High Way Project 2010 (Summer Group 1)

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Transportation plays an enormous role in our everyday lives. Each of us travels somewhere almost every day, whether it be to get to work or school, to go shopping, or for entertainment purposes. In addition, almost everything we consume or use has been transported at some point. There are so many ways of transportation, but in this document we concern on road transportation. Highways are the important part of our life, the economy of the society as well as it is Part of the infrastructure. Also it is important for the change location of humans, goods and information. The better of this structure is the faster, more effective and cheaper, can be the capacities of the society used. Traffic security efficiency, economy, environmental protections are some points which considered during design of highway. The development of road transportation plays a great role in a countrys economic development .Roads are the basic infrastructure in which its service extends facilitating the growth and keeping the different sectors of the economy functional. A country should have adequately designed enough number of roads connecting its main parts. This helps the sufficient mobility of products, raw materials and labor as well as it has a far reaching effects embracing administration convenience and creating national integration and cohesion, which enhance for a better economic achievement of the country, it is this and unmentioned needs which motivate us to do our final year project on High way.
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This project deals with the design of three kilometer of Ziway-Butajiraroad. The ZiwayButajira road is found in the southern part of the country starts at ziway, which is 160km from Addis Abeba on route and turn to west at Ziway. The total length of our project is about 3000m or 3km. The design of this road comprises geometric design like Horizontal and vertical alignment, Earth work, drainage design, and pavement design of the road to a design standard DS 4. The project design is done using all important standards and followed the manuals especially ERA manuals and speculator consideration is made and each necessary steps is followed to make our project the best of all.
CHAPTER TWO PROJECT LOCATION 2:1 General

The ZiwayButajira road is found in the southern part of the country starts at ziway, which is 160km from Addis Abeba on route and turn to west at Ziway.
2:2 General Description of the site 2:2:1 Climate

The area of road exhibits a dry climatic condition with the exception around Butajira which is influenced by the wet climate of the mountains area west of the town. According to climatological classification of Ethiopia it can be classified as WEINA DEGA. The climate varies from hot & semi-arid in Ziway to warm temperate in Butajira. Annual rainfall varies from 800 -1200mm. The daily minimum, mean and maximum temperature recorded of the project area is 16, 22, and 270 C, respectively. Annual variation is low and daily variation is high.
2.2.2 Topography
The project area is sited in the main Ethiopian Rift Valley physiographic division.
2.3 Geology
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The geological unit along the project route corridor is alluvial and lacustrine (lake) deposit such as sand, silt, clay, diatomite, limestone, and beach sand.
2.4 Economy
The major economic activity of the population along the road corridor and its influence area is agriculture. The area is intensively cultivated for crop production. Finally the road plays a great role in the development of the area and ultimately the development of the country as a whole.
CHAPTER THREE
TRAFFIC SURVEY AND ANALYSIS 3.1 GENERAL
Traffic is the most important factor in pavement, design and stress analysis. Traffic constitutes the load imparted on the pavement causing the stresses, strains and deflections in the pavement layers and sub-grades. Hence the pavement design must account for the amount of traffic load expected over its design life. The traffic loads on pavement can be characterized by magnitude of load (wheel load or axle load) consideration of load (axle and wheel configuration single dual wheel, single /tandem/ tire axle, wheel and axle spacing), load repetitions and other considerations include tire pressure, contact area vehicle speed, traffic distribution across the pavement etc. The traffic analysis is carried out to determine the pavement component required to resist the traffic load during the design period. The structural parameters required to determine the traffic load are 1 Select design period
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2 Estimate initial traffic volume (initial AADT) per class of vehicle. 3 Estimate traffic growth . 4 Determine cumulative traffic volume over the design period. 5 Obtain mean equivalent load. 6 Estimate cumulative ESA over the design period (in one direction). 7 Select appropriate traffic class (based on ESA ) for flexible pavement design.
3.2 TRAFFIC SURVEYS

3.2.1 SPEED SURVEYS
Speed surveys are usually undertaken mid-block, such as to obtain the maximum speed profile, location does sometime vary or become close to an intersection if there is a unique data need often associated with a road safety issue. Collection techniques can include:
y y
Radar Speed gun Data Logger with typically pneumatic road tube or some other axle sensor, this being the most cost effective method for most long and short term data requirements. Recorder Time of vehicles between 2 known points, eg record registration plate and time. Video camera and manual or screen analysis via pixilation variation technique.
y y
GPS can also be a useful device for analysis of speed profiles for certain known vehicles say a bus, plus the provision of other route based information and travel times.
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Different types of speed measurements are used in traffic engineering: Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location. Running speed is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle is in motion. It is significant to note the clause while the vehicle is in motion, because the running speed is obtained by dividing the length of the course by the time the vehicle is in motion, i.e. by the running time, which excludes that part of the journey time when the vehicle suffers delay. Thus,
Running speed !
length of course length of course ! journey time - delay running time
Journey speed, also known as overall travel speed, is the effective speed of a vehicle between two points, and is the distance between two points divided by the total time taken by the vehicle to complete the journey, including all delays incurred en-route.
Thus:
Journey speed !
Distacne Total journey time (including delays)
Time mean speed is the average of the speed measurements at one point in space over a period of the time. It is the average of the number of spot speed measurements. Space-mean speed is the average of the speed measurements at an instant of time over a space. Use of Speed, Journey Time and Delay Studies (a) Spot speeds i. For geometric design of roads. Based on the speed studies, the design speed can be selected for design of horizontal curves, vertical curves, and super-elevation. ii. For regulation and control of traffic operations. They enable the safe speed limit to be established and speed zoning to be determined. BY GROUP 1 Page 5
iii. iv. v. vi.
For traffic signal designs. For analyzing causes of accidents. For before and after studies of road improvement. To solve the problems of congestion.
(b) Journey speeds and delays i. ii. The cost of a journey depends upon the speed at which it is made. Journey-time studies on a road network in a town are useful to evaluate congestion, capacity, level of service iii. In transportation planning studies, the determination of the travel time is necessary for carrying out the trip assignment. Also travel time and delays are some of the factors affecting modal choice. iv. v. To assess the effectiveness of improvement measures by comparing before and after studies. Delay studies at intersections provide data for the design and installation of the appropriate traffic control device. Site selection for survey: 1. The location at which measurements are taken is governed by the specific purpose for which the data are required. For example if the data are likely be used to analyze the accident pattern, the survey will be done at high accident frequency locations. 2. Generally straight, level, and open sections of highways should be selected so as to minimize the influence of geometric features of the highways, road-side development and intersections.
Table 3.1: Recommended Base Lengths for Spot Speed Survey

Average speed of traffic stream (kmph) Less than 40 40 to 60 Greater than 65 Base length (m) 27 54 81
3.2.2 Methods of Measurement for Spot Speeds
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The methods available for measuring spot speeds can be grouped as under: a) Those that require observation of the time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance b) Radar speed meters which automatically record the instantaneous speed c) Photographic method The location at which measurements are taken is governed by the specific purpose for which the data are required. For example if the data are likely be used to analyze the accident pattern, the survey will be done at high accident frequency locations. Generally straight, level, and open sections of highways should be selected so as to minimize the influence of geometric features of the highways, road-side development and intersections.
3.3 DESIGN PERIOD

The length or duration of time during which the pavement structure is expected to function satisfactorily without the need for major intervention (rehabilitation such as overlays or reconstruction) or the duration on time until the pavement structure reaches its terminal condition (failure condition). Selecting appropriate design period depends on Functional importance of the road. Traffic volume. Location & terrain of the project. Financial constraints.
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Difficulty in forecasting traffic 3.4 INITIAL TRAFFIC VOLUME (AADT)

1. VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION y y y y Small axle loads from private cars and other light vehicles do not cause significant pavement damage. Damage caused by heavier vehicles (commercial vehicles). Hence, important to distinguish the proportion of vehicles which cause pavement damage from total traffic. To do this, we need to have a vehicle classification system: To distinguish between commercial vehicles and small cars Distinguish between the different types of commercial vehicles and group them according to their type, size (loading), configuration, etc. 2. TRAFFIC COUNT
Traffic count necessity:

To assess the traffic carrying capacity of different types of roads. Examine the distribution of traffic between the available traffic lanes. In the preparation of maintenance schedules for in- service roads. In the forecasting of expected traffic on a proposed new road from traffic studies on the surrounding road system
Traffic volume data determined from:

Historical traffic data available in relevant authorities (ERA, 3 times a year) and/ or By conducting classified traffic counts On the road to be designed- if the road is an existing road On other parallel routes and /or adjacent roads for new roads
Traffic volume data may vary daily, weekly and seasonally BY GROUP 1 Page 8
Hence to avoid error in traffic analysis and capture the average yearly trend,
minimum seven days count recommended

ERA recommended procedure conduct seven days classified traffic count 5 days for 16 hrs Minimum 2 days for 24 hrs
3. ADT (Average daily traffic) ADT is determined from the traffic count data as follows: Adjust the 16 hrs traffic count data in to 24 hrs data by multiplying with the average night adjustment factor Night adjustment factor= (24 hrs traffic)/16 hrs traffic:- obtained from the two days 24 hrs count data.
(ADT)o = the current average daily traffic =average of the seven days 24 hrs traffic volume data. 4. (AADT)o (Annual average daily traffic =total annual traffic in both directions divide by 365 )
3.5 TRAFFIC GROWTH RATE (TRAFFIC FORECAST)

Very uncertain process Requires making analysis and forecast of past and future traffic growth trends, social and economic development trends, etc. In forecasting, traffic characterized in to the following: NORMAL TRAFFIC: Traffic that would pass along the existing road or track even if no new or improved pavement provided. DIVERTED TRAFFIC: Traffic that changes from another route to the project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin and destination. GENERATED TRAFFIC:
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Additional traffic which occurs in response to the improvement of the road It may arise either because a journey becomes more attractive by virtue of a cost or time reduction or because of the improved development that is brought about by the road investment.
3.5 AXLE LOAD SURVEY

Carried out together with the traffic count Each axle of the vehicles is weighed and EALF computed for each axle EALF=
4.5
where; EALF= equivalent axle load factor Lx= load of each axle in KN.
TRACK FACTOR o Track factor can be computed for each vehicle by summing up the number of ESAL per vehicle o Average track factor can be computed for each vehicle category by summing up EASL of all the vehicles in each category and dividing buy the number of vehicles (of that category) weighed
where;
= track factor for the ith vehicle category

N= number of vehicles weighed (of the ith vehicle category) during the axle load survey. ESALj = number of equivalent axle load for the jth vehicle.
3.6 DESIGN TRAFFIC LOADING The data and parameters obtained from the studies discussed in the preceding sections can now be used to estimate the design cumulative design traffic volume and loading. I. follows; Adjust for lane and directional distribution of traffic-the AADT should be adjusted as
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Lane distribution factor (p); accounts for the proportion of commercial vehicles in the design lane. For two lane highways, the lane in each direction is the design lane, so the lane distribution factor is 100%. Directional distribution factor (d); factor that accounts for any directional variation in total traffic volume or loading pattern. It is usually 0.5(50%). II. Calculating (AADT)1 (AADT)1= annual average daily traffic (both directions) at year of road opening (year at which construction works are completed and the whole road is made open for traffic) If time between traffic count year (design time) and estimated year of road opening =x, then (AADT)1= (AADT)o (1+r)x III.
Cumulative traffic volume (T)- can be computed for all traffic (T) or each vehicle class (Ti) 365(p) (D) (AADT)1
Where;
cumulative volume of traffic for the ith commercial vehicle class in the design lane
over the design period (adjusted for lane distribution and direction)
Annual growth rate for the ith commercial vehicle class
Lane distribution factor Directional distribution factor
IV.
Design traffic (cumulative equivalent standard axle load-CESAL)- is computed by
multiplying a total traffic volume for each vehicle (Ti) by its corresponding track factor (TFi) Design traffic load =CESAL= V. The CESAL is used to determined the traffic class to be employed for pavement design Page 11
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A further factor influencing the development of road design standards, and in particular the design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be based in part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic indicates the need for improvement and directly affects features of design such as widths, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road or section of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT). Using road functional classification selection and design traffic flow, a design class, or standard, is selected from Table 3-1, with reference to the design parameters associated with that class. The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from feeder to main collector to link the trunk roads. However the actual flows will vary from region to region and it is important that the designation of a road by functional type should not give rise to over-design for the traffic levels actually encountered. Design classes DS1 to DS10 have associated bands of traffic flow as was shown in Table 31. The range of flows extends from less than 20 to 15,000 motorized vehicles per day (excluding motorcycles), and covers the design conditions for all single and dual carriageway roads. Although the levels of flow at which design standards change are based on the best current evidence, the somewhat subjective boundaries should be treated as approximate in the light of uncertainties inherent in traffic estimation and future forecasting. Therefore, the Design Traffic Flow shall normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher than the average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening. For example, a road with a first year traffic flow of 190 vehicles per day rising to 1,100 vehicles per day in the last year of its design life, should be constructed to Design Class DS4 rather than Design Class DS3 (see Table 3.1)
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The design traffic flow band in this case is therefore 200 1000 vehicles per day (DS4) Design to the higher Design Class DS3 would result in an over-design of the road during almost the whole of the life of the road and may provide a solution that was less than economic.
Table 3-1: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT Road Functional Classification Design Standard No. Design Traffic Flow (AADT) 10,000 15,000 5,000 10,000 1,000 5,000 200 1,000 100 200 50 100 30 75 25 50 0 25 0 15
DS1 T R L M A C O F E E D E R L L E C T O R A C C E S S DS10 DS8 DS9 I N DS6 DS7 I N K U N K DS4 DS5 DS2 DS3
It may be desirable, especially for primary roads, to develop geometric standards that are consistent despite variations in traffic volumes. Conversely, a policy dependent on AADT
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would result in a more economical allocation or resources. This dichotomy requires a special attention of the engineer in choosing the geometric design parameters. Table 3-1 repeats the overlaps that may exist between road functional classifications and AADTs.
The given data:

Traffic data & growth rate The AADT for period 1999-2003 is given below and the growth rate is assumed to be 5%. Moreover, the directional split is assumed to be 50% and the opening of the road to traffic is assumed to be in the year 2006 GC. Table3-2 AADT for the period of 1999-2003 Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Cars 117 90 96 88 148 Bus 111 99 100 94 105 Vehicle AADT0 type Cars 148 Bus 105 Medium 79 truck Heavy truck 67 Articulated 8 truck Total 407 Medium Truck 87 67 77 58 79 Heavy Truck 47 37 32 28 67 AADT1=AADT0(1+r)x 163 116 87 74 9 449 Articulated Truck 18 13 6 12 8 Total 380 306 311 280 407
Table3-3 TOTAL AADT
Where: - AADTo =average annual daily traffic at 2003 (given) AADT1= is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions and
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Divided by 365. . r = average growth rate of traffic% (5% given) x= the anticipated number of years between the traffic survey and the opening of the road.(2years given) This indicates that the design standard of the road is DS4 which is taken from table 3.1.
3.7Road Functional Classification and Numbering

The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes.
The following are the functional classes with their description.
I.
Trunk Roads (Class I)
Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads (see Table A-1). They are numbered with an "A" prefix: an example is the Addis-Gondar Road (A3). Trunk roads have a present AADT u1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT (see Table 2-1). II. Link Roads (Class II)
Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers, must be linked between each other by link roads (see Table A-2). A typical link road has over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000 AADT. They are numbered with a "B" prefix. An example of a typical link road is the Woldiya- Debre Tabor- Woreta Road (B22), which links, for instance, Woldiya on Road A2 with Bahir Dar of Road A3.
III. Main Access Roads (Class III) Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access roads (see Table A-3). First year AADTs are between 30-1,000.
IV. Collector Roads (Class IV)Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to higher class roads must be linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-400. BY GROUP 1 Page 15
V.
Feeder Roads (Class V)Any road link to a minor center such as market and
local locations is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs are between 0100. Table3-4 ERA design period for different standard roads Road classification Design period (years) Trunk road 20 Link road 20 Access road 15 Other roads 10
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The roads of intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access. In the case of our project data (Ziway to Butajira ) which have AADT1=449 and the road have the center of provincial importance, this two factors lead to be classified to main access road.
3.8Geometric Design Standards for Low Volume Roads

The geometric standards for low volume roads have less importance than whether a road exists and whether it is possible at all times. In such circumstances, it is appropriate to adopt inexpensive standards that enable the further development of a system of such feeder roads at minimal cost. This policy encourages overall national economic development. Design Speed The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.
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Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, superelevation, sight distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design speed. The design speeds given in Table 2-1 have been determined in accordance with the following guidelines:
(i) (ii) (iii) Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local traffic. On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are undesirable. Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions.
Where a difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of operation.
(iv) Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a higher design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less heavily trafficked road in similar topography. (v) Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not be effected abruptly, but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed gradually. The change in design speed should not be greater than one design speed step, and the section with the lower geometric standards should be long enough to be clearly recognizable by drivers (not, for example, just one single curve). (vi) It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e.- from mountainous to flat terrain. Where possible in such circumstances, a transition section of road shall be provided with limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where this is not possible, i.e.- a Departure from Standards,
special attention shall be given to the application of warning signs and/or rumble strips the driver to the changing conditions. It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed should ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced way, BY GROUP 1 Page 17 to alert
avoidingthe application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a particular location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements.
CHAPTER FOUR GEOMETRIC DESIGN

4.1 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION
In general the aim of a highway selection process is to find a location for the new road that will result in the lowest total construction, level, traffic and environmental costs. Before an attempt can be made at selecting a physical location for a highway design, data must be available regarding traffic desires and the planning intentions with in the area to be transversed.
4.1.1 STEPS IN ROUTE LOCATION / SELECTION

1. Know the termini points of the scheme. 2. From the study of map of the area, identify and locate Parks Any ancient relics Existence of monasteries Mining sites Existing transport facilities Location of construction materials 3. Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys and collect information on predetermined area i.e detail of topography, climate, soil, and vegetation and any other factors, (i.e geology, flood, land slide etc). 4. Based on the information collected in the previous two steps select a corridor 5. Identify a number of possible center lines within the corridor. 6. Make a preliminary design for the possible alternatives and plot on the areas map. 7. Examine each of the alternative alignment with respect to grades, volume of earth work, drainage, erasing structures, etc to select best alternative route. BY GROUP 1 Page 18
8. Make final design and location of the selected alternative route.
So, for our project having this in our mind and based on the given data and information, we have been selected the following route.
4.2 Terrain
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through which the road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows: Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope up to 5 percent). ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent). MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25percent to 50 percent). ESCARPMENT: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback roadway sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are considerable, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent). In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads in either flat or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and therefore adjust their driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will
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therefore vary with transverse terrain. It is often the case in Ethiopia that the roadway can be designed to a higher speed than is indicated by the transverse terrain type. For instance, an alignment could be chosen through rolling terrain that gives essentially a flat highway configuration. Similarly, a narrow plateau should be chosen for an alignment in otherwise mountainous terrain. The discrepancy arises from an ability to choose a roadway longitudinal slope significantly superior to the transverse slope. Under such circumstances, the Engineer should use his judgment in assigning a higher design speed to the roadway segment. Departures from Standards
It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to deviate from these standards. An example of a Departure from Standard is the inclusion of a switchback or the use of a gradient greater than the desirable value. Where the designer departs from a standard, he must obtain written approval from ERA. The Designer shall submit the following information to ERA:
The number, name, and description of the road The facet of design for which a Departure from Standards is desired; A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the Departure from Standards The reason for the Departure from Standards, and Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.
The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the Design and Research Division Manager for evaluation. If the proposed Departures from Standards are acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted to the General Manager for final approval.
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Table 4-2:
Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved) from ERA
Unit km/h M M % M Flat 85 155 340 25 270 Yes % % % % K K % % M 4 6 0.5 8 60 36 2.5 4 50 Rolling 70 110 275 25 175 Yes 5 7 0.5 8 31 25 2.5 4 50 Mountainous 60 85 225 15 125 No 7 9 0.5 8 18 18 2.5 4 50 Escarpment 50 55 175 0 85 No 7 9 0.5 8 10 12 2.5 4 50 Urban/PeriUrban 50 55 175 20 85 No 7 9 0.5 4 10 12 2.5 4 50
Design Element Design Speed Min. Stopping Sight Distance Min. Passing Sight Distance % Passing Opportunity Min. Horizontal Curve Radius Transition Curves Required Max. Gradient (desirable) Max. Gradient (absolute) Minimum Gradient Maximum Super elevation Crest Vertical Curve Sag Vertical Curve Normal Cross fall Shoulder Cross fall Right of Way
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The following photos will illustrate different types of Terrains

Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
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Mountainous Terrain; Flat Roadway
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In this project the nature of terrain is mainly flat and rolling. It is shown as in the following table.
Table 4-3 Transverse cross section slope checking data

Station 0+020 0+100 0+200 0+300 0+400 0+500 0+600 0+700 0+800 0+900 1+000 1+100 1+200 1+300 1+400 1+500 1+600 1+700 1+800 Change in vertical 3.6 1.8 0.1 0.1 1.7 14.2 15.9 4.4 0.9 1.0 3.3 4.8 7.3 8.5 7.3 2.5 6.3 8.3 4.5 Change in horizontal 50.5 69.4 71.5 61.9 73.6 73.6 73.4 73.6 73.6 73.6 73.6 73.6 73.6 73.6 73.6 68.8 73.6 73.6 73.6 Slope (%) 7.13 2.59 0.14 0.16 2.31 19.29 21.66 5.98 1.22 1.36 4.48 6.5 9.0 11.50 9.90 3.60 8.60 11.30 6.10 Remark Rolling Flat Rolling Flat Rolling Flat Rolling
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1+900 2+000 2+100 2+200 2+300 2+400 2+500 2+600 2+700 2+800 2+900 3+000
1.0 2.1 2.4 3.5 3.2 2.0 2.7 11.2 2.9 2.5 1.5 0.1
73.6 73.6 73.6 73.6 65.8 73.6 73.6 69.8 73.6 73.6 73.6 73.6
1.36 2.90 3.30 4.80 4.90 2.70 3.70 16.00 3.90 3.40 2.00 0.10
Flat Rollin g Flat
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Table4-4 Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT
Road Functional Classification
Design Standa rd
Design Traffic Flow (AADT)*
Surface Type
Width (m)
Design Speed (km/hr)
Urban/sem i-Urban
Carriage way DS1 T R U L N I M N A C O F E E D E R L E C T O R S A C C E S S DS10 015 Unpaved 3.3 DS8 2550 Unpaved 4.0 K I N DS6 50100 Unpaved 6.0 DS5 100 200 Unpaved 7.0 K DS4 2001000 Paved 6.7 DS3 10005000 Paved 7.0 DS2 500010000 Paved 7.3 10000**15000 Paved
***
Shoulder
Flat
Rolli Mountai ng nous 100 85
Escarp ment 70 50
Dual 2 See T.2-2 x 7.3
120
See T.2-2
120
100
85
70
50
See T.2-2
100
85
70
60
50
See T.2-2
85
70
60
50
50
See T.2 -2
70
60
50
40
50
See T.2-2
60
50
40
30
50
DS7
3075
Unpaved
4.0
See T.2-2
60
50
40
30
50
See T.2-2
60
50
40
30
50
DS9
025
Unpaved
4.0
See T.2-2
60
40
30
20
40
See T.2-2
60
40
30
20
40
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As it was identified in chapter three the road design Standard is DS4. And the terrain type is flat and rolling which is shown on table 4-3 above. According to this, all the parameters used for this type of road is compiled bellow which is based on ERA design manual.
Table 4-5: Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved) road of selected terrain Design Element Design Speed Min. Stopping Sight Distance Min. Passing Sight Distance % Passing Opportunity Min. Horizontal Curve Radius Transition Curves Required Max. Gradient (desirable) Max. Gradient (absolute) Minimum Gradient Maximum Super elevation Crest Vertical Curve Sag Vertical Curve Normal Cross fall Shoulder Cross fall Right of Way Carriage way % % % % k k % % m m Unit km/h m m % m Flat 85 155 340 25 270 Yes 4 6 0.5 8 60 36 2.5 4 50 6.7 Rolling 70 110 275 25 175 Yes 5 7 0.5 8 31 25 2.5 4 50 6.7
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4 .3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 4.3.1 GENERAL NOTES ON HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The design element of the horizontal alignment is the tangent or straight section, circular curve, the transition curve spiral and the super elevation section. These elements and sight distances are presented in detail as follows. The horizontal alignment of a road must be carefully chosen in order:-- To provide good drainage -- To avoid soft or swampy areas. -- To minimize earthworks -To avoid shortage of construction materials
-- To break monotony and avoid glare from head light anda setting sun ,the maximum length of tangents should not exceed 4000m.If necessary a 4 degree curve should be introduced (left and right).Avoid short or sharp curves at end of long straights ;or short length of straights between two curves should be 100m. Replace compound curves by a single curve. Avoid the combination of vertical and horizontal curves; if not the vertical curves should be wholly within the horizontal curve. A horizontal circular curve is a curve in plane to provide change in direction to the center line of the road and there are different types of curves such as:-Simple horizontal curves -Compound horizontal curves -Reverse horizontal curves The requirement of good horizontal curve is -Sufficient stopping sight distance -Sufficient passing sight distance -Smooth turning possibility and as much as possible approximate large radius.
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4.3.2 Tangent Sections

From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country but are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide better visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase the danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding.
4.3.3 Horizontal Circular Curve

When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is counterbalanced by super elevation of the roadway land/or the side friction developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the minimum horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation shall be used: Rmin=VD2/127(e+f) Where VD = Design Speed (km/h) e = Maximum super elevation (%/100) f = Side friction coefficient (given in Tables) In our case the radius of all the curves are already specified in alignment . so here the speed of curve should be under the ERA recommended For curve 1 VD = R * 127 (e + f) = 80 * 127 (0.08 + 0.42) = 70 But ERA recommended R min = 175 for speed of 70 km/ hr therefore the speed for the specified radiuses are adjusted according to ERA manual
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Table4-4 Minimum Radii of Horizontal curves 8% Super elevation 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 Design speed V(km/hr) 15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 Min. Horizontal Radius R(m) 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 Side Friction factor(f) Table 4.5 Radius of curves and its corresponding speed and side friction Curves Design speed V(km/hr) Min.Hori Radius R(m) Side Friction factor(f) 1 45 80 2 30 32 3 45 80 4 50 100 5 55 120 6 60 140 7 55 120 8 35 40 9 50 100 10 40 50
120
630
0.10
11 70 300
0.165 0.170 0.165 0.160 0.155 0.150 0.155 0.170 0.160 0.170 0.140
ELEMENT OF HORIZONTAL CURVE

1.: Deflection angle by arc definition (in degrees) 2. R: Radius of curve by arc definition ECC 3.T: Tangent distance T=Rtan/2 4.E: External distance= R (sec/2-1) 5.L: Curve Length L=*2R/360 6. M: Middle Ordinate M=R (1-cos/2) 7.C: Chord from P.C to P.T = 2Rsin/2
8.Point of Curvature (P.C) = P.I-T 9.Point of Tangency (P.T) =P.C+LC

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Table 4-6 Point of intersection (PI) for our Center line . NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Station 0+435.696 0+503.110 0+705.640 0+841.263 0+983.772 1+412.875 1+757.672 1+833.301 1+946.153 2+244.063 2+694.664 North 415846.712 415844.503 416015.124 416062.992 416188.098 416570.009 416820.731 416841.687 416962.887 417175.790 417015.144 East 893031.347 893107.128 893222.287 893348.064 893422.161 893461.389 893646.503 893721.663 893726.829 893940.781 894345.941
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Table4-7 Stations of curves

Cur ve No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
WhereBC- The station at which beginning of curve PI-The station of point of intersection EC-The station at which curve ends
BC 0+400.26 0+482.83 0+684.87 0+821.20 0+948.02 1+402.77 1+741.36 1+803.27 1+921.93 2+222.67 2+666.65
PI 0+435.70 0+503.11 0+705.64 0+841.26 0+983.77 1+412.87 1+757.67 1+833.30 1+946.15 2+244.06 2+694.66
EC 0+482.73 0+528.14 0+743.90 0+888.44 1+017.51 1+471.26 1+793.39 1+868.52 1+996.45 2+278.46 2+771.49
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Sample calculation of horizontal curve

Radius=80m, deflection angle=44.4429, /2=22.22 Tangent (T) =R tan/2 =80xtan22.22 =32.68m External distance (E) = R (sec/2-1) =80(sec22.22-1) =6.42m Middle Ordinate M=R (1-cos/2) =80(1-cos22.22) =5.94m Curve Length L=x2R/360 =44.4429 x2x80x3.14/360 =62.02m Chord from P.C to P.T =2x80sin22.22 =60.5m Point of Curvature (P.C) station =PI-T =0+435.7m-32.68m =0+403.02m Point of Tangency (P.T) station =P.C+LC =0+403.02 m+62.02m =0+465.04m
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Curve 1
=2Rsin/2
Curve No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Table4-8 Element of curve Radius Deflection Length Tangent Design of curve angle of curve length speed (m) ( ) (m) Circular (km/hr) (m) 80 44.4429 62.47 32.93 45 32 80 100 120 140 120 40 100 50 300 45.1941 12.1646 21.2018 33.1047 7.3401 24.5035 50.2940 25.3041 41.0049 10.2825 25.32 17.14 37.24 69.49 18.49 52.03 35.25 44.52 35.79 54.84 13.36 8.60 18.84 35.75 9.26 26.43 18.86 22.64 18.70 27.50 30 45 50 55 60 55 35 50 40 70
6.02 2.47 0.46 1.73 5.00 0.31 2.81 3.82 2.47 3.17 1.25
6.51 2.68 0.46 1.76 5.21 0.31 2.88 4.22 2.53 3.38 1.25
Note: The design speed is tabulated from table4-4 by direct substitution or interpolation of the provided radius and by comparing and limiting with the terrain type. Where; M- Middle ordinate E- External ordinate e- Rate of super elevation
4.3.6 Widening on Curves and Embankments

The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers following the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening reduces such problems. Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to those on tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased. Curve widening is required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the design vehicle. Table below gives the values to be adopted in the design. Curve widening shall generally be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should start at the beginning of the transition curve and be fully widened at the start of the circular curve. Widening is also required for Design Standards DS1 through DS5 at high fills for the psychological comfort of the driver. Widening for curvature and high embankment shall be added where both cases apply. The height of hill is measured from the edge of the shoulder to the toe of the slope.
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Table 4.9 Widening on Curves and High Fills

Radius of curve Curve widening single lane Curve widening Two lane Height of fill(m) 0.0-3 3-6 6-9 Over 9 Over 9 Filling Widening Amount(m) 0 .3 .6 .9 .9
>250 120-250 60-120 40-60 20-40 <20
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.6
0.0 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 Switchback
Table 4.10 Widening of curve

Curve No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
emax R V e L n
R (m) 80 32 80 100 120 140 120 40 100 50 300

= 8.0%
Speed (KM/hr)
45 30 45 50 55 60 55 35 50 40 70
e%
4 5.1 4 4 5 5.2 5 7.1 4 8 4
L (m) 37 38 37 42 39 47 39 36 42 41 44
Widening We (m) 0.9 1.5 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.9 1.5 0.9 1.2 0.0
Calculated Value of widening 0.97 1.59 0.81 0.87 0.81 0.78 0.81 1.48 0.87 1.31 0.5
Recommen ded value 0.9 1.5 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.8 1.5 0.9 1.2 0
= radius of curve = assumed design speed = rate of super elevation taken from ERA manual = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent run out) taken from ERA manual = number of lane =2
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Sample calculation We +
Curve 1 n=2 B=6.1m R=80m V=45km/hr B=wheel base (usually taken as =6.1m)
We
=0.97m
+
4.3.8 SIGHT DISTANCES

General Consideration
Simply put, sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of their vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected object on the traveled way. Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers, without risk of accident .Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of their length (see Table ). The length and interval of passing sight distance should be compatible with the criteria established in the chapter for the specific highway design classifications. 4.3.8.1 Stopping Sight Distance The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes into account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The formula is: d = (0.278)(t)(V)+v2/254f Where: d = distance (meter) t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds V = initial speed (km/h) F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table)
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Table 4.11 Sight Distances from ERA manual Design Speed (km/h) Coefficient of Friction (f) Stopping Sight Distance (m) Passing Sight Distance (m) Reduced Passing Sight Distance for design (m) 50 75 125 175 225 275 340 375 425
20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
.42 .40 .38 .35 .33 .31 .30 .29 .28
20 30 45 55 85 110 155 205 285
160 217 285 345 407 482 573 670 792
Sample calculation of the sight distance Curve-1 : V=45km/hr, t=2.5sec, f=0.37 SSD= (0.278)(t)(V)+v2/254f =52.82
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Table4.12 Recommended Sight Distances Curve number Design Speed (km/h) Coefficient Friction (f) Stopping Sight Distance (m) ERA 50 30 50 55 70 85 70 37.5 55 45 110 stopping Sight Distance (m) calculated 52.82 29.71 52.82 62.87 73.25 84.65 73.25 36.69 62.87 44.38 110.88 Recommended Sight Distance for design (m) 53 30 53 63 73 85 73 38 63 45 111
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
45 30 45 50 55 60 55 35 50 40 70
0.37 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.34 0.39 0.35 0.38 0.31
The above table shows that stopping sight distance from ERA manual and based on mathematical formula.
4.3.8.2 Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distanceis the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed. Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway. Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be obscured inthe future due to vegetative growth. The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, asfollows. d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
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d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle The formulae for these components are as indicated below: d1 = 0.278 t1 (v m + at1/2) Where t1 = time of initial maneuvers. Usually taken as 2.5seconds a = average acceleration, km/h/s v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h Usually velocity of the passing vehicle is about 16km/hr greater than that of the passed vehicle. d2 = 0.278 vt2 Where t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s. usually taken as 10seconds v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on ambient speeds as per table :
Table 4.13 Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds Speed Group (km/h) d3 (m) 30-49 25 50-65 30 66-80 55 81-100 80 101-120 100
d4= distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at: d4 = 2d2/3 The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore: PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
Table 4.14 Recommended values of accelerations for corresponding speed

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Design speed(km/hr) 25 Acceleration(km/hr/sec) 5
30 4.8
40 4.45
50 4.0
65 3.28
80 2.56
100 1.92
From the above table our speed and corresponding acceleration is tabulated as follows Table 4.15 speed and corresponding acceleration Curve no Design speed(km/h) Acceleration(km/hr/se) 1 45 4.23 2 30 4.8 3 45 4.23 4 50 4 5 55 3.76 6 60 3.52 7 55 3.76 8 35 4.55 9 50 4 10 40 4.45 11 70 2.95
Sample calculation For curve1 d1= 0.278t1 (v-m+at1/2) =0.278*2.5(45-16+4.23*2.5/2) = 23.83m d2=0.278*45*10 = 124.20m d3=25m d4=2/3d2 =82.80m PSD= d1+d2+d3+d4 =255m By comparing this value with the recommended value of ERA manual value, the smaller of the two is taken.
Table 4.16 Recommended passing sight distance

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Curve number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Design Speed (km/h)

45 30 45 50 55 60 55 35 50 40 70
Passing sight distance for design 150 75 150 175 200 225 200 100 175 125 275
Calculated PSSD 255 177 255 288 315 340 315 204 288 230 400
Recommended PSSD 150 75 150 175 200 225 200 100 175 125 275
4.3.8.3Control of Sight Distance Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the minimum requirements. On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance (see Figure 4-1). It depends up on the following factors
1. required site distance ( stopping site distance )
2. Radius of horizontal curve 3. Length of horizontal curve
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Figure 4-1: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves Lateral clearance on simple horizontal curve with middle obstacle is given in two cases Cases 1 S < L(where sight distance less than curve length)
The set back distance (M) from the center of the inner lane is given by M = R (1 cos Where R = R lane width/2 = R 3.35/2 Cases 2S > L(where sight distance greater than curve length) M = L (2S L)/8R = SSD * D/40 Where D = Degree of curve Sample calculations Curve 1 L= 62.47 S= 53 S
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D= 7.09 R = 80 R = 78.325 = 53 * 7.09 /40 = 9.390 M = R (1 Cos ) = 78.325 ( 1 Cos 9.38 ) = 1.05 m Curve 2 S = 30 L =25.32 R = 32 R = 30.325
M = L (2S L)/8R = 25.32 (2 * 30 25.32)/ 8 * 30.325 = 3.62 M Table 4.17 Setback distance on the horizontal curve Curve no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Design speed (KPH) 45 30 45 50 55 60 55 35 50 40 70 Length of curve ( m ) 62.47 25.32 17.14 37.24 69.49 18.49 52.03 35.25 44.52 35.79 54.84 Degree of curve 7.09 17.58 7.09 5.43 4.46 4.05 4.63 14.21 5.43 11.28 1.54 SSD 53 30 53 63 73 85 73 38 63 45 111 R 80 32 80 100 120 140 120 40 100 50 300 R 78.325 30.325 78.325 98.325 118.325 138.325 118.325 38.325 98.325 48.325 298.325 M 1.05 3.62 2.43 4.20 4.99 2.25 4.59 4.69 4.61 6.68 3.84
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4.3.9 Transition Curves

The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius. Transition curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also be used between two circular curves. Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence transition curves contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of situations. For large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are not normally required. It can also be argued that transition curves are not a requirement for certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there is insufficient justification for the additional survey and design work required. Another possible warrant would be to consider spirals for roads where a significant portion of the curves has a super elevation in excess of 60 percent of the maximum super elevation. For Ethiopian roads, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road segments having a design speed of equal to or greater than 80 km/hr. If the choice is made to employ a transition curve, the Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid, shall be used. The radius varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to the radius of the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition the radius at any point of the spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral. In the case of a combining spiral connecting two circular curves having different radii, there is an initial radius rather than an infinite value. The transition curve should be long enough to ensure that the radius can be changed at a slower rate. The rate of change of radial acceleration (C) therefore should be treated as a safety or comfort factor. The maximum value of C should generally accept to be in a range of 0.2 to 0.6 m/s2 . The length of transition curve Ls= V3/ (46.67R*C) For large radius of curve or small design velocity rate of change of lateral acceleration C is small. Thus, transition curve is not required. As it was mentioned above for Ethiopian road, transition curves are a requirement for Trunk and Link road regiments having design speed of equal to or greater than 80km/hr. For our case the road regiment is main access and design speed is less than or equal to 70km/hr. Therefore, no need of providing transition curve. 4.3.10 Super elevation Super elevation is the raising of outer edge or sloping upward towards the outside of the curve in order to counter balance the centrifugal force that acts on the vehicle. There are two forces acting on the vehicle that passes through the horizontal curve.
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1. centrifugal forces Force acting outward in radial direction. It depends on the moving vehicle speed and radius of the curve. i.e. mathematically F=mv2/r WhereF=centrifugal force m= mass of moving vehicle v= speed r= radius of curve 2. weight of the vehicle The weight of the vehicle act downward on moving vehicle it related to the road way super elevation and side friction developed between the tires and the pavement acts to balance the centrifugal force. i.e. mathematically e + f = v2/127R where e= rate of super elevation f= side friction v= velocity (km/hr) R= radius of the curvature The maximum super elevation rate applied on highways controlled by climate condition, terrain condition, type of area and frequency of very slow moving vehicles. It is common practice to utilize a low maximum rate of super elevation usually 4%. Similarly, either a low maximum rate of super elevation or no super elevation is employed with in important intersection areas or where there is a tendency to drive slowly because of turning and crossing moments, warning devices, and signals. Super elevation is a requirement for all standards of roads. The ERA geometric design manual recommends a maximum value of 8%.
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Sample calculation Curve 1 V= 45 R= 80 f= 0.165 e= (v2/127R) f = (452/127*80)- 0.165 = 0.034 Which is less than the minimum ERA recommended value (0.04) therefore, we have to take the ERA value.
Table 4.18 Super Elevation of curves Curve No Speed Radius Side friction Superelevation(% ) 1 45 80 0.16 5 4 2 30 32 0.17 0 5.1 3 45 80 0.16 5 4 4 50 100 0.16 0 4 5 55 120 0.15 5 5 6 60 140 0.15 0 5.2 7 55 120 0.15 5 5 8 35 40 0.17 0 7.1 9 50 100 0.16 0 4 10 40 50 0.17 0 8 11 70 300 0.14 0 4
4.3.10.1 Attainment Super elevation Runoff In alignment design with spirals the super elevation runoff is affected over the whole of the transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent run out). Between the TS and SC (the super elevation runoff) the traveled way is rotated to reach the full super elevation at the SC. This procedure is reversed on leaving the curve. By this design the whole of the circular curve has full super elevation, as shown in figure.
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In design of curves without spirals the super elevation runoff is considered to be that length beyond the tangent run out. Empirical methods are employed to locate the super elevation runoff length with respect to the point of curvature (PC).Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent approach and one-third on the curve, as shown in Figure
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In providing of run out length, ERA manual provide run out length. At the same time there is a calculated v value from the two we provide the less value. The Ethiopian transport Construction Design Enterprise (TCDE) has recommended the following table relating the rate of raising the out late edge with the design speed. Table 4.19 Rate of Raising from ERA manual Design Speed(km/hr) 80 60 50 40 V:H Ratio 1:200 1:170 1:155 1:140
From the design speed of our curve and the rate of rising given the rate of rising of our curves tabulated as follows.
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Table 4.20 Rate of Rising of Curves Curve no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Mathematically Design speed (KPH ) 45 30 45 50 55 60 55 35 50 40 70 V.H ratio 1: 147 1:125 1:147 1:155 1:162 1:170 1:162 1:132 1:155 1:140 1:184
LT = w/2 * (e + Ncr/ slope) Where LT = total run off length W = total width e = super elevation rate Ncr = normal crown (2.5 %) Slope = in v: H ratio L1 = Ncr * w/ slope Where L1 = the point where super elevation is equal to the cross fall distance from where super elevation start
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Sample calculation
Chainage of BC = 0 + 400.26 Radius R Design speed=45Kph No of lane=2 For DS4 normal and shoulder cross fall =2.5% Road width= 6.7m Maximum super elevation= 8% Rate of super elevation from ERA manual =4% Rate of application of super elevation = 1:147 Run of length Lt = [w/2(e+Ncr)]/slope = [6.7/2(0.04+0.025)]/(1:147) = 15m Recommended Lt=37m Provide the calculated value Lt=15m Calculated run off length in the tangent= 2/3Lt =2/3*15 =10m Length of run off on the curve =1/3*15=5m Length where super elevation is equal to cross fall from where it start L1= Ncr*w/slope =0.025*6.7/1:147 =24.6m
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=80m
= 1/3 Lt
Chainage of normal crown= Chainage of BC Provided value of run off = 0+400.26-15 =0+385.26 Chainage of RC = Chainage of Normal crown L1 =0+385.26-24.6 =0+360.66 Chainage of BFSE (beginning of full super elevation) = Chainage of PC+Lt/3 =400.26+5 =405.26 Chainage of EFSE (end of full super elevation) = Chainage BC+Lc-2(Lt/3) =400.26+62.47-10 =452.73 Chainage of normal crown= Chainage ET+ Provided value of run out =0+462.73+15m =0+477.73m Chainage of RC= Chainage of normal crown-L1 =0+477.73-24.6 =0+453.13
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Table 4.21 Alignment of Super elevation, Run off C. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 radius e(%) Runoff RL Lt Lt/3 2Lt/3 Chainage Chainage Chainage Chainage Chainage Chainage (V:H) (m) (m) NC RC BFSE EFSE NC RC 80 32 80 100 120 140 120 40 100 50 300 4 5.1 4 4 5 5.2 5 7.1 4 8 4 1:147 1:125 1:147 1:155 1:162 1:170 1:162 1:132 1:155 1:140 1:184 37 38 37 42 39 47 39 36 42 41 44 15 43 47 53 53 59 53 49 53 49 56 5 14 15 17 17 19 17 16 17 16 18 10 29 31 35 35 39 35 32 35 32 37 L1
0+385.26 0+360.66 0+405.26 0+452.73 0+477.73 0+453.13 24.60 0+444.83 0+423.89 0+497.49 0+478.83 0+566.14 0+545.20 20.94 0+647.87 0+623.25 0+700.79 0+670.17 0+780.90 0+756.28 24.62 0+749.19 0+723.23 0+809.02 0+792.77 0+930.44 0+904.48 25.96 0+909.02 0+881.48 0+965.75 0+982.05 1+056.51 1+028.97 27.54 1+305.77 1+276.87 1+372.51 1+331.78 1+518.26 1+482.36 28.90 1+662.36 1+634.82 1+719.09 1+717.93 1+832.39 1+804.85 27.54 1+767.27 1+744.83 1+818.69 1+805.68 1+904.52 1+882.08 22.44 1+849.93 1+823.58 1+909.76 1+900.79 2+038.45 2+012.10 26.35 2+161.67 2+137.87 2+219.09 2+205.62 2+319.46 2+295.66 23.80 2+572.65 2+541.37 2+635.55 2+633.69 2+815.49 2+784.21 31.28
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4.3.10.2 Shoulder Super elevation Figure depicts shoulder super elevation rates corresponding to carriageway super elevation rates. The figure shows that on the low side (inner shoulder) of super elevated curves, the shoulder super elevation matches the roadway super elevation. On the high side (outer shoulder), the super elevation is set such that the grade break between the roadway and the shoulder is 8 percent. An exception to this occurs at a maximum super elevation of 8 percent, where the resultant shoulder super elevation would be an undesirable flat configuration. Here the super elevation is set at -1% to drain the shoulder.
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4.4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 4.4.1 INTRODUCTION

The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the center line of the road, which comprises a series of tangent grades connected by parabolic vertical curves. The most desirable design should provide smooth riding quality and good visibility with minimum amount of earth work. Criteria for the Design of a vertical Alignment In the establishment of a grade the act should be balanced against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut material to be wasted. Long distances between points of intersection, with long curves between grade tangents to provide smooth riding qualities and good usability. The grade should follow the general terrain and rise or fall in the direction of the existing drainage. All earth work hauls should be moved in a downhill direction if possible and within relatively short distances from the origin, due to the expenses of moving large quantity soil. Maintain higher grades, in rock cuts and in flat, low-lying or swampy areas, with respect to the existing ground line. Avoidance of very short sag vertical curves. Avoidance of short drop immediately before a long up grade. Avoidance of the combination of two vertical curves in the same direction. Where defects occur, phasing shall be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and horizontal curves being at a common station and end at a common station. In the same cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a common station. The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of service. The following text gives the formula and features of the vertical curve; gives values for maximum and minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through villages; develops the criteria for incorporation of a climbing lane; and provides vertical clearance standards.
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4.4.2 Vertical Curve Formula

Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients.
The main criteria used for designing vertical curves are:-
Provision of Minimum stopping sight distance if it is possible and economical minimum passing sight distance It should have good appearance (aesthetically) It should provide good comfort for drivers It should provide good drainage for sag curve It should avoid miss-phasing with horizontal curve. The simple parabola is specified for these. The parabola provides a constant rate of change of curvature, and hence acceleration and visibility, along its length and has the form: Elevation of PVC= Elevation of PVI-g1*L/2 Where:r = rate of change of grade per section (%) g1 = starting (%) g2 = ending grade (%) L = length of curve (horizontal distance m) Y= rx2 +g1x + Elevation of PVC y = elevation of a point on the curve x = distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100) BVC = beginning of the vertical curve EVC = end of the vertical curve A related formula is: Where y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters) x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters) G = algebraic difference in gradients (%) L = length of vertical curve (meters).
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4.4.3 Types of vertical curve

Crest and Sag Curves The formulae for design of crest and sag vertical curves can be rather complex to apply, and thus the design is best accomplished through the application of a computer program, or by use of design charts. Figures and show the minimum length requirements for crest and sag curves, respectively, for differing design speeds and algebraic differences in grade. Example: Starting grade = -6%, ending grade = +2%, design speed = 100 km/hr. Algebraic difference in grade = 8%, sag curve. From Figure 9-2: 400-meter length The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to provide sufficient stopping sight distance. The design is based on minimum allowable "K" values, as defined by the formula: K = L/A Where K = limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade L = length of vertical curve (m) A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%) Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves have been recommended based on design speeds and stopping sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort, appearance, and most importantly, safety. These are shown in Tables4-1 and 4-2, respectively, in terms of K values. Example: Design Speed = 100 km/h, Sag Curve from Table 9-2 K= 51 Algebraic difference in grades 2-(-6) = 8% Minimum length L = AK = 8(51) = 408 meters 4.4.4Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves Especially for trunk and link roads, where the algebraic difference between successive grades is often small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, applying in the above formulae, becomes very short. This can create the impression of a kink in the grade line. For this reason, where the algebraic differences in grade are less than 0.5 percent, a minimum curve length is recommended for purely aesthetic reasons. A minimum length of 200 meters is recommended, except in mountainous or escarpment terrain. However, for lower standard roads (DS6-DS10), no minimum length should be specified. In these cases, the curve lengths should be kept to a minimum to enhance drainage capabilities, and the curve lengths should match as a minimum the K values given in Tables through for stopping sight distance. Where the difference in grade is less than 0.5 percent, the vertical curve is often omitted. For higher volume roads, a minimum length should be considered between vertical curves. If the vertical alignment is allowed to contain many curves of short length, the result can be a hidden dip profile, and/or a roller coaster type profile, as indicated in Figure.
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Table4.22: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves
Table 4-23 : Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves
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Figure 4-2: Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles BY GROUP 1 Page 58
Figure 4-3: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves
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Figure 4-4: Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves
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Sample calculation and checking the minimum length of the curve For sag curve no-1 K =20 A =11.22 L min=AK=20x11.22=224.4 and provided L=224.4 For crest curve no-3 K=43 A=2.48 L min=43x2.48=106.64,L provided=339.86 4.5 Gradient Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. It is expressed as percentage. The ascending gradient are given (+ve) signs and descending gradients are given (-ve) signs. In the analysis of grades and grade control, one of the most important considerations is the effect of grades on the operating costs of the motor vehicle. An increase in gasoline consumption, a reduction in speed, and an increase in emissions and noise are apparent when grades are increased. Minimum grades are governed by drainage conditions.
Maximum Gradients
Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a number of factors: severity and length of gradient; level and composition of traffic; and the number of overtaking opportunities on the gradient and in its vicinity. For very low levels of traffic flow represented by only a few four-wheel drive vehicles other references advocate a maximum traversable gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 per cent gradient; whilst two-wheel drive trucks can successfully manage gradients of 15-16 per cent except when heavily laden. However, the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is composed of a high percentage of vehicles that are underpowered and poorly maintained. Certain existing roads in fact are avoided and
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underutilized by traffic due to an inability to ascend the existing grades. The ERA finds it is in a position where it has no choice but to limit gradients based on the design vehicle of existing fleet, although this translates into an added cost to develop the road infrastructure. Maximum vertical gradient is therefore and extremely important criterion that greatly effects both the serviceability and cost of the road. Table 4.24: Maximum Gradients Topography DS1 to DS3 D Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban 3 4 6 6 6 A 5 6 8 8 8 Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard DS4 & DS5 D 4 5 7 7 7 A 6 7 9 9 9 DS6 to DS8 D 6 7 10 10 7 A 8 9 12 12 9 D 6 7 13 13 7 DS9 A 8 9 15 15 9 DS10 D 6 7 14 14 7 A 8 9 16 16 9
Note: First value shown is desirable value (D), second is absolute value (A). When gradients of 10 percent or greater are reached, consideration should be given to the possibility of paving these steep sections to enable sufficient traction to be achieved, as well as for pavement maintenance reasons. However, this is clearly not practical for all classes of roads, particularly at lower traffic volumes. There may be cases where paving greater than 10 percent will be economical. This depends on the standard and the service of the road to be provided. As traffic flow increase, the economic dis-benefits of more severe gradients, measured as increased vehicle operating and travel time costs, are more likely to result in economic justification for reducing the severity and/or length of a gradient. On the higher design classes or road, the lower maximum recommended gradients reflect these economics. However, a separate economic assessment of alternatives to long or severe gradients should be undertaken where possible or necessary. Standards for desirable maximum gradients were set to assure user comfort and to avoid severe reductions in the design speed. If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that requires excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable standard an absolute
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maximum gradient can be used. Employment of a gradient in excess of the desirable maximum can only be authorized through the employment of a Departure from Standard. For our design standard of DS4 and ROLLING terrain type, a desirable maximum gradient of 5% and an absolute gradient of 7% have been recommended and for the curve no-1 and curve no-4 a gradient of 11.22% and 10.58% are provided respectively with the climbing lane. Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous or escarpment terrain, there is a need to reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve. The maximum allowable gradient through a switchback curve is 4 percent for road standards DS1-DS5, and 6 percent for DS6-DS10. Minimum allowable gradient is 0.5%. Corresponding crest and sag curves approaching the switchback curve must meet the requirements of subsections 9.2 and 9.3, and the transitions must be completed outside of the switchback curve. The sag curve above the switchback shall be made as long as possible to allow ascending vehicles to accelerate at the flatter grade when leaving the switchback. Minimum Gradients
The minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5 percent. However, flat and level gradients on uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
Gradients through Villages

In many instances the natural grade level is flat through villages. The adjacent roadside ditches in such circumstances can readily become clogged and ineffective. It is also the case that they are deliberately blocked to provide access to adjacent property or to channel flow for agricultural use. These practices lead to saturation of the sub-grade and hence pavement failure, and should be avoided.
Critical length of gradient

Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the point at which it has lost a certain amount of speed. Critical length of gradient is considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.Critical length of gradient is, to some extent, dependent on the gradient of the approach; a downhill approach will allow vehicles to gain momentum and increase the critical length. In general, the critical length of gradient decreases, as gradient increases.
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Climbing Lanes A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient. A climbing lane is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of reducing congestion in the through lanes by removing slower moving vehicles from the traffic stream. It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the through lane. The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed and traffic volume. Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane accrue because faster vehicles are able to overtake more easily, resulting in shorter average journey times, reduced vehicle-operating costs, and increased safety. Benefits will increase with increases in gradient, length of gradient, traffic flow, the proportion of trucks, and reductions in overtaking opportunities. The effect of a climbing lane in breaking up queues of vehicles held up by a slow moving truck will continue for some distance along the road. Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic volumes are greater than 400 ADT. Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited particularly to trunk and link roads. Table 9-4 is prepared according to the criteria that a 20 km/h speed reduction is expected for a truck. It is used in the design to indicate locations where climbing lanes are recommended. A climbing lane layout is shown in Figure 4.5. Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and, where possible, should end on level or downhill sections where speed differences between different classes of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and efficient merging maneuvers. The introduction and termination of a climbing lane shall be effected by tapers of lengths of 100 meters. The tapers shall not be considered as part of the climbing lanes. The starting point of the grade can be approximated as a point halfway between the preceding vertical point of intersection and the end of the vertical curve.
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Table 4.25: Climbing Lanes Design Class Gradient (%) DS2 &3 DS2, 3 & 4 DS2, 3 & 4 DS2, 3 & 4 DS2, 3 & 4 DS2, 3 & 4 DS2, 3 & 4 DS4 DS4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Critical Length of Gradient above which a Climbing Lane is required (m) 300 240 200 170 150 130 Required Required Required Maximum Desirable Length of Gradient (m) 900 800 700 600 500 400 400 400 400
There is a problem in the application of a climbing lane in escarpment terrain. Here the carriageway and shoulder widths may have been reduced, and thus a climbing lane will increase the roadway width. Consideration must be given to a balance between the benefits to traffic and the initial construction cost. In sections requiring heavy side cut, the provision of climbing lanes may be unreasonably high in relation to the benefits. Reduced level of service over such sections is an alternative. The climbing lane is sometimes not effectively utilized, especially when traffic flows are heavy, because the drivers of slower vehicles fear that they will not be allowed to merge with the faster vehicles where the climbing lane ends. The preferred layout forces faster vehicles to merge with the slower, thus allaying this fear to some extent. This layout is preferred based purely on that fact that a vehicle can merge more readily with a slower-than with a faster-moving stream of traffic (see Figure4.5).
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The performance characteristics of a heavy vehicle are such that, for a particular gradient, the vehicle speed will reduce to final ambient speed that can be maintained by that vehicle on that grade. This limits, in most references, any discussion on the maximum length allowable at a given grade even considering the employment of a climbing lane. However, in the interests of factors such as vehicle operating costs and travel time losses, the absolute recommended maximum lengths at any given grade are also indicated in the last column of Table 9-4. When these distances are reached, it is necessary to design a relief gradient of less than 6 percent between steep sections. The relief gradient shall extend a minimum of 100 meters.
These values have also taken into consideration the safety factors associated with the increase in speed resulting in the descent of steep grades. Although they may mitigate the safety hazard, they do not eliminate it. For example, a non-braking "typical" heavy truck will accelerate from 0 km/hr to 90 km/hr over a distance of 500 meters at a descending grade of 5 percent. This emphasizes the need to provide warning signs for such vehicles at all long continuous grades.
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Figure 4.5: Layout for Climbing Lane BY GROUP 1 Page 67
Vertical Clearances
Bridges over water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table 7-5, unless a refined hydraulic analysis has been made. The standard minimum headroom or clearance under bridges or tunnels shall be 5.1m for all classes of roads. This clearance should be maintained over the roadway(s) and shoulders. Where future maintenance of the roadway is likely to lead to a rising of the road level, then an additional clearance of up to 0.1m may be provided. Light superstructures (i.e. - timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc) over roadways shall have a clearance height of at least 5.3m. See ERA's Bridge Design Manual-2001 for further reference. Table 4.26: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL)
Design Flow at Bridge (m3/s) 5 to 30 30 to 300 >300
Vertical Clearance (m) 0.6 0.9 1.2
Source: ERA Bridge Design Manual-2001
Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles shall not be less than 2.4m. For cattle and wildlife, underpasses shall be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5m, and for horse-riding the clear height shall be not less than 3.4m. Bridges above railways shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1m- if not otherwise stated- to facilitate possible future electrification. Over existing pipe culverts and box culverts, the roadway elevation cannot be less than as indicated in the ERA Drainage Design Manual- 2001.
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4.4.6 PHASING ALIGNMENT
OF
HORIZONTAL
AND
VERTICAL
4.4.6.1 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that the line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with small radius curves than with large. Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no more than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such defects often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases, the defects may endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. A sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect. Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects occur, phasing may be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a common station. Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with the necessary corrective action for each type. 4.4.6.2 Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a drivers perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The position of the crest is important because the vehicles tend to increase speed on the down gradient following the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an unexpected change of direction is consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a horizontal curve, an apparent kink may be produced, as indicated in Figures. The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at both ends, if the horizontal curve is of short radius, or they need be coincident at only one end, if the horizontal curve is of longer radius.
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Insufficient Separation Between The Curves If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal curve. Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the curves, or making the curves concurrent. 4.4.6.3Both Ends Of The Vertical Curve Lie On The Horizontal Curve If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase.. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident as in Figure or to separate them. 4.4.6.4 Vertical Curve Overlaps BothEnds Of The Horizontal Curve If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is because the change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed. The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on to the horizontal curve. No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined with a gentle horizontal curve. If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on the hand of the horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them. Table 4.27 Intersection points Curve Curve PVC no type Station 1 2 3 4 Sag Sag Crest Sag 0+175.38 1+429.31 2+199.93 2+794.16 PVI Elevation Station (m) 3264.67 3299.58 3335.34 3330.97 0+270.12 1+539.66 2+369.86 2+957.47 Elevation on curve (m) 3266.91 3301.08 3341.20 3335.29 Elevation on tangent(m) 3264.66 3299.56 3344.55 3329.96 PVT Station 0+364.86 1+650.00 2+539.79 3+120.79 Elevation (m) 3269.15 3302.57 3340.33 3339.61
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Table4.28 Grade, distance and station elevation Curve no 1 2 3 4 Grade % G +11.22 +5.42 -2.48 +10.58 Distance 319.13 830.20 587.62 182.53 Station & Elevation High Low ---------------------------- 1+433.21 2+432.98 -------------------- 2+856.26
Elevation ----------3299.66 3341.66 3373.24
Table 4.29 safety distances Curve no 1 2 3 4 WherePVC=the point at which the tangent grade ends and vertical curves begins PVT =the point at which the vertical curve ends and tangent grade begins
PVI=The which where the extension of two tangent grade intersect L = the horizontal distance from PVC to the PVT. E = the vertical distance between the PVI and the road way surface along the vertical curve
L (m) 224.40 220.69 339.86 326.64
K 20 40 43 25
E +2.24 +1.52 -3.36 +5.33
SSD (m) -----------131.84 -------
PSD (m) -----------201.66 --------
Design speed (KM/hr) -----25 20 ------
Head light (m) 95.07 168.18 -----113.67
K =the rate of vertical curve

SSD=stopping sight distance PSD=passing sight distance
4.4.7 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Introduction A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage features, and earthwork profiles. These terms are defined in the Definition portion of the manual text; major elements are repeated here for clarity:
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Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes. Since we are designing for a volume of rural road of design standard DS4, the ERA manual provide carriage way width of 6.7m. Lane Widths A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the width of the carriageway. Lane widths of 3.65m are used for Design Classes DS1 and DS2. The extra cost of 3.65 m above that for 3.0 m is offset to some extent by a reduction in cost of shoulder maintenance and a reduction in surface maintenance due to lessened wheel concentrations at the pavement edges. The wider 3.65m lane also provides desired clearances between large commercial vehicles on two-way rural highways. Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads. Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement. Such added lanes For our DS4 design classes a 3.35m lane width is provided. Shoulders A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support of the pavement courses. Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural environment are presented in . They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roadswhere there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0 m or even greater sealed shoulder on major roads depending on the terrain and design classification. Wider configuration ns cater to the need for a parking lane in urban/semi-urban areas where paved carriageways exist. For unpaved carriage ways, the shoulders are included in the carriageway width given in Table. Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a single bituminous surface treatment. This has several advantages. It would prevent edge raveling and maintenance problems associated with parking on a gravel shoulder. It would provide paved pace for vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow. It would provide a better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs. It would also provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic observed in the villages, traffic that would otherwise, especially during inclement weather, use the roadway. All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms of roadway safety. The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/semi-urban areas where a provision for a parking lane is required. The degree of urbanization determines whether a parking lane is required. In urban areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed. For Design Standard DS3 roads, the engineer often needs to be observant and use his discretion in defining the width of the shoulder. On market days, the urban center can cause a high volume of pedestrian traffic commencing a significant distance outside of the center, indicating a need to consider the higher
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limit over this distance. The actual shoulder width provided shall be determined from an assessment of the total traffic flow and level of non motorized traffic for each road section. In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and where the shoulder width could only be maintained through an excessive volume of earthwork e.g. at escarpment conditions, standards can be reduced through the Departure from Standard process. According to ERA manual 1.5m is provided for both flat and rolling terrain for design classes of DS4. Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas. A 9.7m road way is provided with carriage way of 6.7m and two side shoulder of 3m for design classes of DS4. Normal Cross fall Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of cross fall should be related to the need to carry surface water away from the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of material starts to become a problem. The normal cross fall should be 2. percent on paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads. Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal cross fall. The normal crown slope of 2% is provided for our design classes of DS4. Side slopes and Back slopes The side slopes and back slopes were designed to insure the stability of the road way and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out of central vehicle. The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on : Safety consideration Economic consideration Height of cut or fill The material of the site drainage
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The most applicable guideline recommended on ERA Geometric Design manual is given below and directly applied.
Table4.30: side and back slope ratio (V:H) Height of slope Material Cut 0.0-1.0m 1.0-2.0m >2.0m 1:4 1:3 1:2 Fill 1:4 1:3 1:2 1:3 1:2 1:1.5 Side slope Back slope
For our design classes of DS4, 1:3m side slope and 1:2m back slope is provided Road side Ditches A summary of minimum ditch dimensions is given as follows. Minimum depth ofditches should be 0.6m in mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using av-ditch configuration. The side slope and back slope of ditches should generally be no lessthan 1:2; however, these slopes should conform to the slopes given in Table .Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils. Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe ofthe embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m for trunk roads). The ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration with side slope of 1:3m and back slope of 1:2m for design cases of DS4 is provided. Right- of way Right of way or road reserve is provided in order to accommodate road width and to enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. The width of right of way depends on the cross-section elements of the high way, topography and either physical controls together with economic consideration. Right of ways will be equidistant from the center line of the road to the left and to the right of the carriage way. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient right of way to accommodate all elements of the cross-section, width should be limited to minimum practical amount.
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ERA-recommends a 50m of right of way for road classes of DS4. But ,the minimum of 30m right of way was provided. The distance across the carriage way from building line to building line should be a minimum of 30m.
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CHAPTER FIVE EARTH WORK
5.1 Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram

Introduction
The topic of geometric design would be incomplete without a chapter devoted to the issue of earthwork quantities and a mass haul diagram. The careful attentions to limiting earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass haul diagram are essential elements in providing the best-combined horizontal, vertical, and cross-sectional design. This is especially true when the design includes consideration of the least cost in relation to earthworks. Key terms associated with this process, as listed in Definitions, include: Borrow- material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts, flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the right-ofway, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans Waste- material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the embankment Free Haul- the maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported without the added cost above the unit bid price Overhaul- excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance Economic Limit of Haul- distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated material than to waste and borrow The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of the optimal mass haul diagram are: End area calculations Earthwork calculations Preparation of mass haul diagram Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram
These steps are presented in the following text. Of note is the fact that most current highway design computer programs, including MX (MOSS), will produce the mass haul diagram as part of the output when typical sections and horizontal and vertical alignments are inputs. A final stage of geometric design is then usually to make adjustments to the alignments in the interests of balancing or minimizing the earthwork quantities.
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End Area Calculations

End area calculations are usually made by one of the following methods: 1. Planimeter Method - The original ground line and template section (cross section) must be plotted on grid paper. Centerline profile grade must first be calculated for each cross section station to determine the centerline reference of each template plot. Areas of cut and fill quantities are calculated using a planimeter, converted to square meters, and tabulated for each section. Electronic Computer Method - This method is widely used due to its versatility and speed of calculations. The end area calculation on modern computer programs is an integral part of the alignment design program and shown on output listings along with the geometric of each section.
2.
Calculating Earthwork
There are several ways of calculating earthwork but the most common is the "average end area" method. This method consists of averaging the cut and fill quantities of adjacent stations and multiplying by the distance between stations to produce cubic meters of excavation and embankment between the two stations. This procedure is followed when manual methods are used. Projects designed by computer will be tabulated on the mass plot listing and these calculations are integral parts of the alignment design program. Compaction factors of excavated material must be determined or estimated in order to determine earthwork quantities of excavation and embankment. When common material is excavated from natural ground and compacted in an embankment, it loses volume. When solid rock is broken up and compacted in an embankment, it usually swells. Although adjustment factors can be applied to either embankment or excavation quantities, it is general practice to apply the compaction factor to the excavation so that a compaction factor of 25 percent would result in 100 cubic meters of excavation required for an embankment of 75 cubic meters. Likewise, a 10 percent swell factor would result in 100 cubic meters of rock excavation required for an embankment of 110 cubic meters. Compaction factors should be determined or estimated for each project taking into consideration the various types of soils and depth of proposed cuts and fills. The designer should avoid using one factor for the entire project as these results in incorrect distribution of earthwork quantities. Cuts through rock should be classified using
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parameters, such as swell, associated with the particular rock, and not as a common value for all types of excavation. Sometimes the uses of stripping factors or pre-rolling factors of the natural ground prior to placing embankments are employed. This is done by assuming that the natural ground will be stripped or compacted a certain depth, such as 75 100 millimeters, thus increasing the volume of the required embankment to be placed on the natural ground. This assumption may prove satisfactory on projects following virgin country having fairly uniform type of soil, however, problems develop on projects that follow an existing road as only those areas beyond the toe of slopes of the existing roadway will compact the estimated depth. This manual does not recommend the use of natural ground or stripping factors on ERA projects. Instead it is recommended that if the designer considers this volume to be significant, it is recommended to increase the compaction factors from say 20 percent to 25 percent. Accumulation totals of cut and fill can now be calculated as follows: Total accumulated cut is the total of adjusted cuts (excavation volume x adjustment factor) added from station to station. Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from station to station (no adjustment). The mass ordinate can now be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of adjusted excavation and unadjusted embankment from station to station, using "+" for excavation and "-" for embankment.
Mass Haul Diagram

The mass haul diagram is a curve in which the abscissas represent the stations of the survey and the ordinates represent the algebraic sum of excavation and embankment quantities from some point of beginning on the profile. The plot can be to any scale, depending on the quantities involved. Project designed by computer will list, tabulate, and plot all of the data shown above including a mass haul diagram and balance points. The mass haul diagram shows excavation (adjusted) and embankment quantities from some point of beginning on the profile, considering cut volumes positive and fill volumes negative. At the beginning of the curve the ordinate is zero, and ordinates are calculated continuously from the initial station to the end of the project. The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:
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Proper distribution of excavated material Amount and location of waste Amount and location of borrow Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
Page 78
Direction of haul. Figure 5-1 shows a mass haul diagram curve with an accompanying profile of existing ground line and grade line. The double line in the profile and the mass haul diagram indicate areas of excavation. Arrows indicate direction of haul. Note in the mass haul diagram that the material moves from the rising line to the falling line. Note that properties of mass haul diagrams are as follows: An upward slope on the mass curve indicates excavation, and conversely, a downward slope indicates embankment. The steeper the slope of the mass curve, the greater the cubic meters of excavation or embankment. a) b) c) d) e) The maximum ordinate of the mass curve occurs at the point where excavation ends and embankment starts. Similarly, the minimum ordinate occurs at the point where embankment ends and excavation starts. Cut and fill quantities between the points at which any horizontal line cuts off a loop of the mass curve will exactly balance. Such horizontal lines are called balance lines and the points at which these lines intersect the mass curve are called balance points. Areas below the balance line indicate that hauling of excavation to embankment is from right to left, whereas areas above the balance line indicate that the haul is from left to right. The area between a balance line and its corresponding loop of the mass curve is a measure of haul (product of the volume and distance in station-meters). The ordinate at any station represents the accumulated amount of surplus or deficit of material at the station. It does not indicate the amount of cut or fill volume at that station.
Figure 5-1: Relationship of Profile Grade and Haul to Mass Haul Diagram
BY GROUP 1
Page 79
Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram

The designer should carefully assess the project before start of design and set certain guidelines for balancing the earthwork. A determination should be made as to the maximum haul distance or distance between balance points, whether tight balances will be used or whether it will be more economical to excavate to spoil in some areas and obtain borrow material in others. Listed below are a few considerations in determining the best earthwork design: a) b) Right-of-way restrictions may necessitate importing borrow material for the required embankments. Where large quantities of inferior or deleterious material are encountered in the excavation, it will be necessary to waste this material, which is unsuitable for use as embankment. Special conditions through deep cuts, such as sloughing, sight distance requirements, or sand drift conditions may require very flat back slopes resulting in large amounts of excavation and no large embankments within a reasonable haul distance. This situation will require that some excavated material will be wasted. The need to carry the road level considerably above the existing ground for extended distances through flood plain areas will generally require borrow excavation.
c)
d)
After the designer has analyzed all of the above factors and determined how he proposes to balance the earthwork, he is ready to start calculations as previously outlined. In order to obtain a better perspective of the work the project should be broken down to sections not to exceed 5 kilometers in length. This allows the designer to work with smaller sections, solving the individual problems of each section involving drainage, grades, erosion control, and earthwork distribution. Figure 11-2 shows three situations where the balance line can be at the top, bottom or at the center of the mass curve. Note that Case 3 where the balance line is located at the center of the mass curve is not necessarily the ideal situation in all cases. The profile grade should be studied along with the mass haul diagram to determine where it will be more economical to haul towards back stations (Case 1), towards forward stations (Case 2), or to haul equally towards back and forward stations (Case 3).
BY GROUP 1
Page 80
Free haul is defined as the maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported without added cost above the unit bid price. Prior to the use of high-speed pneumatic-tired earth moving equipment, free haul distances were limited to approx. 1000 meters, but distances of up to 2000 meters are not uncommon now. Special conditions on a project may require longer hauls, where restrictions do not allow excavation or borrow in the immediate area.
The economical limit of haul is defined as the distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated material than to waste and borrow. The following formula is presented as a guide to assist the designer in determining the economic limit of haul:
E.L.H. = F.H. distance +
Unit Price of Borrow Unit Price of Overhaul
Where:
E.L.H = Economic limit of haul F.H. = Free haul distance
BY GROUP 1
Page 81
Figure 5-2: Location of Balance Line on Mass Haul Diagram
BY GROUP 1
Page 82
Overhaul is the product of volume times distance and is represented on the mass haul diagram as the area between the zero balance line and the curve of the mass after eliminating all free haul. When the mass is computed using adjusted cut (adjusted for swell), it is necessary to correct overhaul volume to unadjusted excavation by applying the proper correction factor. Waste and borrow should be avoided on most types of projects by hauling suitable material within economical limits of haul. These terms are defined as follows: a) Waste is material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the embankments. It must be pointed out that this material is not necessarily wasted as the word implies, but can be used in widening embankments, flattening slopes or filling ditches or depressions for erosion control. Borrow is material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts, flattening cut back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans. Borrow areas should be carefully selected after consideration of the suitability of the material; economic haul; access to the pits, including cost of access roads; drainage problems; and impact on the environment including timber production, fish life, watershed, soil erosion and all multiple land uses present and future.
Table 5-1 : shrinkage percentage for different soil type
b)
Material
Light excavated soil(on ordinary ground) Light excavated soil(on swampy ground) Heavy Excavated soil Excavated Rock (Swell)
% of shrinkage
10 20% 20 40% Up to 10% 5 25%
y The material in this project site is heavy excavated soil therefore shrinkage factor of 1.0 is adopted (no need of adjustment) y Swell factor taken from the given data I. II. From station 0+000-2+000 is 1.31 From station 2+000-3+000 is 1.5
BY GROUP 1
Page 83
STATION CUT AREA (m2) 0+000 0+020 0+040 0+060 0+080 0+100 0+120 0+140 0+160 0+180 0+200 0+220 0+240 0+260 0+280 0+300 0+320 0+340 0+360 0+380 0+400 0+420 0+440 0+400.261 0+410.000 0.139 1.617 0.262 0.114 0.023 0 0.025 3.225 12.074 19.504 28.516 33.689 36.717 38.396 34.345 23.027 12.121 4.678 1.801 3.296 3.326 5.93 9.522 9.603 11.888
CUT VOLUME (M3) 0 17.561 18.79 3.766 1.375 0.231 0.246 32.499 152.988 315.774 480.2 622.049 704.057 751.127 727.408 573.72 351.482 167.99 64.792 50.973 0.864 45.102 77.36 2.494 106.416
FILL AREA (m2) 0.543 1.933 6.486 11.206 11.009 9.718 5.337 0.481 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.757 0.942 1.636 1.622 0.068 0.122 0.124 0
FILL VOLUME (m3) 0 24.763 84.195 176.925 222.151 207.271 150.554 58.184 4.812 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.57 16.989 25.781 0.425 8.162 0.946 0.032 0.595
CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL CUT FILL CORRECTED COMMULATIVE VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME VOLUM SWELL (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) FACTOR 1.31 0 0 0 0 1.31 23.00491 24.763 -1.75809 -1.75809 1.31 24.6149 84.195 -59.5801 -61.3382 1.31 4.93346 176.925 -171.992 -233.33 1.31 1.80125 222.151 -220.35 -453.679 1.31 0.30261 207.271 -206.968 -660.648 1.31 0.32226 150.554 -150.232 -810.88 1.31 42.57369 58.184 -15.6103 -826.49 1.31 200.4143 4.812 195.6023 -630.888 1.31 413.6639 0 413.6639 -217.224 1.31 629.062 0 629.062 411.8383 1.31 814.8842 0 814.8842 1226.722 1.31 922.3147 0 922.3147 2149.037 1.31 983.9764 0 983.9764 3133.014 1.31 952.9045 0 952.9045 4085.918 1.31 751.5732 0 751.5732 4837.491 1.31 460.4414 0 460.4414 5297.933 1.31 220.0669 7.57 212.4969 5510.43 1.31 84.87752 16.989 67.88852 5578.318 1.31 66.77463 25.781 40.99363 5619.312 1.31 1.13184 0.425 0.70684 5620.019 1.31 59.08362 8.162 50.92162 5670.94 1.31 101.3416 0.946 100.3956 5771.336 1.31 3.26714 0.032 3.23514 5774.571 1.31 139.405 0.595 138.81 5913.381
BY GROUP 1
Page 84
STATION CUT AREA (m2) 0+420 0+425.000 0+430.000 0+440 0+450.000 0+460.000 0+462.732 0+470.000 0+480.000 0+482.829 0+490.000 0+500.000 0+508.145 0+510.000 0+520.000 0+525.000 0+528.145 0+540.000 0+560.000 0+570.000 0+580.000 0+590.000 0+600.000 0+610.000 0+611.855 0+620.000 0+625.000 BY GROUP 1 19.213 27.068 33.355 46.674 68.244 88.403 118.156 138.476 102.171 102.133 99.868 114.402 115.824 116.237 127.571 133.408 137.368 213.661 205.897 123.225 102.175 90.847 79.449 74.533 74.267 72.861 67.667
CUT VOLUME (M3) 159.211 118.08 153.678 407.834 592.325 820.17 303.688 950.208 281.89 9.982 614.363 945.244 855.272 214.411 1196.223 645.328 422.112 2080.647 4195.579 1336.784 535.571 967.393 853.422 771.561 138.058 611.201 357.8
FILL AREA (m2) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
FILL VOLUME (m3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) 1.31 208.5664 0 208.5664 6121.947 1.31 154.6848 0 154.6848 6276.632 1.31 201.3182 0 201.3182 6477.95 1.31 534.2625 0 534.2625 7012.213 1.31 775.9458 0 775.9458 7788.159 1.31 1074.423 0 1074.423 8862.581 1.31 397.8313 0 397.8313 9260.413 1.31 1244.772 0 1244.772 10505.18 1.31 369.2759 0 369.2759 10874.46 1.31 13.07642 0 13.07642 10887.54 1.31 804.8155 0 804.8155 11692.35 1.31 1238.27 0 1238.27 12930.62 1.31 1120.406 0 1120.406 14051.03 1.31 280.8784 0 280.8784 14331.91 1.31 1567.052 0 1567.052 15898.96 1.31 845.3797 0 845.3797 16744.34 1.31 552.9667 0 552.9667 17297.31 1.31 2725.648 0 2725.648 20022.95 1.31 5496.208 0 5496.208 25519.16 1.31 1751.187 0 1751.187 27270.35 1.31 701.598 0 701.598 27971.95 1.31 1267.285 0 1267.285 29239.23 1.31 1117.983 0 1117.983 30357.21 1.31 1010.745 0 1010.745 31367.96 1.31 180.856 0 180.856 31548.82 1.31 800.6733 0 800.6733 32349.49 1.31 468.718 0 468.718 32818.21 Page 85
STATION CUT AREA (m2) 0+630.000 0+635.811 0+640.000 0+650.000 0+660.000 0+670.000 0+675.000 0+680.000 0+684.870 0+685.811 0+690.000 0+700.000 0+703.897 0+710.000 0+720.000 0+725.000 0+730.000 0+740.000 0+743.897 0+760.000 0+780.000 0+791.195 0+800.000 0+810.000 0+820.000 0+821.195 0+825.000 BY GROUP 1 58.706 51.408 48.742 39.837 29.126 22.213 22.396 22.418 22.779 22.989 22.266 24.158 24.609 24.503 26.67 28.169 27.168 25.415 24.548 16.922 7.884 2.003 0.31 0 0 0 0
CUT VOLUME (M3) 320.872 323.854 209.872 443.306 345.087 256.843 111.553 112.072 110.089 21.527 97.062 237.545 96.145 150.134 256.529 137.237 138.468 263.343 97.36 333.897 248.054 55.335 10.173 1.557 0 0 0
FILL AREA (m2) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.297 3.64 12.738 22.91 24.457 32.297
FILL VOLUME (m3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.663 17.309 81.828 178.177 28.285 107.402
SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) 1.31 420.3423 0 420.3423 33238.55 1.31 424.2487 0 424.2487 33662.8 1.31 274.9323 0 274.9323 33937.73 1.31 580.7309 0 580.7309 34518.46 1.31 452.064 0 452.064 34970.52 1.31 336.4643 0 336.4643 35306.99 1.31 146.1344 0 146.1344 35453.12 1.31 146.8143 0 146.8143 35599.94 1.31 144.2166 0 144.2166 35744.15 1.31 28.20037 0 28.20037 35772.35 1.31 127.1512 0 127.1512 35899.51 1.31 311.184 0 311.184 36210.69 1.31 125.95 0 125.95 36336.64 1.31 196.6755 0 196.6755 36533.32 1.31 336.053 0 336.053 36869.37 1.31 179.7805 0 179.7805 37049.15 1.31 181.3931 0 181.3931 37230.54 1.31 344.9793 0 344.9793 37575.52 1.31 127.5416 0 127.5416 37703.06 1.31 437.4051 0 437.4051 38140.47 1.31 324.9507 0 324.9507 38465.42 1.31 72.48885 1.663 70.82585 38536.24 1.31 13.32663 17.309 -3.98237 38532.26 1.31 2.03967 81.828 -79.7883 38452.47 1.31 0 178.177 -178.177 38274.3 1.31 0 28.285 -28.285 38246.01 1.31 0 107.402 -107.402 38138.61 Page 86
STATION CUT AREA (m2) 0+830.000 0+840.000 0+850.000 0+858.437 0+860.000 0+870.000 0+875.000 0+880.000 0+888.437 0+900.000 0+920.000 0+940.000 0+948.021 0+950.000 0+960.000 0+970.000 0+975.000 0+980.000 0+990.000 1+000.000 1+010.000 1+017.513 1+020.000 1+028.213 1+030.000 1+040.000 1+050.000 BY GROUP 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CUT VOLUME (M3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
FILL AREA (m2) 43.469 64.409 81.85 100.046 103.451 112.14 116.362 121.017 126.766 118.093 108.065 96.75 94.23 93.341 88.298 82.708 76.79 71.468 61.985 53.855 50.395 50 50.091 50.409 50.493 50.589 47.903
FILL VOLUME (m3) 188.118 536.382 729.306 769.202 159.032 1078.746 571.253 593.3 1044.857 1415.62 2261.58 2048.143 763.095 182.453 891.348 839.433 392.354 364.886 657.268 570.429 512.907 372.642 124.461 412.683 90.179 505.41 492.457
SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) 1.31 0 188.118 -188.118 37950.49 1.31 0 536.382 -536.382 37414.11 1.31 0 729.306 -729.306 36684.8 1.31 0 769.202 -769.202 35915.6 1.31 0 159.032 -159.032 35756.57 1.31 0 1078.746 -1078.75 34677.82 1.31 0 571.253 -571.253 34106.57 1.31 0 593.3 -593.3 33513.27 1.31 0 1044.857 -1044.86 32468.41 1.31 0 1415.62 -1415.62 31052.79 1.31 0 2261.58 -2261.58 28791.21 1.31 0 2048.143 -2048.14 26743.07 1.31 0 763.095 -763.095 25979.98 1.31 0 182.453 -182.453 25797.52 1.31 0 891.348 -891.348 24906.18 1.31 0 839.433 -839.433 24066.74 1.31 0 392.354 -392.354 23674.39 1.31 0 364.886 -364.886 23309.5 1.31 0 657.268 -657.268 22652.23 1.31 0 570.429 -570.429 22081.81 1.31 0 512.907 -512.907 21568.9 1.31 0 372.642 -372.642 21196.26 1.31 0 124.461 -124.461 21071.8 1.31 0 412.683 -412.683 20659.11 1.31 0 90.179 -90.179 20568.93 1.31 0 505.41 -505.41 20063.52 1.31 0 492.457 -492.457 19571.07 Page 87
STATION CUT AREA (m2) 1+060.000 1+067.740 1+068.213 1+070.000 1+075.000 1+080.000 1+090.000 1+100.000 1+108.685 1+120.000 1+126.596 1+130.000 1+140.000 1+150.000 1+160.000 1+170.000 1+175.000 1+176.596 1+180.000 1+190.000 1+199.043 1+200.000 1+225.000 1+230.000 1+240.000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.055 0.135 0.161 0.068 0 0 0 0.328 0.457 0.783
CUT VOLUME (M3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.275 0.474 0.236 0.389 0.342 0 0 1.346 1.962 6.199
FILL AREA (m2) 46.207 48.096 48.258 48.506 49.143 49.171 48.304 43.832 38.544 35.548 34.306 28.508 26.539 24.922 24.338 21.6 20.463 20.224 21.341 25.333 23.895 23.844 18.369 18.119 15.873
FILL VOLUME (m3) 470.551 364.944 22.775 86.479 244.12 245.784 487.377 460.683 357.73 419.164 230.389 106.898 275.231 257.306 246.302 229.688 105.157 32.475 70.737 233.369 222.582 22.844 93.922 91.219 169.96
SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) 1.31 0 470.551 -470.551 19100.52 1.31 0 364.944 -364.944 18735.57 1.31 0 22.775 -22.775 18712.8 1.31 0 86.479 -86.479 18626.32 1.31 0 244.12 -244.12 18382.2 1.31 0 245.784 -245.784 18136.41 1.31 0 487.377 -487.377 17649.04 1.31 0 460.683 -460.683 17188.35 1.31 0 357.73 -357.73 16830.62 1.31 0 419.164 -419.164 16411.46 1.31 0 230.389 -230.389 16181.07 1.31 0 106.898 -106.898 16074.17 1.31 0 275.231 -275.231 15798.94 1.31 0 257.306 -257.306 15541.64 1.31 0 246.302 -246.302 15295.33 1.31 0.36025 229.688 -229.328 15066.01 1.31 0.62094 105.157 -104.536 14961.47 1.31 0.30916 32.475 -32.1658 14929.3 1.31 0.50959 70.737 -70.2274 14859.08 1.31 0.44802 233.369 -232.921 14626.15 1.31 0 222.582 -222.582 14403.57 1.31 0 22.844 -22.844 14380.73 1.31 1.76326 93.922 -92.1587 14288.57 1.31 2.57022 91.219 -88.6488 14199.92 1.31 8.12069 169.96 -161.839 14038.08
BY GROUP 1
Page 88

STATION CUT AREA (m2) 1+249.043 1+260.000 1+280.000 1+300.000 1+320.000 1+340.000 1+352.772 1+360.000 1+370.000 1+375.000 1+380.000 1+390.000 1+400.000 1+402.772 1+410.000 1+420.000 1+421.261 1+425.000 1+430.000 1+440.000 1+450.000 1+460.000 1+470.000 1+471.261 1+480.000 0.925 0.743 0.353 0.268 0.177 0.005 0.067 0.173 0.248 0.406 0.699 1.198 3.471 4.442 7.914 17.215 18.51 22.529 33.313 53.581 75.641 102.234 129.976 133.567 158.736 CUT VOLUME (M3) 7.724 9.141 10.964 6.216 4.43 1.806 0.462 0.838 1.995 1.573 2.754 9.436 23.245 10.956 44.552 125.406 22.527 76.701 139.606 434.474 646.111 889.373 1161.047 166.214 1277.161 FILL AREA (m2) 13.802 13.162 14.97 16.438 27.471 27.386 17.352 15.489 13.015 10.861 9.043 5.848 2.007 1399 0.099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 FILL VOLUME (m3) 134.175 147.725 281.324 314.082 441.102 554.153 287.347 121.503 147.284 61.125 49.847 74.725 39.418 4.725 5.429 0.497 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SWELL FACTOR 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 CORECTED CORECTED CUT FILL VOLUME VOLUME (m3) (m3) 10.11844 134.175 11.97471 147.725 14.36284 281.324 8.14296 314.082 5.8033 441.102 2.36586 554.153 0.60522 287.347 1.09778 121.503 2.61345 147.284 2.06063 61.125 3.60774 49.847 12.36116 74.725 30.45095 39.418 14.35236 4.725 58.36312 5.429 164.2819 0.497 29.51037 0 100.4783 0 182.8839 0 569.1609 0 846.4054 1165.079 0 1520.972 0 217.7403 0 1673.081 0 TOTAL CORRECTED VOLUME (m3) -124.057 -135.75 -266.961 -305.939 -435.299 -551.787 -286.742 -120.405 -144.671 -59.0644 -46.2393 -62.3638 -8.96705 9.62736 52.93412 163.7849 29.51037 100.4783 182.8839 569.1609 846.4054 1165.079 1520.972 217.7403 1673.081 COMMULATIVE VOLUM (m3) 13914.03 13778.28 13511.31 13205.38 12770.08 12218.29 11931.55 11811.14 11666.47 11607.41 11561.17 11498.8 11489.84 11499.46 11552.4 11716.18 11745.69 11846.17 12029.06 12598.22 13444.62 14609.7 16130.67 16348.41 18021.49
BY GROUP 1
Page 89
STATION CUT AREA (m2) 1+500.000 1+520.000 1+540.000 1+548.725 1+550.000 1+560.000 1+570.000 1+575.000 1+580.000 1+590.000 1+598.725 1+600.000 1+610.000 1+615.956 1+620.000 1+625.000 1+630.000 1+640.000 1+650.000 1+660.000 1+665.956 1+680.000 1+700.000 1+701.364 1+710.000 211.264 248.519 272.814 280.531 280.847 283.369 280.937 272.938 264.264 245.953 212.3 211.212 198.033 180.945 172.717 162.278 142.985 107.513 87.979 67.984 58.809 39.496 15.333 14.203 9.078
CUT FILL VOLUME (M3) AREA (m2) 3699.999 0 4597.831 0 5213.33 0 2414.078 0 357.763 0 2821.078 0 2821.529 0 1384.687 0 1343.004 0 2551.084 0 1999.221 0 269.902 0 2046.227 0 1128.62 0 715.084 0 835.34 0 761.185 0 1245.94 0 972.119 0 773.222 0 360.987 0 662.817 0 529.115 0 19.461 0 96.836 0.91
FILL VOLUME (m3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.065
SWELL FACTOR 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31
CORECTED CORECTED CUT FILL VOLUME VOLUME (m3) (m3) 4846.999 0 6023.159 0 6829.462 0 3162.442 0 468.6695 0 3695.612 0 3696.203 0 1813.94 0 1759.335 0 3341.92 0 2618.98 0 353.5716 0 2680.557 0 1478.492 0 936.76 0 1094.295 0 997.1524 0 1632.181 0 1273.476 0 1012.921 0 472.893 0 868.2903 0 693.1407 0 25.49391 0 126.8552 4.065
TOTAL CORRECTED VOLUME (m3) 4846.999 6023.159 6829.462 3162.442 468.6695 3695.612 3696.203 1813.94 1759.335 3341.92 2618.98 353.5716 2680.557 1478.492 936.76 1094.295 997.1524 1632.181 1273.476 1012.921 472.893 868.2903 693.1407 25.49391 122.7902
COMMULATIVE VOLUM (m3) 22868.49 28891.65 35721.11 38883.56 39352.23 43047.84 46744.04 48557.98 50317.32 53659.24 56278.22 56631.79 59312.34 60790.84 61727.6 62821.89 63819.04 65451.23 66724.7 67737.62 68210.52 69078.81 69771.95 69797.44 69920.23
BY GROUP 1
Page 90
STATION CUT AREA (m2) 1+720.000 1+725.000 1+730.000 1+740.000 1+741.364 1+750.000 1+760.000 1+770.000 1+775.000 1+780.000 1+790.000 1+793.395 1+800.000 1+803.269 1+810.000 1+820.000 1+825.000 1+830.000 1+838.521 1+840.000 1+850.000 1+860.000 6.648 5.657 4.747 6.314 6.638 9.867 13.735 19.649 23.459 32.185 49.488 56.133 76.645 79.714 79.721 159.099 190.223 195.529 214.041 216.911 244.068 249.491
CUT FILL FILL SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE VOLUME VOLUME FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM (M3) AREA (m3) VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 2 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) (m ) 78.253 1.503 12.116 1.31 102.5114 12.116 90.39543 70010.63 33.555 1.729 7.448 1.31 43.95705 7.448 36.50905 70047.13 28.917 1.864 8.066 1.31 37.88127 8.066 29.81527 70076.95 60.411 0.624 11.107 1.31 79.13841 11.107 68.03141 70144.98 9.513 0.461 0.651 1.31 12.46203 0.651 11.81103 70156.79 74.645 0 1.75 1.31 97.78495 1.75 96.03495 70252.83 118.324 0 0 1.31 155.0044 0 155.0044 70407.83 166.539 0 0 1.31 218.1661 0 218.1661 70626 107.662 0 0 1.31 141.0372 0 141.0372 70767.04 138.723 0 0 1.31 181.7271 0 181.7271 70948.76 407.396 0 0 1.31 533.6888 0 533.6888 71482.45 179.281 0 0 1.31 234.8581 0 234.8581 71717.31 438.514 0 0 1.31 574.4533 0 574.4533 72291.76 255.557 0 0 1.31 334.7797 0 334.7797 72626.54 536.592 0 0 1.31 702.9355 0 702.9355 73329.48 1198.899 0 0 1.31 1570.558 0 1570.558 74900.04 875.997 0 0 1.31 1147.556 0 1147.556 76047.59 967.368 0 0 1.31 1267.252 0 1267.252 77314.84 1751.941 0 0 1.31 2295.043 0 2295.043 79609.89 320.003 0 0 1.31 419.2039 0 419.2039 80029.09 2330.768 0 0 1.31 3053.306 0 3053.306 83082.4 2466.316 0 0 1.31 3230.874 0 3230.874 86313.27
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CUT FILL FILL SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE VOLUME VOLUME FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM (M3) AREA (m3) VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 2 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) (m ) 2112.794 0 0 1.31 2767.76 0 2767.76 89081.03 2869.152 0 0 1.31 3758.589 0 3758.589 92839.62 3059.681 0 0 1.31 4008.182 0 4008.182 96847.8 2095.183 0 0 1.31 2744.69 0 2744.69 99592.49 2576.278 0 0 1.31 3374.924 0 3374.924 102967.4 2550.555 0 0 1.31 3341.227 0 3341.227 106308.6 489.469 0 0 1.31 641.2044 0 641.2044 106949.8 778.571 0 0 1.31 1019.928 0 1019.928 107969.8 1264.819 0 0 1.31 1656.913 0 1656.913 109626.7 2510.338 0 0 1.31 3288.543 0 3288.543 112915.2 2483.079 0 0 1.31 3252.833 0 3252.833 116168.1 2460.307 0 0 1.31 3223.002 0 3223.002 119391.1 1573.624 0 0 1.31 2061.447 0 2061.447 121452.5 859.034 0 0 1.31 1125.335 0 1125.335 122577.8 1206.722 0 0 1.31 1580.806 0 1580.806 124158.7 1197.547 0 0 1.31 1568.787 0 1568.787 125727.4 2354.727 0 0 1.31 3084.692 0 3084.692 128812.1 1490.068 0 0 1.31 1951.989 0 1951.989 130764.1 809.031 0 0 1.58 1278.269 0 1278.269 132042.4 3884.956 0 0 1.58 6138.23 0 6138.23 138180.6 3056.42 0 0 1.58 4829.144 0 4829.144 143009.8 2863.63 0 0 1.58 4524.535 0 4524.535 147534.3 2770.869 0 0 1.58 4377.973 0 4377.973 151912.3 2565.137 0 0 1.58 4052.916 0 4052.916 155965.2 2273.528 0 0 1.58 3592.174 0 3592.174 159557.4
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STATION CUT AREA (m2) 2+140.000 2+160.000 2+180.000 2+200.000 2+202.667 2+210.000 2+220.000 2+222.667 2+225.000 2+230.000 2+240.000 2+250.000 2+258.458 2+260.000 2+270.000 2+275.000 2+278.458 2+280.000 2+300.000 2+320.000 2+340.000 2+360.000 2+380.000 2+400.000 2+420.000 90.822 73.577 56.588 47.424 46.196 45.315 43.584 42.819 42.012 39.981 32.615 24.106 14.568 12.899 3.887 1.871 1.102 0.885 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CUT FILL FILL SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE VOLUME VOLUME FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM (M3) AREA (m3) VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 2 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) (m ) 1989.353 0 0 1.58 3143.178 0 3143.178 162700.5 1687.683 0 0 1.58 2666.539 0 2666.539 165367.1 1336.737 0 0 1.58 2112.044 0 2112.044 167479.1 1051.544 0 0 1.58 1661.44 0 1661.44 169140.6 124.83 0 0 1.58 197.2314 0 197.2314 169337.8 335.539 0 0 1.58 530.1516 0 530.1516 169867.9 444.499 0 0 1.58 702.3084 0 702.3084 170570.3 115.208 0 0 1.58 182.0286 0 182.0286 170752.3 98.966 0 0 1.58 156.3663 0 156.3663 170908.7 204.982 0 0 1.58 323.8716 0 323.8716 171232.5 362.982 0 0 1.58 573.5116 0 573.5116 171806 283.608 0 0 1.58 448.1006 0 448.1006 172254.1 163.548 0 0 1.58 258.4058 0 258.4058 172512.5 21.18 0 0 1.58 33.4644 0 33.4644 172546 83.932 0.746 3.728 1.58 132.6126 3.728 128.8846 172674.9 14.395 2.049 6.986 1.58 22.7441 6.986 15.7581 172690.6 5.139 3.467 9.536 1.58 8.11962 9.536 -1.41638 172689.2 1.532 4.206 5.917 1.58 2.42056 5.917 -3.49644 172685.7 8.854 13.486 176.917 1.58 13.98932 176.917 -162.928 172522.8 0 18.535 320.21 1.58 0 320.21 -320.21 172202.6 0 17.717 362.527 1.58 0 362.527 -362.527 171840.1 0 16.13 338.469 1.58 0 338.469 -338.469 171501.6 0 21.314 374.438 1.58 0 374.438 -374.438 171127.2 0 42.171 634.852 1.58 0 634.852 -634.852 170492.3 0 49.147 913.181 1.58 0 913.181 -913.181 169579.1
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STATION CUT AREA (m2) 2+440.000 2+460.000 2+480.000 2+480.928 2+490.000 2+500.000 2+510.000 2+520.000 2+525.000 2+530.000 2+530.928 2+540.000 2+541.429 2+550.000 2+560.000 2+570.000 2+575.000 2+580.000 2+590.000 2+591.429 2+600.000 2+616.648 2+620.000 2+625.000 2+630.000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.008 0.019 0.309 0.372 0.732 1.45 4.646 7.115 9.621 10.12 10.105 9.942 6.372 5.514 4.423 4.356
CUT VOLUME (M3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.021 0.013 1.494 0.487 4.728 10.886 30.218 29.147 41.54 98.091 14.365 85.481 135.281 19.899 24.844 21.95
FILL AREA (m2) 42.376 50.157 41.16 40.463 32.386 24.708 20.374 15.4 14.074 11.969 11.699 7.358 6.855 4.108 1.621 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.006 0.096 0.132
FILL SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE VOLUME FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM (m3) VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) 915.231 1.58 0 915.231 -915.231 168663.9 925.326 1.58 0 925.326 -925.326 167738.6 913.168 1.58 0 913.168 -913.168 166825.4 37.892 1.58 0 37.892 -37.892 166787.5 330.422 1.58 0 330.422 -330.422 166457.1 285.466 1.58 0 285.466 -285.466 166171.6 225.406 1.58 0 225.406 -225.406 165946.2 178.9 1.58 0 178.9 -178.9 165767.3 73.703 1.58 0 73.703 -73.703 165693.6 65.125 1.58 0.03318 65.125 -65.0918 165628.5 10.988 1.58 0.02054 10.988 -10.9675 165617.6 86.453 1.58 2.36052 86.453 -84.0925 165533.5 10.152 1.58 0.76946 10.152 -9.38254 165524.1 46.981 1.58 7.47024 46.981 -39.5108 165484.6 28.662 1.58 17.19988 28.662 -11.4621 165473.1 8.13 1.58 47.74444 8.13 39.61444 165512.7 0 1.58 46.05226 0 46.05226 165558.8 0 1.58 65.6332 0 65.6332 165624.4 0 1.58 154.9838 0 154.9838 165779.4 0 1.58 22.6967 0 22.6967 165802.1 0 1.58 135.06 0 135.06 165937.1 0 1.58 213.744 0 213.744 166150.9 0.01 1.58 31.44042 0.01 31.43042 166182.3 0.255 1.58 39.25352 0.255 38.99852 166221.3 0.57 1.58 34.681 0.57 34.111 166255.4
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CUT VOLUME (M3) 45.647 51.689 58.55 42.34 22.638 35.297 36.519 75.666 78.614 81.175 83.478 12.517 29.087 40.669 81.694 89.313 102.593 114.197 17.827 105.693 304.333 392.94 406.061 358.959 318.342
FILL AREA (m2) 0.148 0.125 0.11 0.103 0.096 0.079 0.077 0.09 0.062 0.017 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
FILL SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE VOLUME FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM (m3) VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) 1.402 1.58 72.12226 1.402 70.72026 166326.2 1.365 1.58 81.66862 1.365 80.30362 166406.5 1.175 1.58 92.509 1.175 91.334 166497.8 0.709 1.58 66.8972 0.709 66.1882 166564 0.333 1.58 35.76804 0.333 35.43504 166599.4 0.435 1.58 55.76926 0.435 55.33426 166654.7 0.388 1.58 57.70002 0.388 57.31202 166712.1 0.833 1.58 119.5523 0.833 118.7193 166830.8 0.758 1.58 124.2101 0.758 123.4521 166954.2 0.392 1.58 128.2565 0.392 127.8645 167082.1 0.084 1.58 131.8952 0.084 131.8112 167213.9 0 1.58 19.77686 0 19.77686 167233.7 0 1.58 45.95746 0 45.95746 167279.6 0 1.58 64.25702 0 64.25702 167343.9 0 1.58 129.0765 0 129.0765 167473 0 1.58 141.1145 0 141.1145 167614.1 0 1.58 162.0969 0 162.0969 167776.2 0 1.58 180.4313 0 180.4313 167956.6 0 1.58 28.16666 0 28.16666 167984.8 0 1.58 166.9949 0 166.9949 168151.8 0 1.58 480.8461 0 480.8461 168632.6 0 1.58 620.8452 0 620.8452 169253.5 0 1.58 641.5764 0 641.5764 169895 0 1.58 567.1552 0 567.1552 170462.2 0 1.58 502.9804 0 502.9804 170965.2
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STATION CUT AREA (m2) 2+882.137 2+900.000 2+920.000 2+940.000 2+960.001 2+980.000 3+000.000 3+020.000 3+040.000 3+060.000 3+080.000 3+100.000 3+120.000 3+140.000 3+141.807 Total 14.418 17.427 20.709 17.993 8.27 0.099 0 0 0 0 5.266 18.87 25.877 11.515 0 17726.8
CUT VOLUME (M3) 31.313 284.425 381.355 387.016 262.631 83.694 0.99 0 0 0 52.66 241.359 447.469 373.922 10.405 156098.2
FILL SWELL CORECTED CORECTED TOTAL COMMULATIVE VOLUME FACTOR CUT FILL CORRECTED VOLUM (m3) VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME (m3) 3 3 3 (m ) (m ) (m ) 0 0 1.58 49.47454 0 49.47454 171014.7 0 0 1.58 449.3915 0 449.3915 171464 0 0 1.58 602.5409 0 602.5409 172066.6 0 0 1.58 611.4853 0 611.4853 172678.1 0 0 1.58 414.957 0 414.957 173093 4.489 44.889 1.58 132.2365 44.889 87.34752 173180.4 17.806 222.954 1.58 1.5642 222.954 -221.39 172959 36.362 541.684 1.58 0 541.684 -541.684 172417.3 31.926 682.884 1.58 0 682.884 -682.884 171734.4 10.812 427.381 1.58 0 427.381 -427.381 171307 0.253 110.646 1.58 83.2028 110.646 -27.4432 171279.6 0 2.53 1.58 381.3472 2.53 378.8172 171658.4 0 0 1.58 707.001 0 707.001 172365.4 0.104 1.036 1.58 590.7968 1.036 589.7608 172955.2 0 0.094 1.58 16.4399 0.094 16.3459 172971.5 3971.401 38011.93 1.58 246635.2 38011.93 208623.3 172972
FILL AREA (m2)
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CHAPTER SIX PAVEMENT DESIGN 6.1 General

The basic idea in building a pavement for all-weather use by vehicles is to prepare a suitable subgrade, provide necessary drainage and construct a pavement that will: y y y Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic loads; Have adequate properties to prevent or minimize the penetration or internal accumulation of moisture, and Have a surface that is reasonably smooth and skid resistant at the same time, as well as reasonably resistant to wear, distortion and deterioration by weather. The subgrade ultimately carries all traffic loads. Therefore, the structural function of a pavement is to support a wheel load on the pavement surface, and transfer and spread that load to the subgrade without exceeding either the strength of the subgrade or the internal strength of the pavement itself. Figure 1-1 shows wheel load, W, being transmitted to the pavement surface through the tire at an approximately uniform vertical pressure, Po. The pavement then spreads the wheel load to the subgrade so that the maximum pressure on the subgrade is only P1. By proper selection of pavement materials and with adequate pavement thickness, P1 will be small enough to be easily supported by the subgrade. In its simple form, Figure 1-1 illustrates a principle valid for the various pavement types discussed below, albeit with variations in the magnitude and mechanism of stress distribution. Pavement Types The elements of a flexible pavement are illustrated in Figure 1-2, where the simpler form of a pavement provided by the wearing course of a gravel road is also shown. The classical definition of flexible pavements primarily includes those pavements that have a bituminous (surface dressing or asphalt concrete) surface. By contrast, the classical rigid (or concrete) pavement is made up of Portland cement concrete. The terms
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flexible and rigid are somewhat arbitrary and were primarily established to differentiate between asphalt and Portland cement concrete pavements. The essential difference between the two types of pavements is the manner in which they distribute the load over the subgrade. The rigid pavement, because of its rigidity and high modulus of elasticity, tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil; thus, the slab itself supplies a major portion of the structural capacity. The major factor considered in the design of rigid pavements is the structural strength of the concrete, and a certain amount of variation in subgrade strength has little influence upon the structural capacity of the pavement.
Figure 1-1: Spread of Wheel-Load through Pavement Structure
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Figure 1-2: Elements of a Flexible Pavement
Flexible Pavements
To give satisfactory service, a flexible pavement must satisfy a number of structural criteria or considerations; some of these are illustrated in Figure 1-3. Some of the important considerations are: (1) the subgrade should be able to sustain traffic loading without excessive deformation; this is controlled by the vertical compressive stress or strain at this level, (2) bituminous materials and cement-bound materials used in roadbase design should not crack under the influence of traffic; this is controlled by the horizontal tensile stress or strain at the bottom of the roadbase, (3) the roadbase is often considered the main structural layer of the pavement, required to distribute the applied traffic loading so that the underlying materials are not overstressed. It must be able to sustain the stress and strain generated within itself without excessive or rapid deterioration of any kind. (4) in pavements containing a considerable thickness of bituminous materials, the internal deformation of these materials must be limited; their deformation is a function of their creep characteristics,
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(5)
the load spreading ability of granular subbase and capping layers must be adequate to provide a satisfactory construction platform.
Figure 1-3:
Critical Stresses and Strains in a Flexible Pavement
In practice, other factors have to be considered such as the effects of drainage. When some of the above criteria are not satisfied, distress or failure will occur. For instance, rutting may be the result of excessive internal deformation within bituminous materials, or excessive deformation at the subgrade level (or within granular layers above).
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RIGID PAVEMENTS
Rigid pavements (concrete pavements), as the name implies, are rigid and considerably stronger in compression than in tension. One of the main characteristics of rigid pavements is that a relatively thin pavement slab distributes the load over a wider area due to its high rigidity. Localized low strength roadbed material can be overcome due to this wider distribution area. In concrete pavements, the strength of the pavement is contributed mainly by the concrete slab, unlike flexible pavements where successive layers of the pavement contribute cumulatively. Concrete pavements are subject to thermal stresses due to variation in daily and annual temperatures. In Ethiopia, though the annual range of temperature is small, the daily range of temperature is high, varying from 20C to 40 C (Ref. 1), and hence thermal stresses deserve attention for the design of concrete pavements. Skidding resistance of concrete pavement surfaces is also an important functional characteristic. The rugose surface required for an adequate resistance to skidding in wet conditions can be provided by dragging stiff brooms transversely across the newly-laid concrete or by cutting shallow randomly spaced grooves in the surface of the hardened concrete slab. In the absence of deleterious materials (either in the aggregate or entering the concrete in solution from an external source), unlike with flexible pavements, concrete does not suffer deterioration from weathering. Neither its strength nor its stiffness are materially affected by temperature changes. At present, concrete pavements have not been extensively used in most tropical countries and in Ethiopia in particular, mainly due to a lack of tradition and experience in design and construction. One characteristic of concrete pavements is that either they prove to be extremely durable, lasting for many years with little attention, or they give trouble from
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the start, sometimes because of faults in design, but more often because of mistakes in construction and its high cost.
So, due to the above cases we select flexible pavement.
Flexible Pavement structure

The major components of a pavement structure are
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Flexible pavement- cut section
Surface course:- The surface course is the top course of an asphalt pavement; sometimes called the wearing course. y y y It resist distortion under traffic. It provide a smooth and skid-resistant riding surface. The surface course must be water proof to protect the entire pavement and sub grade from the weakening effect of water. Base course:- The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface course. It may be composed of well- graded crushed stone, granular material mixed with binder, or stabilized materials. y y y Sub base Course:- The sub base course is the layer of material beneath the base course constructed using local and cheaper materials for economic reason on top of the subgrade.
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It is the main structural part of the pavement and provides a level surface for laying the surface layer. If constructed directly over the sub grade, it prevents intrusions of the fine sub grade soils into the pavement structure.
y y y
It provide additional help to the base and surface courses in distributing the loads. It facilitates drainage of free water that might get accumulated below the pavement. If the base course is open graded, the subbase course with more fines can serve as a filter between the subgrade and the base course.
Subgrade:- Sub grade is the foundation on which the vehicle load and the weight of the pavement layers finally rest. y y It is a layer of selected material compacted to the desirable density near the optimum moisture content. It is graded in to a proper shape, properly drained, and compacted to receive the pavement layers. The function of pavement structure The function of the pavement structure is:y To distribute imposed wheel loads over a large area of the natural soil. [if vehicles where to travel on the natural soil itself, shear failures would occur in the wheel path in most soils and ruts would form. The shear strength of the soil is usually not high enough to support the load.] y To reduce the high unit stresses imposed by vehicle on the surface to stresses on the sub grade that are low enough to be carried with out failure due to rutting, excessive settlement, or other types of distress. y y To provide stable and even surface for the traffic. To use the road by vehicle for all- weather condition .
Basic pavement design Factors Pavement design is governed by a number of factors. Some of them are; Traffic loading Environment
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Materials Failure Criteria Purposes of pavement design A high way pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it from traffic moving over it. Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the environment. It should be strong enough to resists the stresses imposed on it and it should be thick enough to distribute the external loads on the earthen sub grade. For satisfactorily per forming of this designed the pavement should have; a) Structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed on it. b) Sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stresses to a safe value on the sub grade soil. c) Provide a reasonably hard wearing surface, so that the abrading Catron of wheels. d) Should be impervious so that water does not get into the lower layers of the pavement and the sub grade and cause deterioration. e) Long life and the cost of maintaining it annually should be low.
6.2 Traffic
Traffic isa change of locations of humans, goods and information, there by it is a very comprehensive term. It covers roads and railways, channels and sea routes, in addition the post, internet and telecommunication. Specifically, for the design of road, the main important data is vehicle traffic volume analysis. Highway traffic operations are influenced by the behavior of drivers. A highway can be used by a finite number of vehicles, and the driver perceived safe distances between vehicles determine this limit. For a given speed, as distances become shorter, more vehicles can use the highway. Both the volume of drivers choosing to use the highway (demand) and the maximum volume that can be served (supply) depend on driver
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behavior. Congestion results from too many people attempting to reach their destinations at the same time using the same highways. The combination of demand, capacity, and certain infrastructure features determines how drivers perceive the traffic conditions. Transportation agencies strive for economical solutions to congestion that satisfy a majority of highway users. The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the individual wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied. It is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will use the road but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the axle loads) of these vehicles. Equivalency factors are used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative standard axle loads and are discussed in this section. Traffic classes are defined for paved roads, for pavement design purposes, by ranges of cumulative number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs). The mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads differs from that of paved roads and is directly related to the number of vehicles using the road rather than the number of equivalent standard axles. The traffic volume is therefore used in the design of unpaved roads, as opposed to the paved roads which require the conversion of traffic volumes into the appropriate cumulative number of equivalent standard axles.
6.3 Design Period

Determining an appropriate design period is the first step towards pavement design. Many factors may influence this decision, including budget constraints. However, the designer should follow certain guidelines in choosing an appropriate design period, taking into account the conditions governing the project. Some of the points to consider include:
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Functional importance of the road Traffic volume Location and terrain of the project financial constraints Difficulty in forecasting traffic
It generally appears economical to construct roads with longer design periods, especially for important roads and for roads with high traffic volume. Where rehabilitation would cause major inconvenience to road users, a longer period may be recommended. For roads in difficult locations and terrain where regular maintenance proves to be costly and time consuming because of poor access and non-availability of nearby construction material sources, a longer design period is also appropriate. Problems in traffic forecasting may also influence the design. When accurate traffic estimates cannot be made, it may be advisable to reduce the design period to avoid costly over design. As mentioned in chapter three the road type is main access road and its design period is 15 years (according to ERA manual)
6.4 TRAFFIC VOLUMES - VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION Vehicle classification is an essential aspect of traffic volume evaluation of equivalent axle loads. The types of vehicles are defined according to the breakdown adopted by ERA for traffic counts: cars; pick-ups and 4-wheel drive vehicles; small buses; medium and large size buses; small trucks; medium trucks; heavy trucks; and trucks and trailers.
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This breakdown is further simplified, for reporting purposes, and expressed in the five classes of vehicles (with vehicle codes 1 to 5) listed in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1: Vehicle Classification
Vehicle Code
1 2 3 4 5
Type of Vehicle
Small cars Bus Medium truck Heavy truck Articulated truck
Description
Passenger cars, minibuses (up to 24-passenger seats), taxis, pick-ups, and Land Cruisers, Land Rovers, etc. Medium and large size buses above 24 passenger seats Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up to 7 tons load Trucks above 7 tons load Trucks with trailer or semi-trailer and Tanker Trailers
It is most often in terms of volumes (e.g. AADT) in each of these 5 classes that the traffic data will initially be available to the designer. Small cars do not contribute significantly to the structural damage, particularly for paved roads.Even though the small cars count is included in any regular traffic count survey, their number does not influence the pavement design of paved roads. It is also worth noting that the heavy vehicles used in the development of the pavement structures essentially correspond, for all practical design purposes, to vehicle codes 2 through 5. In order to determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to estimate initial traffic volumes. The estimate should be the (Annual) Average Daily Traffic (AADT) currently using the route (or, more specifically, the AADT expected to use the route during the first year the road is placed in service), classified into the five classes of vehicles described above.
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6.5 Design using TRRL design method
6.5.1 Traffic classification

The AADT for period 1999-2003 is given below and the growth rate is assumed to be 5%. Moreover, the directional split is assumed to be 50% and the opening of the road to traffic is assumed to be in the year 2006 GC. Table 6-2 AADT for the period of 1999-2003 Bus Medium Heavy Articulate Truck Truck d Truck 111 87 47 18 99 67 37 13 100 77 32 6 94 58 28 12 105 79 67 8
Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Cars 117 90 96 88 148
Total 380 306 311 280 407
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Table 6-3 determination of cumulative traffic volume during design period

Traffic classification AADT O cars buses medium truck heavy truck articulated truck total 148 105 79 67 8 407 Two directional Two directional traffic at the year of opening one period directional cumulative
traffic volume during design 15 =0.5*365*AADT1((1+r) -1)/r 641909 456819 342614 291419 35443 1768204
AADT1=AADTO(1+r)x 163 116 87 74 9 449
Where: - AADTo=average annual daily traffic at 2003 (given) AADT1=Two directional average annual daily traffic at the year of 0pening 0f the road. r=average growth rate of traffic% (given) x=construction period Table 6-4 determination of traffic class Traffic classification Car Bus Medium truck Heavy truck Articulated truck Total Cumulative number of traffic
641909 456819 342614 291419 35443
Equivalent factor (given) 0.000 0.295 0.388 1.310 5.962
ESAs(106) 0.0000 0.0135 0.1330 0.3820 0.2113 0.7398
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The AADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions and divided by 365. It is usually obtained by recording actual traffic volumes over a shorter period from which the AADT is then estimated. It should be noted that for structural design purposes the traffic loading in one direction is required and for this reason care is always required when interpreting AADT figures. For long projects, large differences in traffic along the road may make it necessary to estimate the flow at several locations.
Traffic classes for flexible pavement design
Table 6-5 : Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design Traffic classes Range (106 ESAs) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 < 0.3 0.3 - 0.7 0.7 - 1.5 1.5 - 3.0 3.0 - 6.0 6.0 - 10 10 - 17 17 30
Based on the above analysis, the main access road under study would belong to the traffic class T3 for flexible pavement design.
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6.5 .2SUBGRADE SOILS Introduction

The subgrade constitutes the foundation material for the pavement structure as highway pavements ultimately rest on the native soil (subgrade). Hence the performance of the pavement is affected by the characteristics of the subgrade. And one of the major functions of a highway pavement is to reduce the stresses transmitted to the subgrade to a level which the soil will accept without significant deformation. Soil is also used as construction materials for highway construction (fill, capping layer, subbase, etc.). Hence it is important to study the characteristics and engineering properties of soils for highway engineers. However, given the inherent variability in soil nature which may change in type or condition within a few meters distance, and the nature of highway projects (which are not compact like other type of civil engineering projects (buildings, dams, --)) detail testing and assessment may not be possible, and hence one has to be content with average assessment of soil conditions over a long length of road. It is important to note here that the basic characteristics of soils and the engineering properties of the soils depend among others on the geological processes and mechanics of soil formation i.e. origin & formation of soils - parent material; mode of deposition/transport (residual or transported soil); mechanism of transport ice (glacial soils), water (alluvial soils), wind (aeoline soils), gravity (alluvial soils)); climate; topography; time/age; vegetation, etc. Hence a comprehensive study and analysis of soils will also involve a study of soils on a parent material basis, which relies on the geological concepts of rock and soil formation as well as a good grasp of the basic principles of soil mechanics. In this project for the design of pavement CBR test were used. The road was divided in sections of different CBR test values and also the soil type is not homogenous. So, it is not recommended to use 90%ile CBR value for design purpose, but ERA design manual recommends that as it is designed in different pavement quality depend on the CBR value. BY GROUP 1 Page 112
Table 6-6 CBR value is tabulated bellow
Atterberg limit No Station CBR at MDD & OMC 2.54 (mm) 5.08 (mm) LL PL PI AASHTO
Soil type
1 2 3 4
0+000 1+000 2+000 3+000
24 33 4 18
25 33 5 18
40 45 45 45
NP 33 NP 22
NP 12 NP 23
A-3(0) A-2-7 (0) A-3(o) A-7-6(23)
Fine sand Silt or clay gravel sand Fine sand Clay soil
The CBR corresponding to 2.54mm penetration is normally greater than that at 5.08mm pen., and is accepted as the CBR of the soil (provided that it is greater than that obtained at 5.08mm penetration). AASHTO T193 test procedure stipulates that, if the CBR at 5.08 mm pen. is greater than that at 2.54mm pen., the entire test should be repeated on a fresh sample. If the 5.08 mm pen. CBR in the repeat test is still greater, then it is accepted as the CBR of the soil.
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Table 6-7 Class of Sub grad relating with CBR value from ERA design manual Class S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 CBR range % 2 3-4 5-7 8-14 15-29 30+
Table 6-8 CBR value of stations Station 0+00-1+00 1+00-2+00 2+00-3+00 CBR value
33 5 18
Class of CBR S6 S3 S5
A road section for which a pavement design is undertaken should be subdivided into subgrade areas where the subgrade CBR can be reasonably expected to be uniform, i.e. without significant variations. Significant variations in this respect mean variations that would yield different subgrade classes as defined herein further below. However, it is not practical to create a delineation between subgrade areas that would be too precise, and indeed this could be the source of confusion during construction. The soils investigations should delineate subgrade design units on the basis of geology, pedology, drainage conditions and topography, and consider soil categories which have fairly consistent geotechnical characteristics (e.g. grading, plasticity, CBR). Usually, the number of soil categories and the number of uniform subgrade areas will not exceed 4 or 5 for a given road project. Generally, it is advisable to avoid short design sections along the alignment. Where the subgrade CBR values are very variable, the design should consider the respective benefits and costs of short sections and of a conservative approach based on the worst conditions over longer sections.
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The subgrade strength classes to be assigned to this project are S6 for station 0+000 to 1+000, S3 for station 1+000 to 2+000 and S5 for station 2+000 to 3+000 has been derived in table 6-8 . With a total of ESAs on the order of 0.74 million over the design period of a traffic class T3 has been derived in table 6-5 . For this class of traffic, it is readily apparent that the use of the design charts in the catalog of structures is narrowed down to Charts 1,2,3,4 and 8.From the same table, without further information regarding the subgrade and the materials, it would also appear that any type of surfacing is possible, as well as several types of roadbase.
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The choice of chart will depend on a variety of factors but should be based on minimizing total transport costs. Factors that will need to be taken into account in a full evaluation include: the likely level and timing of maintenance the probable behavior of the structure the experience and skill of the contractors and the availability of suitable equipment the cost of the different materials that might be used other risk factors
It is not possible to give detailed guidance on these issues. The charts have been developed on the basis of reasonable assumptions concerning the first three of these and therefore the initial choice should be based on the local costs of the feasible options. If any information is available concerning the likely behavior of the structures under the local conditions, then a simple risk analysis can also be carried out to select the most appropriate structure. For many roads, especially those that are more lightly trafficked, local experience will dictate the most appropriate structures and sophisticated analysis will not be warranted. The following preliminary information has been derived from the simple cost comparison: y The materials which may be considered for cement- or lime-stabilization have relatively low percentages of fines and low plasticity, thus making cementstabilization more promising. y Granular subbase materials are available in sufficient quantities and cement stabilization of the subbase is uneconomical when compared to bank-run materials. Stabilization of subbase materials will not be further considered. y All other materials entering the composition of the possible pavement structures are available, albeit in various quantities and associated transport/construction costs. Based on the above, and with the combination of traffic and subgrade strength classes, the design charts 1,2,3,4 and 8 indicate the possible alternate pavement structures given in Table 6-9 below.
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Table 6-9-1: Analysis of Possible Pavement Structures for T3/S6

Design Chart No.
Pavement Components and Selected Fill Possible Alternate Pavement Structures
1
Alternate Structure No. 1 SD
2
Alternate Structure No. 2 SD 17.5 cm
3
Alternate Structure No. 3 5cm AC 15 cm
4
Alternate Structure No. 4 5 cm AC 15cm
8
Surfacing (asphalt concrete) (1) Roadbase: Crushed Stone Cement stabilized (e.g. 4 Mpa) Cement stabilized (e.g. 2.5 Mpa) Bituminous stabilized Granular subbase Selected fill
17.5 cm
17.5cm

Design Chart No.
Pavement Possible Alternate Components and Pavement Selected Fill Structures Surfacing (asphalt concrete) (1)
1
2
Alternate Structure No. 2 SD 15 cm 12.5cm 15cm
3
Alternate Structure No. 3 5cm AC 17.5 cm
4
Alternate Structure No. 4 5 cm AC 15cm 12.5cm 15cm
Road base:
Cement stabilized (e.g. 2.5 Mpa) Bituminous stabilized Granular subbase Selected fill
22.5cm
22.5cm
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Cement or lime stabilized sub base
15cm
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Crushed Stone Cement stabilized (e.g. 4 Mpa)
20 cm
12.5cm
17.5cm

Design Chart No.
Pavement Possible Alternate Components and Pavement Selected Fill Structures Surfacing (asphalt concrete) (1)
1
2
Alternate Structure No. 2 SD 15 cm
3
Alternate Structure No. 3 5cm AC 15 cm
4
Alternate Structure No. 4 5 cm AC 12.5cm
8
Road base:
Cement stabilized (e.g. 2.5 Mpa) Bituminous stabilized Granular subbase Selected fill
12.5cm
12.5cm
10cm
10cm
Further analyses of recent contracts, production costs hauling distances and associated costs have established relative costs for the various alternate pavement layers (all costs per m2 and expressed as a ratio to the highest cost element) as shown in Table 6-10. With these elements, the relative costs of the possible alternate pavement structures are evaluated as follows in Table 6-11.
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Cement or lime stabilized subbase
10cm
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Crushed Stone Cement stabilized (e.g. 4 Mpa)
17.5 cm
17.5cm
Table 6-10: Relative Unit Costs of Materials MATERIAL RELATIVE UNIT COST 5 cm thick Asphalt Concrete 0.50 SD Crushed stone roadbase 20 cm thick 17.5cm 15cm 12.5cm 12.5 cm thick 17.5 cm thick 15 cm thick 12.5 cm thick 22.5 cm thick 10 cm thick 15 cm thick 10 cm thick 0.22 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.75 0.95 0.82 0.68 0.40 0.24 0.90 0.60
Cement stabilized roadbase, 4 MPa Cement stabilized roadbase, 2.5 MPa
Granular subbase Cement or lime stabilized subbase
Table 6-11-1: Relative Costs of the Possible Alternate Pavement Structures for T3/S6 Alternate Pavement Structure No. 1 2 3 4 5 Description SD +17.5 cm crushed stone roadbase SD +17.5 cm crushed stone roadbase 5 cm AC +15 cm crushed stone roadbase 5 cm AC +15 cm crushed stone roadbase SD +17.5 cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 2.5MPa Relative Unit Cost 1.10 1.10 1.25 1.25 1.17
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Table 6-11-2: Relative Costs of the Possible Alternate Pavement Structures forT3/S3 Alternate Pavement Structure No. 1 Description SD +20 cm crushed stone roadbase +22.5cm granular subbase Relative Unit Cost 1.62
SD +15 cm crushed stone roadbase 2.54 +12.5cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 4MPa +15 cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 2.5MPa 3 5 cm AC +17.5 cm crushed stone roadbase 1.78 +22.5cm granular subbase 4 5 cm AC 2.82 +15 cm crushed stone roadbase +12.5cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 4MPa +15 cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 2.5MPa 5 SD 2.82 +12.5cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 4MPa +17.5 cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 2.5MPa +15 cm Cement or lime stabilized subbase Table 6-11-3: Relative Costs of the Possible Alternate Pavement Structures forT3/S5 Alternate Pavement Structure No. 1 Description SD +17.5 cm crushed stone roadbase +10 cm granular subbase SD +15 cm crushed stone roadbase +12.5 cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 2.5MPa 5 cm AC +15 cm crushed stone roadbase +10 cm granular subbase 5 cm AC +12.5 cm crushed stone roadbase +12.5 cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 2.5MPa SD +17.5 cm Cement stabilized roadbase, 2.5MPa +10 cm Cement or lime stabilized subbase Relative Unit Cost 1.34
2 3 4 5
1.65
1.49
1.81
1.77 Page 126
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Depend on the cost analysis of the layer for T3/S6 both chart number one granular road base and chart number two composite road base (unbound and cemented ) surface dressing has the same cost estimation. By engineering judgment granular road base surface dressing is selected. For T3/S3 and T3/S6 granular road base surface dressing is selected. Table 6-12 summary of selected structural pavement sections From Station 0+OO-1+00 1+00-2+00 2+00-3+00 Thickness Surface dressing (SD) 17.5cm granular road base GB1-GB2 Surface dressing (SD) 20 cm granular road base GB1-GB3 22.5 cm Granular sub base (GS) surface dressing (SD) 10cm granular road baseGB1-GB3 17.5 cm granular sub base (GS)
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6.6 THEAASHTOMETHODOFDESIGN AASHTO Road test was the largest and most comprehensive high way research project under taken so far. This method in corporate various design in- put including traffic performance criteria sub-grade soil property, environmental effect, drainage effect and reliability this imputes has their own contribution for the flexible pavement in this method of design. Pavement performance The pavement consisted of both flexible and rigid type 1, constructed in short sections widely varied structured design. It is related to the physical condition of the pavement it indicates that how effective the pavement serves the users. The pavement performance was quantified by serviceability index (PSI) was developed. Structural performance is related to physical condition of pavement structure to carry the traffic load. The functional performance is a performance of pavement structure on how effectively the user is being served. The scale of PSI ranges from 0 to 5. zero is the lowest PSI and 5 is the highest. Two serviceability indices are used in the design procedure . 1) Initial serviceability index pi which is used first after construction and 2) The terminal serviceability index (pt) which is the minimum acceptable before reconstruction is necessary. Pi = 4.2 to 4.5
Road Type
pt 2.5 ______ 3.0
Major high way Lower standard road 2.0
Where there is economic construction 1.5 Traffic The design guided is based on the total number of equivalent standard axle loads (ESAL), the standard axle load being 80KN. The ESAL is determined from the axle load studies,
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and converting the actual axle loads to 80KN axle loads, using equivalency factors. Load equivalency factor developed at AASHTO road test: 18Kip (80KN) ESALS. Estimate design ESAL based on traffic class.
To determine the AASHTO equivalency factors ; log ! 4.79 1 4.79 loglX l 2 4.33 log L 2 18 Gt Gt Gx B18 4.2 pt Gt ! 1og 4.2 1.5 Bx ! 0.04 0.081Lx L2 SN 1 5.19 L 23.23
3.23
Where:- Wtx = the number of x-axle load applicable at end time t. Wt 18 = the number of 18 kig (80KN) single axle load applicant on time t. Lx = the load in kip on one single axle, one set of tandem axle on one set of tried axle L2 = the axle load = 1 for single axle. 2 for tandem axle, and 3 for trdem axle B18 = the value of Bx when Lx = 18 and L2 = 1
E LF ! wt18 wtx
Pt = terminal serviceability = 2.5 The primary loading factors that are important in flexible pavement design are magnitude of axle and wheel load Volume and composition of axle loads Tire pressure and contact area Traffic survey and load meter studies are often used to establish the relative magnitude and occurrence of the various loadings to which a pavement is subjected. ESAL is the design parameter to be used in pavement thickness design. Predication or estimation of
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the total traffic that will use a pavement during its design life is very difficult but obviously important task sample calculation for Light bus EALF.
Gt Gt wtx 18 Log ! 4.79 log 1 4.79 log Lx L 2 4.33 log L 2 Bx Bx18 wt18 4.2 pt Gt ! log 4. 2 1. 5 Pt ! 2.5 30 } assumept ! 2.5 SN ! 5 4. 2 2. 5 Gt ! log ! 0 .2 4.2 1.5
Lx L 2 3.23 0.4 0.081 6.75 1 3.23 ! 0.4055 Bx ! 0.4 0.081 5 1 *13.23 SN 1 5.19 L2 3.23 0.081 L 2 3.23 18 Bx18 ! 0.4 SN 1 5.19 L 23.23 3.23 0.018 * 1 18 ! 0.4 ! 0. 5 6 5.19 *13.23
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wtx Log 19 1 ! 4.79 log 4.79 log6.75 1 4.33 log wt18 0.2 0.2 1.733 0.4055 0.5 wtx log ! 1.733 wt18 ! wtx wt18 ! 10 .6118 ! 59.29 1 E LF ! Wtx Wt18 ! 1 ! 0.017 40.907
wtx 0. 2 Log 19 14 ! 4.79 log 4.79 log .62 1 4.33 log 1.0 ! 0.366 wt18 0.5 wtx ! 100.366 ! 2.322 wt18 E LF ! 1 /( 2.322 ) ! 0.431 E LF forLightlb us ! 0.244 0.431 ! 0.4554
Vehicle type
Light bus Large bus Light truck Medium truck Heavy truck Tractor Trailer
We convert KN in to KN in to Kip; 1kip= 4.444 KN
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Table1. No axle
VehicletypeandAxleLoad(KN) Rear axle (KN) Single axle Tandem axle
Front single Axle(KN)
2 2 2 2 2 2
30 40 43 57 67 70
65 85 90 101 130 140 115 150 146
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Table2.AxleLoadandfactors(kip) Vehicle type No axle Front single Axial Factor Rear axial (kip) Single factor Tandem axial Front Load Light bus Large bus Light truck Heavy truck Medium truck Tractor Trailer 2 2 2 2 2 2 6.75 9 9.67 12.82 15.07 15.75 0.017 0.056 0.075 0.249 0.487 0.585 14.62 19.12 20.25 22.72 29.25 31.50 0.431 1.268 1.589 2.47 6.353 8.395 25.87 33.75 0.346 1.033 32.85 0.925 factor Rear Load factor
Table3.AxleLoadfactorsandcumulativenoofVehicle Type of Vehicle Cars Bus Medium truck Heavy truck Articulated Total Therefore traffic class is T3
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EALF(given) 0 0.295 0.388 1.310 5.962
Cumulative No of Vehicle 641909 456819 342614 291419 35443
EASL (106) 0 0.135 0.133 0.382 0.211 0.861
Parameters Used for Design Structural 1. Road bed resilient Modulus (MR) From the sub-grade soil analysis the design CBR obtained is 33%. From various empirical relation between the resilient Modulus and the other properties correlation chart from resilient Modules is available and can be used as a quid to estimate the resilient modulus if a sub grade soil. Hence this relation chart implies (CBR of sub grade = 33% gives MR = 49,500 psi = 1500 * 33) 2. Pavement layer Material characteristics The base course Material CBR should be greater than 100% and sub-grade Material is equal to 80%. The CBR of base course = > 100% The CBR of sub grade = 55% Asphalt concrete MRAC = 450,000 Psi Base Material MRSB = 42,000 Psi Sub base Material MRSB = 40,000 Psi A. Environment The AASHTO design equations were developed from the results of the road tests in a two year period the long term of temperature, moisture and material again on pavement perform once could not be directly accounted from the road test data. Rain fall affects pavement drainage and can thus be a significant factor. Variation of temperature can cause stresses in the pavement. The loss of serviceability over the design period should be estimated is due to traffic loads. Psi = psi- traffic
B. Drainage Coefficient If water falling on the pavement surface is not quickly drained away, it finds its way into the pavement layers through surface cracks, and voids. Water may cause stripping of bitumen from aggregates and lower the binding strength of the pavement.
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The drainage level assumed to be good. The good drainage is expected to remove water with in 1 day. The percentage of time pavement is exposed to moisture level approaching saturation is > 33%. There for M2 = M3 = 1, for base course drainage coefficients. Table. Recommended M= value for modifying structural layer coefficients of untreated base and subbase material in flexible pavement. Table 4 Quality of drainage Quality of drainage Less than 2% Excellent Good Fair Poor Very poor 1.4-1.35 1.35-1.25 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.05 1.05-0.95 1-5% 1.35-1.30 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.05 1.05-0.80 0.95-0.75 5-25% 1.3-1.2 1.15-1.0 2.0-0.80 0.8-0.60 0.75-0.40 Greater than 25% 1.20 1.0 0.80 0.60 0.40
Reliability (R) Reliability factor is used in this design procedure to consider the possibility of uncertainty in traffic prediction and performance prediction. Reliability levels (R%) which determine the assurance levels that the pavement designed will survive for its design period, have been developed for different types of high ways. Standard Deviation (So) The chance of Variation in the traffic prediction and the normal variation in pavement performance of standard deviations of 0.45 and 0.35 respectively are suggested by the guide for flexible and rigid pavement in our case we take 0.45. Structural layer coefficient The structural layer coefficients are applied to actual pavement thickness to account for their structural properties.
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In our project we take layer coefficient as follows a1= 0.44 EBC = 30,000 psi , ESB =20,000 psi a2= 0.249 (log E2) 0.977 a2 = 0.249 [log(30,000)] 0.97 70.14 a3 = 0.227 [log(20,000)] 0.839 0.137 STRUCTURAL DESIGN Using the design parameter detailed above as in put MRAC = 450,000 psi R = 95% (from AASHTO Table) So = 0.45 ESALS = 0.861x106 psi = 4.5-2.5 = 2 SN1 = 2.25 (from Design chart)
First layer SN1 = a1 d1 Where a1 = 0.44 2.25 = 0.44 * d1 D1 = 5. 114 inch = 129.78 mm provide = 130 mm Second layer MR = 42,000 psi M2 = 1
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A2 = 0.14 SN2 = 3.5 SN2 = a1 d1 + a2 d2 m2 3.5 = 0.44 * 5.122 + 0.14 * d2 * 1 3.5 = 2.554 + 0.14d2 D2 = 8.9 inch = 225.88 mm say 230 mm Third layer MR = 37,000 psi M3 = 1 A3 = 0.137 SN3 = 3.8 SN3 = a1 d1 + a2 d2 m2 + d3m3 3.8 = 2.254 + 1.2687 + 0.137 * d3 0.2773 = 0.137 d3 D3 =
0.2773 ! 2.024inch 0.137 6inchtheref oretake 6inch ! 152 .28mmtake
= 160mm
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Table 5 Recommended minimum thickness S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Traffic ESAL 50000 50001 15,0000 150001-500000 500001-2000000 2000001-7000000 7,000,000 Asphalt Concrete 1.0 surface dressing 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 Aggregate Base 4 4 4 6 6 6
In this project, traffic ESAL is 861,000 therefore, row number 4 are the minimum thickness requirement Values for our project in AASHTO design method . ( i.e 3mm asphalt concrete and 6mm aggregate base) 6.7 Comparison of TRRL Vs AASHTO method y y y y The design procedure following AASHTO is tedious and leads to error if wrong estimation is taken. TRRL method presents more than two alternatives and the designer chooses. TRRL method is done for tropical and sub tropical countries. However, the AASHTO method is comprehensive and done for USA. The asphalt material is imported pavement material which needs high foreign currency; therefore, the TRRL method has less asphalt layer thickness than AASHTO method. This implies TRRL method is less cost.
For this and other un foreseen factors, the TRRL method of pavement design is adopted.
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CHAPTER SEVEN DRAINAGE DESIGN

7.1 Introduction Highway drainage may be defined as the process of interception and removal of water from over, under and the vicinity of the road surface. Road drainage is very important for safe and efficient design of the road way and hence is an essential part of highway design and construction. A part of rain water falling on road surface and adjoining area is lost by evaporation and percolation. The remaining water known as surface, either remains on the surface of the road and adjoining area or flows away from it, depending upon the topography and general slope of the area. Removal and diversion of this surface water from highway and adjoining land is known as surface draining. Due to percolation, if water table does not rise near of the road sub grade, it does not create any problem as it does not affect the road sub grade. If water table rises to the vicinity of road sub grade, it requires to be lowered as it will definitely affect road sub grade. Measures adopted to lower the sub soil water table are called sub surface drainage. Some of the retained water which cannot be drained off by normal methods of drainage is called held water and special measures have to be taken either to drain it off or to keep it low so that it not affect the road sub-grade. For this particular project we go through the detail design of surface drainage since only this type is applicable to the area under consideration. 7.1.1 Effects of Improper drainage
One of the major causes of road failure is improper drainage. Improper drainage of the road causes destruction in the following ways: 1. Road surface if made of soil or gravel becomes soft and losses strength. 2. The road sub-grade may be softened and its bearing capacity reduced. 3. Variation in moisture content in expansive soils causes variation in the volume of sub grade and thus causes failure of roads. 4. Failure of formation slopes is also attributed to poor drainage.
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5. Presence of water in sub grade at places of freezing temperature in winter causes considerable drainage to the road, due to frost action. 6. If rain water is not properly drained and allowed to flow along the road side for long distances, slips and land slides may occur causing road failures. 7. Erosion of side slopes, side drains, and formation of gullies may result if proper drainage conditions are not maintained. 8. Flexible pavements failure by formation of waves and corrugations is due to poor drainage. 9. Continuous contact of water, with bituminous pavements causes failures due to stripping of bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some of the bituminous pavement layers and formation of pot holes. 10. Rigid pavements prime cause of failure in by mud pumping which occurs due to water in fine sub grade soil. 11. Excess moisture causes increase in weight and thus increase in stress and simultaneous reduction in strength of the soil mass. This is main reason of failure of earth slopes and embankment foundation. 12. Erosion of soil from the top of unsurfaced roads and embankment slopes is also due to surface water. 7.1.2 High way drainage requirements 1. Surface water should not be allowed to remain standing on the road pavement and shoulders. 2. The surface rain water from the adjoining area should not be allowed to come towards the road surface. 3. Side drains, should be of sufficient capacity and having sufficient longitudinal slope so that it may drain of all the collected surface water, efficiently. 4. Surface water flowing across the road pavement should not develop cross ruts or erosions on road surface and shoulders. 5. Seepage water and other capillary waters should be drained off by suitable under ground drainage system.
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6. Minimum level of under ground water table should be maintained well below the sub grade level of the sand. 7. In water logged areas special measures should be taken to keep down the harmful salts. 8. Road formation should be designed in such a way that at no point should it be less than 60 cm above the H.F.L 7.1.3 Surface drainage Rainfall water or due to other causes, the surface water is generally collected inside drains and then disposed off in the nearest stream; depression or water course etc. For the disposal of surface water, cross drainage structures such as bridge, culverts are also necessary. 7.1.4 Structures required for drainage The most drainage structures we selected for this particular project are as stated below: Roadside Ditches (Drains) A. The Need- simultaneous to providing protection cover on earth slopes, it is necessary to provide collection of surface water otherwise the water concentrated by roadway surfaces and cut slopes can quickly reach erosive quantities and velocities and cause serious damage. Besides the collection of surface water, another function of roadside ditches is to drain the base course of the road, failing which saturation of the base course and consequent loss on its shear strength can occur resulting in rapid deterioration of the road system. B. cross- section The three main types of x- sections for roadside ditches are shown below. Of the three shapes, the parabolic section is hydraulically the best and most resistant to erosion, even though not as easy in construction as the trapezoidal and triangular shapes.
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1 Triangular
2.Trapezoidal.
3. Parabolic
The triangular section although easy to construct is very much susceptible to erosion and gets easily blocked with debris and is generally not recommended. The most commonly used cross section is the trapezoidal section as it is accepted from both consideration, hydraulic as well as ease of construction. The side slopes of the ditches as earth slopes should be flat lying in the range 2:1 to 4:1; while the quantity of water to be drained, the length of drain and the gradient will actually determine the width at bottom, it should normally be not less than 0.3m. To fulfill the requirement of the roadside ditch, the base course of the road pavement, the bottom of the ditch has to be taken at least to a depth 0.3 to 0.6m below the shoulder level. Cross drainage structures (Culverts) A. Importance of cross drainage The adequate functioning of a road depends to a large extent on the effectiveness of cross drainage. The function of the cross drainage structures is to ensure that the run off water is discharged across the road from one side to the other, as quickly as possible, without causing undue pounding parallel flow along the road embankment, overtopping of the road embankment or erosion of the portions of the road. Quick drainage prevents water from penetrating the soil in the embankment. A dry sub grade has greater bearing strength than a wet sub grade.
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B. Types of cross drainages structures Cross drainage structures are divided in to the following categories: 1. culverts which have a total water way up to 6m 2. Minor Bridge size, which have a water way in the range 6- 30 m 3. Medium Bridge size, bridges which have a water way in the range 30-100m. 4. Major Bridgessize which have a water way greater than 100m. 5. Causeways which allow the water to flow over the road way. Out of the above structures we selected culvert for this particular project due to: -our project road crosses small streams obtained from run off. Unavailability of topography of the whole adjoining area to know run off amount. Type of culverts As stated above across small streams culverts are constructed but in case of large streams or rivers bridges are constructed. Culverts are constructed with various materials and to different designs. Slab culverts, Box culverts, Arch culverts and pipe culverts are the usual types of culverts most commonly used for cross drainage works. 1. Pipe culverts: when the stream carries low discharge and is having high embankment, pipe culverts are considered more suitable. Pipe is laid slightly inclined. For ease inspection minimum diameter of pipe should be 75 cm. There should be at least 90 cm cover of soil so that traffic load transmitted on pipe is of small intensity and also without vibrations. Pipe may be made of stone ware, concrete, R.C.C etc. Pipes should be laid on 15 cm cement concrete bedding. 2. Slab culvert: these culverts have masonry abutments with stone slab over them. They are mostly used up to about 2m span. In localities where stone is easily
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available these culverts are mostly used, where stone patties are not available, R.C.C. slabs are used. R.C.C slabs are designed as simply supported slabs.
Fig. Pipe culvert
3. Box culverts. These culverts are constructed where the nature of the soil below the foundation is not suitable for individual footing under piers and abutments. It is a monolithic rectangular drainage structure. The size of the rectangular passage should not be less than 60x60 cm for easy cleaning of debris. Short span box culverts can be pre-cast. 4. Arch culvert: This culvert is preferred under the conditions where high fillings are evolved and there are heavier loadings on the culvert. Arches may be built from brick, or stone masonry, or plain cement concrete. Span of each arch should be kept less than 3m. Selection of culvert to be used is done on the basis of availability of construction materials and economic conditions. Based on these selection criteria as stated below, we selected R.C.C pipe culverts due to: 1. They are economical since a circular section is the most ideal one for withstanding forces from all around. 2. Since the pipes do not need very elaborate bedding, the cost further comes down. 3. Pipe culverts do not demand structural design for individual cases. Pipes are standardized in terms of mix, thickness and reinforcement
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4. Pipes can be cast under strictly controlled conditions at a central plant and thus their quality is assured. 5. They generally eliminate the humps in longitudinal profile. The disadvantages with culvert are that they can not be used for large openings. A minimum cover of at least half the diameter of the pipe is to be ensured over the pipes. Location of Ditch and culvert Table 7.1 Location of Ditch Ditch no. 1 2 3 Starting point 0+00 1+280 2+550 Ending point 0+800 2+270 3+140 Length (m) 800 990 590
Table 7.2 Location of culvert Culvert no. Station Flow Direction Left of culvert(m) 1 0+960 160 Right of culvert (m) 1640
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7.2 Design of Ditch Amount of surface water further depends upon intensity of rain fall, amount of rain fall, topography of the area, nature of soil, extent of the area to be drained, etc. Taking all these points into consideration, maximum quantity of water that these ditches or drains have to handle, can be estimated. Once the quantity of water to be handled is estimated, the next step will be their hydraulic design. Side drains and partially filled culverts are designed for flow through open channel conditions. The following data are to be collected for the design of road side drains: 1. Length of the road and breadth of the land from where rain water will flow on the stretch of the side drain. 2. Fix run off coefficient for the area. 3. Distance from furthest point in the drainage area to the inlet of the side drain. 4. Fix roughness coefficient and thus the velocity of flow in the drains. Rational Formula According to ERADDM, the Rational method is recommended to be used to estimate the design discharge for catchment area up to 0.5 km2. Using the formula, calculation of the peak discharge for a desired frequency follows the following expression. 7.2.1 Discharge Determination As per the given total catchment area (ha) is less than 50 ha we have to use the rational formula: Q=0.002778Cf CIA Where: Q=peak discharge (m3/sec)
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C= run of coefficient Cf=frequency factor I= average rainfall intensity (mm/hr) A= influencing catchments area (ha) Table 7.3 Recommended runoff coefficients c for various selected land uses Type of Area Business down town areas Neighborhood areas Residential single family Runoff coefficient 0.7-0.95 0.5-0.7 areas- 0.3-0.5 0.4-0.6
- Multi units detach 0.6-0.75 0.25-0.4 0.3-0.45 0.5-0.7 0.5-0.7 0.5-0.8 0.1-0.3
Multi units attached Sub-urban Residential (0.5 ha or more) Apartment dwelling areas Industrial light areas Heavy areas Unimproved areas
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Table7.4 -coeficent for composite runoff analysis Surface Street: asphalt Concrete Drives and walks Roofs Run of coeficent 0.7-0.95 0.8-0.95 0.75-0.85 0.75-0.95
Source:- hydrology, Federal Highway Administration,Hec No.19,84 Frequency Factor The frequency factor is used to magnify the less frequent storms, i.e. storms with recurrence interval greater than 10yr. Table shows the frequency factor values. Table 7.5: Frequency factor, Cf Return Period (years) 5 10 25 50 100 Cf 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.25
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A. Rainfall Intensity, I The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for duration equal to the time of concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return period has been selected for design and a time of concentration calculated for the catchment area, the rain Intensity can be determined from Rainfall- Intensity -Duration curves. Time of Concentration The time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the hydraulically most remote point of the catchment area to the point under investigation. Use of the Rational Method requires the time of concentration (tc) for each design point within the catchment area. The duration of rainfall is then set equal to the time of concentration and is used to estimate the design average rainfall intensity (I). For a specific drainage basin, the time of concentration consists of an inlet time plus the time of flow in a closed conduit or open channel to the design point. Inlet time is the time required for runoff to flow over the surface to the nearest inlet and is primarily a function of the length of overland flow, the slope of the drainage basin, and surface cover. Pipe or open channel flow time can be estimated from the hydraulic properties of the conduit or channel. An alternative way to estimate the overland flow time is to use Figure 5-2 to estimate overland flow velocity and divide the velocity into the overland travel distance. For design conditions that do not involve complex drainage conditions, Figure 5-2 can be used to estimate inlet time. For each catchment area, the distance is determined from the inlet to the most remote point in the tributary area. From a topographic map, the average slope is determined for the same distance. The runoff coefficient (C) is determined by the procedure described in a subsequent section of this chapter. To obtain the total time of concentration, the pipe or open channel flow time must be calculated and added to the inlet time. After first determining the average flow velocity in the pipe or channel, the travel time is obtained by dividing channel length into the flow velocity. Mannings Equation can be used to determine velocity.
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Ditch1. Length of ditch = 800m Mannings roughness coefficient for paved surface, n=0.035 Hydraulic radius, R=0.37 Slope,S=0.01 V=1/n R2/3S1/2 (mannings equation) 1/0.035*0.372/3*0.051/2=1.47m/s
@ Tcd ! L 800 1 ! x min ! 9.0. min V 1.47 m / s 60
Assume the length of overland flow is 150m Average slope of the drainage basin is 10 %( rolling and flat terrain) Surface cover grass water way (given) Therefore, the flow velocity from the above chart is=1.4m/s
@ Tcc ! L 150 1 ! x min ! 1.78 min V 1.4 m / s 60
Where Tcd = time of concentration of ditch Tcc = time of concentration of catchment. -Total concentration time, Tc= Tcc+ Tcd= 9.0+1.78= 10.78min In our project discharge contributing areas for ditch #1 are:
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-asphalt road itself, and -the surrounding area which is extensively cultivated (unimproved area) The respective coefficients for these catchments areas are 0.9 and 0.35found in the above table. C.Rain fall intensity, I for Ditch#1(sample calculation) Rain full intensity is the average rainfall rate in mm per hour for duration equal to the concentration time for a selected return period. Our road geometric design standard is Ds4 (from traffic analysis part), so for side ditch we selected a return period of 10years. But to avoid risk caused by flood it is better to choose 25 years. Our project is found in region A2. Hence from intensity Duration- Frequency Regions
Intensity-Duration-Frequency Regions A2 & A3 Figure 5-10
400
350
300
Intensity, mm/hr
250
2 Year 5 Year 10 Year
200
25 year 50 Year 100 Year
150
100
50
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 Duration, min.
(fig 5-11) for 10.78 min time of concentration and 25 yrs return period, rain fall intensity is 140 mm/hr.
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D.Catchments area for Ditch # 1(sample calculation) -Length of ditch = 800m -Cross-sectional width = 150m, therefore, A1=800*150=12ha. A2= Area from Asphalt road; = (3.35 +1.5) x800= 0.388 ha At=A1+A2=12+0.388=12.388ha E .Run off coefficient for Ditch#1 (sample calculation) C1=o.375 (from nearby site A2) A1= 12ha C2=0.9 (from asphalt road) A2= 0.388ha
c ! c1A1 C 2 A2 0.375 X 12 0.9 X 0.388 ! ! 0.391 A1 A2 12 0.388
Similarly for the remaining ditches their respective catchment areas, rainfall intensities, and run off coefficients are calculated and tabulated as below. Ditch area from nearby site (A1 ha) Area from Asphalt Total At=A1+A2 12.388 15.33 9.136 area
Road (A2) 1 2 3 12 14.85 8.85 0.388 0.48 0.286
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F.Calculation of time of concentration (min) No Length of ditch(m) Furthest point length (m) Flow velocity in ditch ( given) in m/s 1 2 3 800 990 590 150 150 150 1.47 1.6 1.47 1.4 1.4 1.4 9.0 10.31 6.68 1.78 1.78 1.78 10.78 12.09 8.46 Flow velocity in catchment area(m/s) Time of concentration (min) Tcd Tcc T=Tcd+Tcc
G.Summery of run-off computation Ditch no Run off coefficient Rain fall intensity mm/hr 1 2 3 0.391 0.386 0.386 140 135 145 12.388 15.33 9.136 Catchment area (ha) Run off, Q (m3/sec) 1.88 2.22 1.42
7.2.2 Ditch Geometry Once the discharge is determined the next step is ditch geometry. We selected trapezoidal section due to the reasons stated at the beginning. The ditch is assumed to be laid on paved channel type , hence its Mannings n ranges from 0.04 up to 0.033 (from ERA)
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.For this mannings coefficient, allowable velocity to prevent erosion is given from 0.32.4m/s. The calculated velocity, 1.47m/s is within the range. A.Sample calculation For ditch#1, Q = 1.88 m3/sec For safety case and for some inconvenience of runoff determination the calculated discharge is increased by 50% Qd=1.88m3*1.5=2.825m3/s S=-0.01 n=0.035 Check the capacity of the ditch The capacity of the ditch for the largest cut section is given by Q=1/n AR 2/3 S Here the trapezoidal section is taken; with the following dimension Depth, D=1m (from ERA for flat and rolling terrain) Assume,D=1.5d where d is depth of flow
d=1/1.5=0.67 0.7m Bottom width,B=0.5m (assumed) 1:3 0.5m A=(0.5*0.7)+(0.7* 3*0.7)=1.82m2 P=0.5+2*2.21=4.93m
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0.7m
1:3
R=A/P=1.82/4.93=0.37m Mannings coefficient ,n=0.035 and minimum slope =0.01 Q=(1/0.033)*1.82*(0.37) 2/3 (0.01) =2.84m3/s The capacity of ditch =2.84m3/s and it is greater than expected run off (Qd) i.e Q>Qd Therefore, the provided ditch is adequate. Table elements of diches Ditch no. Discharge(m Velocity,v 3) (m/s) Area, A (m2) Depth,D (m) Top width(m) Bottom width,B (m) 1 2 3 2.825 3.08 1.83 1.47 1.6 1.47 1.82 2.32 1.82 1.0 1.2 1.0 4.52 5.3 4.52 0.50 0.50 0.50
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7.3 Culvert Design Culvert -1 at 0+960 section parallel to pipe lining Distance left of culvert from center (m) 0 8 16 Elevation (m) 3296.67 3296.86 3300.12 Distance right of culvert (m) 0 8 16 3296.67 3296.82 3300.08 Elevation Average slope 0.005
From the data above slope,s= 0.005 A.Culvert length and shape The culvert length and slope should be chosen to approximate existing topography and to the degree practicable:
The Culvert invert shall normally be aligned with the channel bottom and skew angle of the stream. The culvert entrance shall match the geometry of the road way.
B.Design limitations i) Allowable head water:- is the depth of water that can be pounded at the upstream end of the culvert that will be limited by one or more of the following: will not damage upstream property, Not higher than 300 mm below the edge of the shoulder, Equal to an HW/D not greater than 1.5 etc. Maximum velocity: - the maximum velocity at the culvert exit shall be consistent with the velocity in the natural channel or shall be mitigated with. -Channel stabilization - Energy dissipation
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ii)
iii)
Minimum velocity: Use 0.8 m/s when stream bed material size is not known. If clogging is probable, consider installation of a sediment trap or size culvert to facilitate cleaning.
C.Design features Culvert size and shape: - the culvert size and shape selected is to be based on engineering and economic criteria related to site: i) conditions. The following absolute minimum size shall be used to avoid maintenance and clogging. -750mm minimum for cross culverts where cross slopes are not greater than3%. -land use requirement can dictate larger or different barrel geometry than required for hydraulics requirement. ii) Material selection: concrete is the preferred material for construction of culverts;
however, other materials may be more suitable for a particular location, hydraulic roughness, bedding condition or project. In evaluating the suitability of alternate materials, the selection process shall be based on a comparison of total cost of alternate materials over the design life of the structure that is dependent upon:
Durability (service life) Cost Availability Construction and maintenance ease Structural strength Traffic delays Abrasion and erosion resistance and Water tightness requirements.
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ii)
Out let protection: in general, scour holes at culvert out-lets provide efficient energy dissipaters. Out-let protection for the selected culvert design flood shall be provided where the out- let scour hole depth computations indicate: the scour hole will undermine the culvert out- let the expected scour hole may cause costly property damage -the scour hole causes a nuisance effect
D.Inlet and out let control An exact theoretical analysis of culvert flow is extremely complex because of the following is required:
i)
Analyzing non-uniform flow with regions of both gradually and rapidly varying flow. Determining how the flow type changes as flow rate and tail water elevations change. Applying back water and draw down calculations, energy and moment balance. Applying the results of hydraulic model studies and Determining if hydraulic jump occur and if they are inside or down stream of the culvert barrel. Inlet control: for inlet control the control section is at the up stream end of the barrel (in-let) the flow passes through critical depth near the inlet and becomes shallow, high velocity (super critical) flow in the culvert barrel depending on the tail water hydraulic jump occur down stream of the inlet.
ii)
Out- let control: outlet control has depth and velocity that are sub critical. The control of the flow is the down stream end of the culvert (the out -let). The tail water depth is assumed to be critical depth near the culvert out- let or in the down stream channel, which ever is higher. In a given culvert the type of flow is dependent on all of the barrel factors All of the inlet control factors also influence culverts in out-let control Out let velocity: - culvert out let velocities should be calculated to determine the need for erosion protection at the culvert exit. Culverts usually give out-let velocities
iii)
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that are higher than the natural stream velocities. Thus out-let velocities may require flow re-adjustment or energy dissipation to prevent down steam erosion. 7.3.1 Discharge computation Sample calculations of Catchments area AT = A1 + A2 = 160*150+150*1640=27ha Where A1= catchment area found left of culvert A2 = Catchment area found right of culvert
2. Time of concentration (sample calculation) The cross-sectional length does not control concentration time due to short distance of high slope. For culvert 1; Ditch- 1 L= 960m, S= 0.005*100 = 0.5% V (from velocity Vs water courses slope graph) $ 0.6m/s
Tc ! L 960 ! ! 26.67 min V 0.6
3.Rain fall intensity for 25 years return period

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Our project is found in A2 rain fall regions, so from Intensity Duration- Frequency figure, rainfall intensity for each culverts is obtained as follows: Sample calculation For culvert 1 Tc= 26.67min Return period = 25 Yrs Rain fall intensity, I = 90 mm/hr Q= 0.00278 C Cf I A Q=0.00278*0.391*1* 90 *27=2.64m3/s The design floods obtained are increased by 20% for safety and the appropriate dimensions of the drainage structures are selected using design charts- chart 7-1 and chart 7-3 Qd= 1.2*2.64=3.17m3/s 7.3.2. Culvert Geometry Selection of culvert type The type of culvert for use in a given location is dependent on the hydraulic requirements and the strength required sustaining the weight of a fill or moving wheel loads. After these items have been established, the selection is largely a matter of economics. Consideration must be given to durability and to the cost of the completed structure, including such items as first cost of manufactured units and cost of transportation of installation. Maintenancecost should be also considered in any over all comparisons of the cost of different culvert type.
Culvert size Determination Using monograph of the allowable head water, the size (diameter) of pipe can be determined. Then it can be checked for critical depth to be less than the diameter of the pipe.
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As per drainage design manual 2001 the head water (HW) to diameter (D) ratio should be less than 1.5, let it be 1.6 HW/D = 1.6 from chart 7-1, D = 1125 mm.
Checking for critical depth from chart 7-3 having Qd = 3.17m3/se and D=1125 mm dc = 0.85m =850mm, hence dc = 850mm < D = 1125mm..It is safe.
- Head of water, HW = 1.6* 1.125 = 1.8m
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CHAPETR EIGHT SPECIFICATION 8.1 General

Specification is a specific description of a particular project. An engineering specification contains which are required to complete and engineering project in accordance with its drawing and details. The necessity of specification is:1. The cost of a unit quantity of the work is governed by its specification. 2. It is required to described the quality and quantity of deferent materials required for a construction work. 3. It specifics the work man ship and the method of doing the work, it serves as a guide to the supervising staff. 4. Any work is carried out according to it specification and the contractor is paid for the same. Any change in specification changes the tendered note. 5. As the rate of a work is based on specification a contractor can calculate the rates of various items of the works atender with his procurement rates of his materials and labor. 6. Specification are necessary to specify the equipments, tolls and plants to be engaged for a work and thus enable to procedure them before hand . 7. Specification is an essential document and is required to arbitration or court. For these and many other important issues specification is essentially required to any project. Although our country has no fully written standards specifications we use other countries standard Specification. While writing specification the following principle shall be adopted a- Description of materials b- Workmanship c- Tools and plants d- Protection on new work e- Cause of the specification
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General condition, Abbreviation& definitions y y y AASHTO: - American Association of state high way officials or American association of state High way and Transpiration officials. ASTM:- American Society Testing materials The standard specification:-The 1968 Ethiopian roads Authoritys standard specification Division II. This specification shall be fully applicable were no provision is made in this special provision. Contractors laboratory The contractor shall provide and maintain throughout the contract laboratory equipment with the necessary testing apparatus of conducting the tests deceived in articles.
8.2 Earth work

In ERA standard specifications in road way cut and embankment areas, where the final grades is less than two meters above the original ground and for all borrow areas, the stripping of wood, grass roots and similar materials shall be considered incidental to be clearing & grubbing work with no additional payment being made. Earth work operation may be classified as :Clearing and grubbing Clearing and grubbing are defined as the removal of trees, etc from the area of proposed excitation and embankment clearing refers to the removal of material above the existing ground surface. Grubbing means the removal of object to a nominal depth below the surface.
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Clearing and grubbing Excavation it include common and borrow excavation Embankment Compaction Watering Finishing operation
Common Excavation This work shall consist of excavating and grading the rood way and borrow pits including water ways, ditches, slope rounding, excavating or un suitable from road bed and beneath embankment areas and all in accordance with these special provisions and in conformity with the lines, grades, and dimensions shown on the plans. Common excavation shall consist of excavating other than borrow. Borrow Excavation Were sufficient quantities a rot from road way excavation, as planned, additional materials shall the excavated from borrow pits indicated on the plans or approved by engineer. EMBANK MENT This work shall consist of placing, in embankments and in miscellaneous back fills, excavated under section 102 and 103 of the standard specification and all in accordance with lines, grades, cross sections, and dimensions shown on the plans. The foundation or embankment shall be prepared by removing top soil. so, all unsuitable material and surface boulders. COMPACTION Unless it is stated the watering and rolling are not required: all embankments shall be compacted in a accordance with the following requirements. a- Each layer of embankment material except layers consisting of rock shall be moistened ordered to a uniform moisture suitable for maximum compaction and thoroughly, compacted. b- The engineer shall check not be less than 95% during the progress of the work, tests shall be taken in accordance with AASH TO 191-93 or T238-86
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WATERING This work, shall consists of furnishing and applying water required in the compaction of embankments, road way beds, back fill, special sub base, course and surface course. Water when required shall be applied at the location in the amounts and during the hours, including night as directed by the Engineer. Adequate water supply equipment with a spray bar shall be provided by the contractor. SUB-GRADE These items shall consists of the preparation of the surface of road way ,to the specified width prior to placing of selected sub base material. The sub grade material shall have nonexpansive property and good bearing strength as approved by the engineer. 8.3 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION The material whose specification has to be specified is: Sub- grade & embankment material Sub-Base Base course material Bitumen bound Material 8.3.1 Sub- grade & embankment material The compaction and strength of the sub grade shall be: * CBR>8 (light& compaction) and swell potential of less than 2% * The upper 300mm of the sub-grade shall be compacted to dry density of at least 100% MMD (standard compaction) in cutting where there is no improved sub grade and on all fills. * In cutting where an improved sub-grade is to be placed the upper 150 mm of the sub-grade, prior to placed the improved sub grade layer (5) shall be compacted to at least 100% M MD (standard compaction) and the lower 150mm to at least 95% MMD (standard compaction)
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* The embankment material other than the top 300 mm shall be compacted to at least 95% MDD in light compaction) * The maximum compacted thickness, which shall be laid processed and compacted at one time, is generally 300 mm. * The moisture content shall be adjusted in order that the required relative compaction is obtained but the moisture content at the time of compacting shall not exceed 11055 of the optimum moisture content (standard compaction) Material for gravel wearing course for fully engineered roads shall comply with requirements given in table below. However one may take the advantage of locally available materials provided to give satisfactory performance under similar conduction. The CBR requirement can be reduce to 15% for minor gravel roads. Table 8.1 Material property Material properties CBR% at 95% of MDD(SB Heavy compaction % passing 37.5mm Shrinkage product, sp SP= LS* (% pass.0.425 mm) Grading coefficient Ec y y Requirements wet climate Minimum of 4 day soaking Minimum of 95 120 400 15-34 Field day density, (% of Minimum of 95 MDD) (Bs- Heavy compaction) In built up area a maximum shrinkage product of 270 is desirable to reduce dust problems
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8.3.2 Sub-Base The sub-base material shall a CBR> 30 (modified AASHTO) after four days soaking Minimum plasticity index of 12% Maximum liquid limit of 45% Maximum thickness computed in layer shall be 200mm. The minimum thickness of computed layer shall be 150 mm. Compaction moisture content shall be between 80% and 100% Sub-base material is measured in cubic meter in place and compacted volume. Table 8.2- Recommended plasticity characteristics for granular sub-buses Climate Tropical Annual rain Liquid fall - moist tropical & west > 500mm tropical - seasonally wet tropical - Arid & semi-arid > 500 mm < 500 mm < 45 < 20 < 12 < 20 <6 < 10 limit < 35 Plasticity index <6 Linear shrink age <3
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Table 8.3 of typical particle size distribution for sub-bases
Test sieve (mm)
Percent age by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve (%)
50 37.5 20 5 1.18 0.3 0.075
100 80-100 60-100 30-100 17-75 9-50 5-25
8.3.3 Base course material - The base course material shall be crushed aggregate of fresh rock of non-plastic property (i,e PI= 0) For all regarding that portion passing a No 40 sieve including blending filler , shall be non plastic or liquid limit of not more than 25 and plasticity index of not more than 6 as defined by AASHTO The base course shall be at least compacted to 98% of the maximum dry density at heavy compaction when computed to this density in the labor factory material should have minimum of 80% after 4 days immersion in water. The material shall be free from vegetable maters and clay balls.
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Table 8.4 recommended particle sized distribution for base course material. Test sieve (mm) Percentage by mass of total aggregate passing toot sieve (Nominal maximum particle size ) 37.5 mm 50 37.5 20 10 5 2.36 0.425 0.075 100 80-100 60-80 45-05 30-50 20-40 10-25 5-15 20mm 100 80-100 55-80 40-60 30-50 12-27 5-15 10mm 100 80-100 50-70 35-50 12-30 1-15
8.3.4 Bitumen bound Material Course aggregate The course aggregates for premixed should be produced by crushing sound un weathered rock or natural gravel. The aggregate must be clean and free of clay and organic Material The particles should be angular and not flaky. Aggregates for wearing course must also be resistance to abusing and polishing high absorptive aggregates should be avoided. Hydrophilic aggregates, which have a poor affinity for bitumen in the presence of water, should also be avoided. Recommended quality of course aggregated is given in table below
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Table 8.5 - course aggregate for Bituminous mixes Test - passing sieve 0.075mm - water absorption - Flakiness Index - Soundness - In sodium - In magnesium - Los. Angeles Abrasion * Wearing course * Other course ------ Aggregate Impact value -Polished stone value * Wearing course only < 30% < 33% < 25% Min 50-75 Specification <5% <2% < 45 % < 12% < 18%
Fine aggregate The fine aureate can be crushed rock or nature sand & should also be clean and free from organic impurities The filler (material posing the 0.75mm sieve) can be cursed rock fines, port land or hydrated lime. Port land cement or hydrated lime is often added to natural filler (1-2% by muss of total, mix) to assist the adhesion of the bitumen to be aggregate Recommended quality for fine aggregate is given in table below
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Table 8.6 Fine aggregate for bituminous mixes. Test posing sieve 0.075 mm y y sand equivalent y y Wearne course -------Other courages ------Min 35-40% Min 45-50% Soundness y y In sodium ------------In magnesium --------<15% <20% Wearing course ------Other courses ---------< 8-17% < 22% Specification
Asphalt concrete It should be a dense, continuously graded mix. The mix shall be designed to have a low air voids and low permeability to provide good durability and good fatigue behavior The particle size distribution for wearing course shall be given on table
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Table 8.7 Recommendation s for selection of binder for asphalted concrete Use A- High ways 1- Heavy and very heavy traffic 2- Medium to light traffic B- Streets 1- Heavy and very heavy traffic 2- Medium of light traffic Hot Arid 30/40 60/70 80/100 30/40 60/70 80/100 80/100 80/100 80/100 80/100 80/100 60/70 80/100 120/150 80/100 Climate Hot humid 60/70 Moderate Cold 80/100 80/100
Table 8.8 Asphalt concrete surfacing Mix Designation Test sieve (mm) 28 20 Wes 100 60-80 54-72 42-58 34-48 26-38 18-28 12-20 6-12 Bitumen 5-7 Wes 100 62-80 44-60 36-50 28-40 20-30 12-20 6-12 5.5-7.4 Bel 80-100 60-80 36-56 28-44 20-37 15-27 10-20 5-13 2-6 4-8
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8.4 Bill of Quantity

Bill of Quantity is the estimation of material and the cost to material that can be involved in the project area. It is related to the following :-The bill of quantities shall be read in conjunction with general conditions of contract ,the condition of particular applications, the technical specification and drawing . -The quantities given in the bill of quantities are estimated and provisional; are given to provide a common base for bidding. -The bases of pavement will be the actual quantities of work ordered and carried out in accordance with the provision of contact. Therefore the known quantities are:-
-Total cut volume =246635.20 m3 -Total fill volume=38011.93m3 -Total over haul=172972.00m3 -Site clearing area 50m right of way and 3140 m road length is; A=3140mx50m =157000 m2
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Table 8.9 Takeoff sheet Timissing Dimension Squaring Description
3140.00 50.00 157000.00
1. Earth Work 1.1Site clearance 30cm depth site clearance L= 3140 m W= 50 m
2. Road and Pavement Pavement layer preparation for 6.7m width road; 1. From station 0+000-1+000 -Area of surface dressing =6.7mx1000m =6700m2 -Granular road base compaction; Volume=0.175mx6.7mx1000m =1172.50m3 2. From station 1+000-2+000 -Area of surface dressing =6.7mx1000m =6700m2 6700.00 1 1000.00 6.70 0.20 1340.00 1 1000.00 6.70 0.227 1507.50 -Granular sub base compaction; Volume=0.225mx6.7mx1000m =1507.50m3 -Granular road base compaction; Volume=0.20mx6.7mx1000m =1340m3
1000.00 6.70 0.175 1172.50
1000.00 6.70
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Timissing Dimension
Squaring
Description
3. From station 2+000-3+140 1 1140.00 6.70 7638.00 1 1140.00 6.70 0.10 763.80 1 1140.00 6.70 0.175 1336.65 Generally from station 0+000 - 3+1140
21038.00 3876.30 2844.15
-Area of surface dressing =6.7mx1140m =7638.00m2
-Granular road base compaction; Volume=0.10mx6.7mx1140m =763.80m3 -Granular sub base compaction; Volume=0.175mx6.7mx1140m =1336.65m3
Surface dressing (SD) =6700 m2+ 6700 m2 + 7638.00 m2 =21038.00 m2 Granular road base=1772.50 m3 +1340.00m3+ 763.80 m3 =3876.30 m3 Granular sub base =1507.50 m3+ 1336.65m3 =2844.15 m3 Quantity for Ditch Excavation work From ditch number 1 station 0+000 - 0+800 -area = ( b1 + b2 ) * h = ( 6.50 + 0.50 ) * 1.00 = 3.50 m2 - length = 800 m Total volume = 3.50 m2 * 800 m = 2800.00 m3
800.00 1.82 1.82 2800.00
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Timissing
Dimension
Squaring
Description From ditch number 2 station 1+280 - 2+800 - area = ( b1 + b2 ) * h = ( 6.50 + 0.50 ) * 1.20 m = 4.20 m2 - length = 990 m Total volume = 4.20 m2 * 990 m = 4158.00 m3 From ditch number 3 station 2+550 - 3+1140 area = ( b1 + b2 ) * h = ( 6.50 + 0.50 ) * 1.00 m = 3.50 m2 - length = 590 m Total volume = 3.50 m2 * 590 m = 2065.00 m3
990 2.05 2.05
4158.00 1 590.00 1.87 1.87 2065.00 9023.00
Total volume = v. ditch -1 + v. ditch-2 + v. ditch 3 = 2800.00 + 4158.00 + 2065.00 = 9023.00m3
800.00 6.82 0.30 1636.80
Concrete work From ditch number 1 station 0+000 - 0+800 - perimeter = (32 + 12 ) * 2 + 0.5 = 6.82 m - Thickness = 0.30 m
- Length = 800 m
Total volume = 6.82 m * 0.30 m * 800 m = 1636.80 m3
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Timissing
Dimension
squaring
Description
From ditch number 2 station 0+280 - 2+270 - perimeter = (32 + 12 ) * 2 + 0.5 = 6.82 m -Thickness = 0.30 m - length = 990 m Total volume = 6.82 m * 0.30 m * 990 m = 2025.54 m3 2025.54 From ditch number 3 station 2+550 - 3+140 - perimeter = (32 + 12 ) * 2 + 0.5 = 6.82 m - Thickness = 0.30 m - length = 590 m Total volume = 6.82 m * 0.30 m * 590 m = 1207.14 m3
990.00 6.82 0.30
590.00 6.82 0.30 1207.14 4868.68
Total volume = v. ditch -1 + v. ditch-2 + v. ditch 3 = 1636.00m3+2025.54m3+1207.14 m3 = 4868.68 m3
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Table 8.10Priced Bill of Quantity Item No. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Description 1. Earth work Site Clearing and Grubbing Total excavation Total fill Over haul Borrow excavation Price summary unit m2 m3 m3 m3 m3 Quantity 157000.00 246635.2 38011.93 172972 -------Unit price Total price
2.1 2.2 2.3
2. Road and Pavement Surface dressing Granular road base Granular sub base Price summary 3. Ditch Excavation work Concrete work Price summary 4. Culvert Excavation work Concrete work Reinforcement Price summary
m2 m3 m3
20100 3782.50 2680
3.1 3.2
m3 m3
9023.00 4868.68
4.1 4.2 4.3
m3 m3 Kg
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CHAPTER NINE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND MITIGATION MEASURES

9.1 CONSTRUCTION PHASE 9.1.1 General The principal Environmental activity during the construction phase is monitoring to ensure that the mitigation measures are fully implemented in accordance with the contract and resolving problems, as they are encountered. In general, the most critical project elements to be monitored are the implementation and effectiveness of erosion and sedimentation control measures, disposal of debris and wastes, management and reclamation of borrow pits, and materials handling and storage areas, etc. In addition to the actual roadway construction, monitoring should take place of other sites and associated activities such as: y y y y y Construction camp Quarry sites and borrow areas Excess material and spoil deposit sites Asphalt mixing plant Construction traffic access and haul roads between all of the above sites
2 Preparing for Construction Monitoring Photographs should be taken to record key environmental areas prior to commencement of construction. In addition, a standardized data collection form shall be used to facilitate data collection and reporting. Items to be included on the form are listed in Appendix D. 3 Conducting Construction Phase Monitoring Monitoring during construction is an important aspect of the environmental management program. It will be necessary to visit the site at regular intervals to identify and address any existing or potential impacts during project implementation.
The Environmental Specialist should clearly and accurately report to the project implementation team at the earliest opportunity any unforeseen environmental implications of the construction or related works.
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During construction observations shall be made of the environmental impacts described below:
y y y
y y
y y y
Noise from all types of equipment and traffic Air quality / emissions and dust problems from all types of equipment and traffic Impact on natural and planted vegetation: only those plants and trees actually required to be removed or trimmed for the implementation o f the road or bridge should be allowed. Movement of pedestrians and non-motorized traffic: every effort must be made to minimize the impact on this type of movement group Traffic management access to properties / access to site: this involves providing a logical method of organizing traffic access to both the construction depot and adjacent properties and reducing conflict between these Soil stability and earthworks Buildings and their clearance: it is necessary to monitor the demolition of all building affected by road project implementation Affect on drainage courses and water quality: examine existing adjacent structures for signs of turbidity, sedimentation / siltation, failure of the structure or signs of pollution such as an oily film on the surface of the water Affect on adjacent land: check to determine the magnitude of impacts resulting form the temporary use of adjacent properties. This should only be permitted with official permission from the relevant landholder. Material and equipment and disposal: it is important that used or excess material and equipment is disposed of properly and not have any impact on the immediate environment. Clearance of waste and return of land to its natural state: this is an important consideration that should also be reviewed at final inspection and hand over.
Provisional and Final Acceptance of the Completed Project
The EMB representative shall participate in the provisional and final acceptance of the completed project. During this process a final check shall be made to ensure that all issues contained in the EMP have been addressed.
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9.2 In-Service and Maintenance Phase

1 General Principal environmental management activities during this phase will include: y y y Determining the need for and implement remedial measures during road use. Post Project Audit including consultation with key stakeholders. Conducting the Post-Project Evaluation and ensuring that maintenance is conducted in an environmentally sound manner.
Inadequate maintenance or improper practices (with respect to chemical use, waste disposal, etc.) may lead directly to environmental impact, if vegetation, aesthetics, quality of runoff water, functioning of drains, or accident frequency is affected. Indirectly, deterioration because of inadequate maintenance will eventually necessitate rehabilitation work, which has potentially greater impacts. 2 Road Maintenance Many adverse environmental impacts can be avoided through effective maintenance. However, road maintenance activities may also contribute to soil erosion, disturbance of water resources, chemical pollution, traffic disruption, noise, disturbance of established vegetation cover and a variety of other environmental impacts. Chemical pollution can be a consequence of the improper use of herbicides and pesticides. Waste materials such as excess vegetation from drain clearing can find its way into watercourses.
Some of the important issues to be considered during road maintenance include work site installations; the supply of materials; erosion control in and around material sources; and tree planting. As with any other activity, maintenance requires specific consideration to assess potential impacts. A list of environmental impacts associated with road maintenance should be prepared and should include route plans; physical, geometric, and geotechnical data, along with information on existing structures and the drainage system.
Environmental data should include the location and extent of villages, classified sites, wooded areas, tree plantations, quarries and borrow pits, existing side and diverging ditches. In addition, the data should include the state of the road and it deterioration. Maps should be included showing eroded areas of areas where the drainage system has become silted-up. Problems with the disturbance of watercourses should also be noted.
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ERA EMB staff should analyze data provided to assess the risk of failure of the original mitigation measures and should design improvements. It may be helpful to identify the reasons for failure since these may be due to not only unforeseen technical problems but also a lack of expertise or even negligence. Understanding reasons for the failure of mitigation may be very useful in designing the subsequent maintenance requirements. 3 Post Project Evaluation The goal of Post-Project Evaluation is to confirm that the project was implemented in accordance with the terms and conditions imposed by the EIA process and to take remedial measures as required. Data from the road condition survey for maintenance can provide an important assessment mechanism. The Post-Project Evaluation includes the following activities:
y Evaluating mitigation measures undertaken during construction y Recommending any necessary remedial measures during road maintenance y Conducting consultation with key stakeholders y Identifying lessons learned for consideration in future road project planning y Verify and evaluate effects Post-Project Evaluation serves multiple purposes: Verification of compliance with conditions set out in construction permits and operating licenses y Compares actual and predicted environmental impacts y Assess environmental management and control of risks y Recommends modification or development of mitigation measures in order to reduce the effect of unforeseen negative impacts y Measures the accuracy of past predictions and the effectiveness of mitigation in order to transfer this experience to future projects y Reviews the effectiveness of the environmental management program The preliminary plan for the Post-Project evaluation should be prepared during the EIA process and more fully developed upon approval of the EIA by the EPA. Public participation in the evaluation is encouraged. Items for consideration may include: y y The control litter and limiting potential pollution sources The proper storage and management of maintenance materials and equipment y
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y y y y y y y
The proper management of pesticide and herbicide so that sensitive receptors are not negatively effected The avoidance of direct discharge of highway runoff to receiving waters The reduction of pollutant concentrations in runoff by maintaining dense grass cover, increasing grass height and leaving cuttings on the ground The properly management of roadside and median vegetation, using only native species Conducting exposed shoulder clearing in dry season The proper disposing of waste from road maintenance activities
4 Providing Feedback to the Road Project Planning process The EPA EIA review process requires the submission of an Audit Report to the EPA. The conduct of the Post-Project Evaluation serves this purpose as well as providing the necessary feedback in the project planning phase for cost effective environmental management.
9.3 Environmental Impacts of Highway Projects

Highway and traffic have earned the dubious distinction of being the worst defilers of the environment. They have a direct impact on social and community values, the environment and the ecology .In view of the growing awareness of the community and the government to preserve and enhance the environmental values, high way engineers have to plan, construct and maintain highways with this special requirement in mind. Before any scheme is prepared by the highway engineer we should prepare an environmental impact statement (EIS) in which we should discuss the effects of the scheme on various components of the environment. It is possible to assign monetary values to the effects of some, but not all of the factors affecting the environment. Where ever it is possible to do so, it should be considered in the economic evaluation of the scheme. The highway engineer should consider the do nothing alternatives as one of the solution as only then will the beneficial or adverse effects of the proposed scheme on the environment become apparent. The effect of the highways and traffic on environment will be the following types i. Noise pollution ii. Air pollution iii. Visual intrusion and degrading the aesthetics
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Road Alignment and the Environment Basically, roads should be so aligned and located that disturbance of the ecological balance is minimum, i.e. removal o vegetation cover, keeping of the natural drainage pattern and instability of slope etc. are minimized. It must be recognized that removal of vegetation not only lads to excessive surface erosion but also increase the tendency of water to seep through the and renders the slope unstable, especially in hilly areas as a result of road development, if any change is brought about in the natural drainage system, appropriate remedial measures should be taken by suitably designing hilly terrain, before fixing an alignment, and a land slide susceptibility study should be carried out. Erosion at the toe of the slope wherever or stream might be taking a sharp turn, has also be known to land slide. It must be ensured that the road alignment is taken sufficiently above the zone of influence of the erosion. Effects of Road Construction and Maintenance Operation on the Environment All works of road construction and maintenance should be carried out in conformity with the statutory and regulatory environmental requirements where construction operations involve removal of vegetation, suitable compensatory measures need to be taken. Any spoil, debris, wastes or any deleterious substance from the site, deposited on any adjacent land should be immediately removed and the affected area restored to its original state. All water curses water ways, ditches, canals, drains, lakes etc. should be protected from the pollution arising out of construction operations. During construction operations, any dust, gasous or other air borne emission must be minimized so that air quality is not advresily affected . Effective water sparys should be used during delivery ,manufacture,processing and handling of materials when dust is likely to be created . Stock piles of nnnn material should be equipped with a dust collector. Where gravel or earth road have been made for haulage to and from the site of constuction works, spraying over the gravel or earth road with water should be carried out at a regular interval. Any water products like surplus aggregate,gravels,cement,bitumen,fuel,and engine oils etc. shol be disposed of conforming to the local regulation. Rural roads ,which do not have a a proper surfacing , tend to become dusty in dry and windy weather on such raods ,low cost techniques like periodic spraying of water, use of dust palliatives like calcium cloride etc. are necessary to prevent the dust nuissance. On al atagories of roads, turfing the earthn shoulder, can go along way in reducing the dust nuisanc. I. Noise pollution Noise is unwanted sound. The growth of traffic on highways and streets has increased the noise levels, intruding upon the quite life and privacy of the dwellers near by .Noise causes annoyance and discomfort, can interfere with the sleep or enjoyment of radio or television and causes distraction at schools, libraries and hospitals.
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Noise on road is caused by the engine of the vehicles, its exhaust, brakes, horn, tyre, and other parts. A highway engineer can help noise abatement in the following ways: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Providing smooth surface for the road Providing by passes and ring roads to siphon off the through traffic entering the towns. Designing wide Street, so that the canyon effect is eliminated. Provide noise screens such as trees and shrubs. Through noise sensitive areas, special sound barriers along the ground level or elevated highways may be provided; these barriers; these barriers may be made of concrete, wood, metal or masonry walls. vi. Depressing a highway section, where ever possible has the same effect as providing noise barriers. II. Air pollution
Air pollution takes the form of poisonous fumes and caused by the emissions from the engine exhaust the situation deserves special notice in busy streets and in tunnels. The major pollutants are carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, lead particles and smoke (carbon particles). Smoke in combination with fog can cause smog which is hazardous to driving. The major thrust area of reducing pollution is the vehicle itself. Surface legislative measures defining the maximum emission from vehicles are urgently needed. The highway engineer can also help in reducing air pollution by constructing by passes and ring-roads. Visual intrusion and degrading the aesthetics Highway and traffic give rise to visual intrusion and a general degradation of aesthetics. The following are the typical ways: 1. Ribbon development along highways giving rise to clutter of repair shops, eating places ad fuelling stations. 2. Ugly bill-boards marine science beauty and distracting drivers attention. 3. Intrusion of peace and tranquility of environmentally protected areas such as national parks and game sanctuaries and monuments of architectural and historical importance. The highway engineer has to be very cautious towards the above situation. Community impact The construction of highway has adverse impact on the social conditions of a community. A particular route location may cause severance of land and uproot a settled community. It may
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entail land consumption, including precious agricultural land. Such impact should be evaluated carefully before a scheme is implemented. Road side amenities Adequate provision of well-designed roadside amenities brings about order unless in road traffic and enhances the safety and convenience of travel. It prevents the springing up of ugly shops along the highway catering to the eating and resting needs of drivers and passengers. Roadside amenities comprises of rest areas for relaxation of long-distance travelers, truck parks and service stations. Rest area should be planned sufficiently away from the main highway, preferably close to places of natural scenic beauty. Sufficient provision of toilet facilities, water supply, overnight stay, food arrangements, and truck repair and servicing facilities should be provided. Landscaping Highway landscaping covers a wide area of activities dealing with planning ad designing a highway to fit into the adjoining landscape and enhance its beauty. Some of the principles of highway landscaping are enumerated below. The highway design should help to preserve pleasing and aesthetically valuable features, whether artificial or manmade, along the road. Examples are wooded areas, scenic vistas, rock out crops, stream, ponds, waterfalls, monuments, architectural masterpieces etc. The road should follow the natural terrain and harmoniously blend with it. Ugly scars due to cutting the existing slopes should be made good by vegetation. Flatter slopes of embankment, closely blending with the natural ground, are pleasing to the eyes, besides being conductive to slope protection. Surfing of shoulders and slopes should be carried out to obtain a lush green appearance. It also prevents soil erosion. Median and rotary islands should be provided with flowering shrubs and plants. Road-side with shady and flowery trees, beauties the road. Borrow areas should be treated so that they do not leave an adverse impact on the landscape. The architectural bridges and structures should be given careful thought to make the appearance pleasing and blending with the natural setting.
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CHAPTER TEN MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ASPECTS

10.1 Traffic control devices In order to control, regulate and guide traffic, it is necessary to have suitable traffic aids or devices which are known as Traffic control devices. The following are the five basic requirements for use of a traffic control devices. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) It must convey clear and simple meaning It must command attention It must command respect of road users It must give adequate time for proper response It must justify its necessity
To ensure fulfillment of the above requirements, it is necessary to give proper attention to the design, placement, operation, maintenance and uniformity of all traffic control devices. The uniformity of traffic control device not only means the use of the same control device for similar situations, but also requires the uniformity in application and treatment of similar situations. The selection and use of traffic control devices should be made only after an Engineering study so that devices are not indiscriminately placed or arbitrarily used. Following are the three basic traffic control devices; I. II. III. IV. Road traffic signs Road traffic marking Guide posts Marker post and kilometer post
10.2 Road traffic signs The extent to which signs and marking are required depends on:The traffic volume The type of road and The degree of traffic control required for safe and efficient operation.
The safe and efficiency of a road depends to a considerable degree on its geometric design. However, Physical layout must be supplemented by effective traffic signing as a means of informing and warning drives and controlling drivers. Design of traffic signs and road marking is an intricate part of the design process.
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Traffic signs are of three general types: Regulatory signs: indicate legal requirements of traffic movement. Warning sign: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users Information signs: convey information of use to the driver. In our project we provide traffic signs due to its terrain and departure from standard. In curve 4 and curve 5 there is departure of radius requirement such that we provide warning signs. 10.3 Road traffic marking The function of road marking is to encourage safe and expeditious operation. Road marking either supplement traffic signs and marker posts or serve independently to indicate certain regulations or hazardous condition. There are three general types of road marking in use pavement marking, object marking and road studs. 10.4 Guide posts Marker posts have the function of controlling traffic to encourage safe and expeditious operation. There are two types of markers posts in use guideposts and kilometer posts. Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes in shoulder width, abrupt changes in the alignment, and approaches to structure etc. for changes in shoulder width and approaches to structures, guide posts should be placed at 50 m intervals. For spacing of guideposts at curve, see table Table 9.1 spacing of guide posts at curve Curve radius ( m ) 500 200 100 50 30 Guide post spacing ( m ) 35 20 12 8 5
10.5 marker posts and kilometer posts Kilometer posts are a requirement for all trunk and link road. Kilometer posts shall be placed every 1 km, past the edge of the shoulder. Marker posts are constructed from either concrete or plastic. Plastic marker posts may have the following advantages:
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Lower initial costs: Lower maintenance cost due to their ability to absorb an impact and remain intact: Minimal damage to impacting vehicle : Safer highway environment; and Unlikely to remove by local population for alternative use. In our case Ziway to Butagera road project is main access road so no need of providing posts and marker posts. Major changes could be disruptive to project processing and only accepted if prediction shows that impact will be considerably worse than originally identified at the scoping stage. For example, an acceptable measure might be to alter the mode of operation of a reservoir to protect downstream fisheries, but a measure proposing an alternative to dam construction could be highly contentious at this stage. There is structure that used for protection of this environmental impact Dams and reservoirs Irrigation and drainage ( large scale ) Land clearance and leveling Pipelines Port and harbor development Reclamation and new land development Resettlement River basin development Urban water supply and sanitation, etc
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APPENDIX
TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS AND STANDARD CROSS SECTIONS
The desirable standards to be adopted in the typical road design are depicted in Figures E-T1 to ET4. The geometry shown is set taking into account the requirements of vehicular traffic and the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized traffic. Note that many towns have master plans that will show a slightly different configuration from the town sections shown. In such cases, our typical section should represent the minimal requirements. Standard Cross Sections for road class DS4 is shown in Figure below.
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Figure E-T 1: Typical Fill & Cut Sections. BY GROUP 1 Page 190
Figure E-T2: Two Lane Town Section
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1500
3350
3350
ariable slope see table 6-1
Pavement tructure
ormal section o design standard
ill material
To n section o design standard S4
Figure E-3: Design Standard 4 Normal & Town Sections (DS4)
BY GROUP 1
overed rain
overed rain Pavement Structure
ross all 2.5
ross all 2.5
3350

2500 Parking lane Lane idth oot ay 3350 3500
Lane idth Parking lane

3500
2500 oot ay ariable slope see table 6-1
ross all 2.5

ross all 2.5
houlder
Lane idth
Lane idth

Shoulder
1500
Page 192
Land Regions of Ethiopia
Figure A-1: Land Regions of Ethiopia
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Use of brackets in describing dimensions of terrain features

Brackets are used to indicate dimensions falling outside the normal range but nonetheless occurring fairly frequently. For example, hills rising (50-) 100 150 (-200) m from a plain are generally 100 150 m high, but are often as low as 50 m or as high as 200 m. Another bracketed number placed outside the first indicates an extreme value, e.g. (30-) (50-) 100 150 m shows that 30 m is he lowest hill likely to be encountered.
Central Shewa Plateau

Rainfall: Geology: Landscape: Altitude: Relief: Drainage Density: Drainage Pattern: Soils: Dendritic. Brown soils in wetter areas, associated with black soils in poorly drained areas, particularly the broad valley floors and plains. Lithosols in steeper and drier parts, becoming dominant towards the SE. Weathered lavas give local sources of gravel, as do cinder cones when present. Moderate. Locally high. 800 1200 mm pa. The rainfall increases from SE to NW. Tertiary acid volcanics (rhyolites, ignimbrites, agglomerates). An undulating plateau, gradually dropping in altitude towards the SE, with isolated major volcanoes and groups of cinder cones. 2100 3400 m above sea level. Less than 50 m on plains (flat). Up to 400 (-1100) m on hills (hilly mountainous).
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Bibliography
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. Paul.h.Wright.highway Engineering 6thedition printed (USA 1996 ) S.KKHAMA and GE. GUSTO highway Engineering 6thedition printed India (1990 ) Highway II handout prepared by Dr. Ing. Joseph (2008/10) ERA design manual 2002 ERA manual 2002 ERA Geometric design manual 2002 ERA Drainage design manual 2002 ERA Pavement design manual 2002 Era Standard Specification 2002 Google earth
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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

CHAPTER TWO PROJECT LOCATION 2:1 General

2:2 General Description of the site 2:2:1 Climate

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

3.2 TRAFFIC SURVEYS

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

length of course length of course ! journey time - delay running time

Distacne Total journey time (including delays)

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

iii. iv. v. vi.

Table 3.1: Recommended Base Lengths for Spot Speed Survey

3.2.2 Methods of Measurement for Spot Speeds

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

3.3 DESIGN PERIOD

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

 Difficulty in forecasting traffic 3.4 INITIAL TRAFFIC VOLUME (AADT)

Traffic count necessity:

Traffic volume data determined from:

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

minimum seven days count recommended

3.5 TRAFFIC GROWTH RATE (TRAFFIC FORECAST)

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

3.5 AXLE LOAD SURVEY

= track factor for the ith vehicle category

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

Lane distribution factor Directional distribution factor

Design traffic (cumulative equivalent standard axle load-CESAL)- is computed by

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

The given data:

Table3-3 TOTAL AADT

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

3.7Road Functional Classification and Numbering

Trunk Roads (Class I)

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

3.8Geometric Design Standards for Low Volume Roads

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

CHAPTER FOUR GEOMETRIC DESIGN

4.1.1 STEPS IN ROUTE LOCATION / SELECTION

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

8. Make final design and location of the selected alternative route.

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

The following photos will illustrate different types of Terrains

Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

Mountainous Terrain; Flat Roadway

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

Table 4-3 Transverse cross section slope checking data

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

Flat Rollin g Flat

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FINAL YEAR PROJECT ZIWAY-BUTAJIRA ROAD

Table4-4 Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

Road Functional Classification

Difficulty in forecasting traffic 3.4 INITIAL TRAFFIC VOLUME (AADT)