest weak grades. Only admitted. They also recorded the highest number (69.0%) of
four students had BECE aggregate 25+ in the urban schools, “good” students. However, the peri-urban schools admitted
considering that admission cutoff points are 6 to 10 for sci- more of the average (40 or 67.8%) students and 18 (or 30.5%)
ence; 6 to 15 for visual arts in Grade A schools; 8 to 15 and of those with Grade 25 and above. The rural schools recorded
10 to 25 in Grade B schools; and 8 to 15 and 10 to 30 in the second highest intake of “average” and “weak” students
Grade C schools, respectively. The BECE grades seem to with 38 (60.3%) and 17 (27.0%), respectively.
Opoku-Asare and Siaw 7

Table 3.  SSSCE/WASSCE GKA Results for 2004. Table 6.  SSSCE/WASSCE Textiles Results for 2004.

Location Location

  Urban Peri-urban Rural   Urban Peri-urban Rural

No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of

Grade students % students % students % Grade students % students % students %
A 3 1.5 0 0 0 0 A 0 0 0 0 0 0
B 61 31.3 1 0.8 0 0 B 8 8.2 1 1.9 0 0
C 55 28.2 3 2.4 3 6.1 C 22 22.4 0 0 2 5.9
D 47 24.1 11 8.7 11 22.4 D 20 20.4 6 11.5 8 23.5
E 28 14.4 86 68.3 27 55.1 E 31 31.6 36 69.2 16 47.1
F 1 0.5 25 19.8 8 16.3 F 17 17.3 9 17.3 8 23.5
Total 195 100 126 100 49 100 Total 98 100 52 100 34 100

Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination; Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination; WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination.
GKA = General Knowledge in Art.

Table 7.  BECE Results for 2003 for the Three Locations.
Table 4.  SSSCE/WASSCE Picture Making Results for 2004. Location
Location   Urban Peri-urban Rural
  Urban Peri-urban Rural No. of No. of No. of
Grade students % students % students %
No. of No. of No. of
Grade students % students % students % 6-12 29 69.0 1 1.7 8 12.7
A 42 42.9 0 0 0 0 13-24 13 31.0 40 67.8 38 60.3
B 43 44.0 0 0 3 8.8 25+ 0 00.0 18 30.5 17 27.0
C 3 3.0 0 0 10 29.4 Total 42 100 59 100 63 100
D 3 3.0 0 0 11 32.4 Note. BECE = Basic Education Certificate Examination.
E 7 7.1 0 0 8 23.5
F 0   0 0 0 2 5.9
Total 98 100 0 0 34 100 Table 8.  SSSCE/WASSCE GKA Results for 2005.
Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
Location
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination.
  Urban Peri-urban Rural

No. of No. of No. of

Table 5.  SSSCE/WASSCE Graphic Design Results for 2004.
Grade students % students % students %
Location A 0 0 0 0 0 0
  Urban Peri-urban Rural B 7 3.8 3 2.1 17 29.8
C 84 46.2 29 20.6 21 36.8
No. of No. of No. of D 43 23.6 82 58.2 14 24.6
Grade students % students % students % E 41 22.5 27 19.1 5 8.8
A 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 7 3.8 0 0 0 0
B 10 26.3 0 0 0 0 Total 182 100 141 100 57 100
C 10 26.3 1 1.1 0 0 Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
D 4 10.5 2 2.3 1  7.2 WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination;
E 10 26.3 40 45.5 10 71.4 GKA = General Knowledge in Art.
F 4 10.5 45 51.1 3 21.4
Total 38 100 88 100 14 100
The BECE candidates for 2003 entered the SHS in 2003
Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination; and completed in 2005. From Tables 8 to 11, the output for
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination.
2005 shows that 43 (10%) of the total urban student
8 SAGE Open

Table 9.  SSSCE/WASSCE Graphic Design Results for 2005. Table 12.  BECE Results for 2004 for the Three Locations.

Location Location

  Urban Peri-urban Rural   Urban Peri-urban Rural

No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of

Grade students % students % students % Grade students % students % students %
A 0 0 0 0 0 0 6-12 49 55.1 0 0  4  6.2
B 4 5.2 0 0 1 5.6 13-24 37 41.6  86 53.4 28 43.0
C 8 10.4 5 5.1 2 11.1 25+  3  3.3  75 46.6 33 50.8
D 17 22.1 19 19.2 3 16.7 Total 89 100 161 100 65 100
E 39 50.6 67 67.7 9 50.0
Note. BECE = Basic Education Certificate Examination.
F 9 11.7 8 8.0 3 16.7
Total 77 100 99 100 18 100

Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination; Table 13.  SSSCE/WASSCE GKA Results for 2006.
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination.
Location

  Urban Peri-urban Rural

Table 10.  SSSCE/WASSCE Picture Making Results for 2005.
No. of No. of No. of
Location
Grade students % students % students %
  Urban Peri-urban Rural A 8 4.6 2 1.0 0 0
No. of No. of No. of B 13 7.5 2 1.0 1  1.3
Grade students % students % students % C 75 43.1 13 6.7 3 37.5
D 72 41.2 66 33.8 29 36.3
A 18 30.0 0 0 1 2.6 E 6 3.4 91 46.7 37 46.3
B 22 36.7 0 0 13 34.2 F 0 0 21 10.8 10 12.5
C 6 10.0 0 0 15 39.5 Total 174 100 195 100 80 100
D 3 5.0 0 0 9 23.7
E 8 13.3 0 0 0 0 Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
F 3 5.0 0 0 0 0 WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination;
GKA = General Knowledge in Art.
Total 60 100 0 0 38 100

Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;

WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. scored Grade “A” in the urban setting. The majority of stu-
dents in the rural setting scored Grades B, C, and D, while 37
(24.3%), 46 (30.2%), and 40 (26.3%) students, respectively,
Table 11.  SSSCE/WASSCE Textiles Results for 2005. failed out of a population of 152. In the peri-urban schools,
most of the students (106 or 35.8%; 123 or 41.6%), respec-
Location
tively, out of the total of 296 students scored Grades D and E.
  Urban Peri-urban Rural In 2004, the overall rural schools’ intake reduced from 83
in 2002 to 65 in 2004 while the peri-urban population
No. of No. of No. of increased from 56 to 161. This was based on lowered Grade
Grade students % students % students % 6 to 12 entry (ratio of 72:49) in 2004 for urban schools and
A 2 2.1 0 0 0 0 increased Grade 13 to 24 in the peri-urban setting. The rural
B 15 15.4 1 1.8 6 15.4 schools had most of their students entering with Grade 25 or
C 12 12.4 2 3.6 8 20.5 above, indicating academically weak students.
D 12 12.4 5 8.9 14 35.9 The BECE candidates for 2004 shown in Table 12 entered
E 32 33.0 29 51.8 11 28.2 the SHS in 2004 and completed in 2006. As indicated by their
F 24 24.7 19 33.9 0 0 WASSCE output for 2006 (seeTables 13 to16) 17 (3.9%) stu-
Total 97 100 56 100 39 100 dents out of the total urban student population of 431 scored
Grade “A,” and as many as 189 (43.9%) had Grades B and C;
Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. only 8 (1.9%) students failed in the urban schools. Majority of
the rural and peri-urban students scored Grade E with 71
(51.4%) and 182 (43.0%), respectively, out of the total of 138
population of 414 failed WASSCE, while 110 (26.6%) and and 423; the peri-urban setting recorded the highest failures
120 (29%), respectively, had Grades C and E; only 20 (4%) with 80 (18.9%) out of the total population of students.
Opoku-Asare and Siaw 9

Table 14.  SSSCE/WASSCE Graphic Design Results for 2006. Table 17.  BECE Results for 2005 for the Three Locations.

Location Location

  Urban Peri-urban Rural Urban Peri-urban Rural

No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of

Grade students % students % students % Grade   students % students % students %
A 0 0 0 0 0 0 6-12 114 91.9 9 6.9 5 20.8
B 0 0 1 0.9 0 0 13-24 10 8.1 94 71.8 17 70.8
C 12 17.1 7 6.1 2 9.1 25+ 0 0 28 21.3 2 8.3
D 37 52.9 27 23.7 1 4.5 Total 124 100 131 100 24 100
E 16 22.9 39 34.2 13 59.1
Note. BECE = Basic Education Certificate Examination.
F 5 7.1 40 35.1 6 27.3
Total 70 100 114 100 22 100

Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination; Table 18.  SSSCE/WASSCE GKA Results for 2007.
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination.
Location

Table 15.  SSSCE/WASSCE Picture Making Results for 2006. Urban Peri-urban Rural

Location No. of No. of No. of

Grade   students % students % students %
Urban Peri-urban Rural
A 5 4.5 0 0 0 0
No. of No. of No. of B 2 1.8 1 0.6 1 1.2
Grade  students % students % students % C 45 40.5 2 1.3 1 1.2
A 7 8.4 0 0 0 0 D 50 45.0 61 38.9 17 19.8
B 17 20.5 1 2.5 0 0 E 7 6.3 73 46.5 60 69.8
C 40 48.2 7 17.5 1 5.6 F 2 1.8 20 12.7 7 8.1
D 17 20.5 16 40.0 4 22.2 Total 111 100 157 100 86 100
E 1 1.2 15 37.5 9 50.0 Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
F 1 1.2 1 2.5 4 22.2 WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination;
Total 83 100 40 100 18 100 GKA = General Knowledge in Art.

Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;

WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. setting had almost all their students getting good or excellent
grades; a minority of 10 (8.1%) and the majority of 111
Table 16.  SSSCE/WASSCE Textiles Results for 2006.
(71.6%) students in the peri-urban and the rural schools
made average grades.
Location The 2005 BECE candidates entered SHS in 2005 and com-
pleted in 2007. Their WASSCE output for 2007 as seen from
Urban Peri-urban Rural
Tables 18 to 21 shows that 7 (2.4%) out of the total urban stu-
No. of No. of No. of dent population of 294 scored Grade “A” and as many as 121
Grade   students % students % students % (77.2%) scored Grades B and C; only 9 (3.1%) students failed
in the urban setting. Majority of the rural and peri-urban stu-
A 2 1.9 0 0 0 0
B 3 2.9 0 0 0 0
dents scored Grade E (80 or 48.2%; 136 or 34.3%), respec-
C 29 27.9 0 0 0 0 tively, out of the total of 166 and 396 students; the peri-urban
D 57 54.8 19 25.7 5 27.8 setting recorded the highest failures with 37 (9.3%) out of their
E 11 10.6 37 50.0 12 66.7 total number of 396 students as shown in Tables 18 to 21.
F 2 1.9 18 24.3 1 5.6 Table 22 shows that in 2006, no records were obtained for
Total 104 100 74 100 18 100 students in the rural schools. Of the 59 students who were
admitted into the peri-urban schools, only one (1.7%) had
Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination; distinction in BECE; the urban schools did not admit any
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination.
student with aggregate 25+. While the urban schools admit-
ted 87 distinction students, the peri-urban setting admitted as
The 2005 BECE results shown in Table 17 bring out the many as 41 average performance and 17 weak students out
variance between the three locations more clearly. The urban of their total intake of 59.
10 SAGE Open

Table 19.  SSSCE/WASSCE Picture Making Results for 2007. Table 22.  BECE Results for 2004 for the Three Locations.

Location Location

Urban Peri-urban Rural Urban Peri-urban Rural

No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of

Grade  students % students % students % Grade   students % students % students %
A 0 0 0 0 0 0 6-12 87 71.9 1 1.7 0 0
B 7 18.0 0 0 2 14.3 13-24 34 28.1 41 69.5 0 0
C 18 46.1 2 3.8 11 78.6 25+ 0 0 17 28.8 0 0
D 11 28.2 48 90.5 1 7.1 Total 121 100 59 100 0 0
E 1 2.6 2 3.7 0 0
Note. BECE = Basic Education Certificate Examination.
F 2 5.1 1 2.0 0 0
Total 39 53 100 14 100

Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination; Table 23.  SSSCE/WASSCE GKA Results for 2008.
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination.
Location

Urban Peri-urban Rural

Table 20.  SSSCE/WASSCE Graphic Design Results for 2007.
No. of No. of No. of
Location Grade   students % students % students %
Urban Peri-urban Rural A 1 0.7 0 0 0 0
B 5 3.7 0 0 0 0
No. of No. of No. of
Grade   students % students % students % C 26 19.4 4 2.4 0 0
D 82 61.2 82 50.0 23 52.3
A 0 0 2 1.7 0 0 E 18 13.4 73 44.5 20 45.5
B 3 5.3 2 1.7 0 0 F 2 1.5 5 3.1 1 2.3
C 15 26.3 41 34.2 2 4.4 Total 134 100 164 100 44 100
D 22 38.6 57 47.5 18 40.0
E 14 24.5 16 13.3 20 44.4 Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination;
F 3 5.3 2 1.6 5 11.1 GKA = General Knowledge in Art.
Total 57 100 120 100 45 100

Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;

WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. comparative analysis of their output for 2005 shows 36
(8.7%) out of the total urban student population of 416 scor-
ing Grade “A” and as many as 174 (41.8%) scoring Grades B
Table 21.  SSSCE/WASSCE Textiles Results for 2007. and C; only 11 (2.6%) students failed in the urban schools.
On the contrary, majority of the rural and peri-urban students
Location
scored Grade E with 42 (47.7%) and 110 (31.9%), respec-
Urban Peri-urban Rural tively, out their respective total intake of 88 and 345. This
year as many as 21 of the peri-urban students scored Grade
No. of No. of No. of “A” with only eight (2.3%) of them failing.
Grade   students % students % students % No records were obtained for students in the rural schools
A 2 2.3 0 0 0 0 in 2007, as shown in Table 27. It is seen here that the 139 stu-
B 3 3.4 0 0 0 0 dents admitted into the urban schools in 2007 included no
C 28 32.2 0 0 5 23.8 “weak”’ student. Besides the 13 (9.4%) “average” students,
D 48 55.2 7 10.6 16 76.2 the large majority (90.6%) of those admitted were “distinc-
E 4 4.6 45 68.2 0 0 tion” or BECE aggregate 6 to 12 students. However, 49 or
F 2 2.3 14 21.2 0 0 73.1% of the 67 students who went to the peri-urban schools
Total 87 100 66 100 21 100 were “average” students. This confirms that the majority of
BECE high achievers go to the urban schools whereas average
Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. and weak performers go to the rural and peri-urban schools,
which confirms the existence of a rural–urban disparity in edu-
cational resources which causes differentials in student
The BECE candidates for 2006 entered SHS in 2006 and achievement at both BECE and WASSCE in different parts of
completed in 2008. As shown in Tables 23 to 26, the Ghana. Inequitable distribution of educational resources
Opoku-Asare and Siaw 11

Table 24.  SSSCE/WASSCE Picture Making Results for 2008. Table 27.  BECE Results for 2004 for the Three Locations.

Location Location

Urban Peri-urban Rural Urban Peri-urban Rural

No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of

Grade   students % students % students % Grade   students % students % students %
A 26 31.3 21 44.7 0 0 6-12 126 90.6 13 19.4 0 0
B 32 38.5 17 36.2 0 0 13-24 13 9.4 49 73.1 0 0
C 20 24.1 8 17.0 0 0 25+ 0 0 5 7.5 0 0
D 3 3.6 1 2.1 0 0 Total 139 100 67 100 0 0
E 1 1.2 0 0 0 0
Note. BECE = Basic Education Certificate Examination.
F 1 1.2 0 0 0 0
Total 83 100 47 100 0 0

Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination; enhance the academic potentials of students in their respective
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. environments.
As Asihene (2009) indicates, the pattern of admission of
junior high school (JHS) graduates into SHSs based on the
Table 25.  SSSCE/WASSCE Graphic Design Results for 2008.
aggregated range of marks that included BECE candidates’
Location continuous assessment in the various subjects of the JHS cur-
riculum changed with the introduction of the Computerized
Urban Peri-urban Rural School Selection and Placement System (CSSPS) in 2004. In
No. of No. of No. of place of the aggregated scores that the WAEC used to grade
Grade   students % students % students % BECE, the CSSPS method used the raw scores a candidate
obtains in each of their six best subjects to calculate BECE
A 4 3.0 0 0 0 0 results. Not unusually, the admission of students into urban
B 7 5.3 0 0 0 0 schools depends on the applicants scoring a total of 400
C 51 38.4 18 19.7 2 4.4
marks in the best six subjects, while those with 300 and 200
D 53 39.8 49 53.9 17 38.6
marks find themselves in the peri-urban and rural schools,
E 12 9.0 23 25.3 22 50.0
respectively (Adinyira, 2012; Siaw, 2009). This shows that
F 6 4.5 1 1.1 3 7.0
BECE grades of JHS graduates accepted for admission into
Total 133 100 91 100 44 100
the SHSs vary in relation to location of schools on the prem-
Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination; ise that the urban schools set high admission cutoff grades
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. that only high performance BECE applicants can attain. The
urban schools therefore tend to have students who perform
Table 26.  SSSCE/WASSCE Textiles Results for 2008. better at WASSCE than the average and low performance
applicants who get admitted into peri-urban and rural
Location schools, which also tend to receive the large majority of
Urban Peri-urban Rural
weak BECE applicants overall.

No. of No. of No. of

Grade  students % students % students % Conclusion and Recommendations
A 5 7.6 0 0 0 0 Although only a small sample of 120 visual arts students
B 4 6.1 0 0 0 0 spread across six schools that represent SHSs in rural, peri-
C 29 43.9 3 7.0 0 0 urban, and urban settings in the Kumasi metropolis in Ashanti
D 19 28.8 24 55.8 0 0 Region was studied, the findings attest to obvious differ-
E 7 10.6 14 32.6 0 0 ences existing between academic performance of students in
F 2 3.0 2 4.6 0 0 the SHSs in general but particularly among students on the
Total 66 100 43 100 0 0 visual arts program. It is clear that the BECE grades pre-
sented for admission by the various JHS graduates to the
Note. SSSCE = Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination;
WASSCE = West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. rural, peri-urban, and urban schools vary in relation to the
schools’ locations. The urban schools receive the best BECE
applicants just as Oakes & Guiton, 1995, as cited in Siaw
among schools in different parts of the country is therefore (2009) asserts, which makes it easy for their WASSCE out-
denying rural and peri-urban schools the opportunity to put to be better than those who enter the peri-urban and rural
12 SAGE Open

schools with weak BECE grades and may not receive the reinforces the perception that visual arts is suitable only for
motivation that the urban schools provide for their peers. low achievers. Disdain for visual arts is enough for brilliant
Unequal levels of resources and background learning experi- students to choose other programs, which also overcomes the
ences could further widen the achievement gap between stu- aim of equitable distribution of BECE holders across public
dents in urban, peri-urban, and rural locations. schools in the country, ostensibly to bridge achievement gap
As Aremu and Sokan (2003) posit, academic performance in rural and urban Ghana (Asihene, 2009).
of students, especially at the secondary school level, is not Categorizing SHSs and elective programs of study offered
only a pointer to the effectiveness or otherwise of schools but in SHSs only presses prejudice into the minds of students
a major determinant of the future of youths in particular and who must specialize in specific disciplines as adolescents
the country in general. According to Adedeji and Owoeye without providing adequate resources for them to excel in
(2002), the background of a student serves as a springboard those areas and subjects that they choose to pursue. This
for further education, which in this case hampers the rural engenders discrimination in the choice of higher education
and peri-urban students’ access to higher education. opportunities. Placing a ceiling on BECE grades accepted for
Unfortunately, not all JHS students in Ghana have opportu- entry into SHS to match the categorization of public schools
nity to learn any visual arts subject which could leverage as first, second, and third class (also Grades A, B, and C)
their chances to understand enough of the program to do well schools that also reflect the rural, peri-urban, and urban dis-
for lack of specialist teachers (Agyenim-Boateng, 2011; parity in development only emphasizes and widens the rural–
Evans-Solomon & Opoku-Asare, 2011). Besides, as urban gap. The fact is that disparities exist in the BECE
Hampton (2009, as cited in Dorleku, 2013) posits, students grades of applicants for admission into SHSs that are also
who are not learning must have teachers who have knowl- spread in rural, peri-urban, and urban settings and have vary-
edge about learning styles to ensure that instruction is appro- ing levels of educational resources in the different environ-
priate to address ineffective learning and low performance ments or locations. This encourages migration of adults from
among the weak students. rural areas to urban areas so their children would attend good
Consenting to admit applicants with weak BECE grades schools and make it to university.
suggests willingness of teachers and administrators to work That the urban schools receive the cream of BECE appli-
hard to push their students to do well, at least for the school cants and encourage them to add value to their efforts to
to earn a good name so that they can also attract high perfor- achieve a higher output than their peers who attend peri-
mance JHS graduates like the urban schools. Academic urban and rural schools is obvious. Having the large majority
excellence by students is the major goal for schools to work of weak students attending rural and peri-urban schools also
toward getting good teachers and the requisite resources that limits the opportunity for well-motivated high achievers in
can help attainment of academic excellence (Adeyemo as JHSs to impact positively on their peers. We strongly believe
cited in Babatunde & Olanrewaju, 2014) because virtually that bridging the rural–urban gap with equitable supplies of
everyone concerned with education expects their children to educational infrastructure and facilities, implementing hous-
excel in school to warrant continued parental support and ing and other incentive packages to motivate teachers who
investment. As the data in Tables 2 to 27 indicate, some peri- accept rural postings, and effectively monitoring teaching
urban schools and occasionally a few rural schools get to and learning activities in all schools in Ghana could promote
admit some brilliant BECE applicants but as Asihene (2009) high academic achievement in BECE and WASSCE for JHS
indicates, those are often JHS graduates who live in those and SHS students in the rural, peri-urban, and urban environ-
peri-urban and rural communities and have little opportunity ments and give equal educational opportunities for all stu-
to attend urban schools. Minimal shifts in the academic dents in Ghana.
strength of average standard or weak students could motivate
others to attend rural and peri-urban schools so that they can Declaration of Conflicting Interests
also achieve their educational goals. The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
As Asihene (2009) reports, the system of distributing JHS to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
graduates across the public SHSs in Ghana has changed
since 2005 with the implementation of the CSSPS, which is Funding
a strategic means of ensuring equitable distribution of JHS The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or
graduates in the public SHSs in all parts of the country. It is authorship of this article.
also intended to bridge the educational achievement gap
between rural and urban schools (Asihene, 2009). However, References
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Owusu-Afriyie, C. (2009). The school administrator as an instruc- Author Biographies
tional leader of the visual arts programme: A case study
Nana Afia Amponsaa Opoku-Asare is senior lecturer in art edu-
of Ejisu-Juaben district of Ashanti Region (Master’s the-
cation at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
sis). Department of General Art Studies, Kwame Nkrumah
Kumasi, Ghana. Her specialized disciplines are ceramics, curricu-
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
lum, and instruction. Her research interests include teaching and
Page, T. (2007). Conception of art education programmes held by
learning of visual arts, conflict management, educational leader-
rural and remote Australian community. Journal of Issues and
ship, guidance and counseling, gender, and children’s art.
Research, 49, 42-58.
The President’s Committee on Review of Education Reforms in Abena Okyerewa Siaw is lecturer in clothing and textiles in
Ghana. (2002). Meeting the challenges of education in the 21st Kumasi Polytechnic, Ghana. Her education is in art education with
century. Accra, Ghana: Adwinsa Publications. special interest in the teaching, learning, and student academic
Rickford, J., & Wolfram, W. (2009, October 15-16). Explicit formal achievement in visual arts. Her research interests include design
instruction in oral language as a second dialect. Paper pre- education in textiles, educational leadership, clothing and fashion,
pared for the Workshop on the Role of Language in School guidance and counseling, children’s art.