3.1 Mathematical Representation of Position of A Robot

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Unit 3 Robot Kinematics

3.1 Mathematical Representation of Position of a Robot

The position of any point „P’ on a rigid body in motion with respect to the fixed reference
frame can be described by three – dimensional Cartesian vector „p’ as indicated in fig.1.

Z
pz
P
p
z
y py
x Y

px Fixed Frame F

Fig.1. Spatial description of point P


If the coordinates of the point P or the components of the vector p are px, py, pz in the fixed
frame F, it is denoted as:

[ ] [ ]

The vector p can also be expressed as:

Where x, y, z denote the unit vectors along the axes X, Y, Z of the frame F.

3.2 Mathematical Representation of Orientation of a Robot

The orientation of a rigid body with respect to the fixed frame can be described in following
ways:
 Direct Cosine representation
 Fixed – axes rotations
 Euler – angles representation
 Single and double – axes rotations
 Euler parameters etc.
The most commonly used orientation representations are direct cosine, fixed – axes and Euler
– angle representations.

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3.2.1 Direct Cosine representation:

Fig.2. Spatial Description with Fixed & Moving frames


To describe the orientation or rotation of a rigid body, consider the motion of moving frame
M w.r.to a fixed frame F with one point fixed, say the origin of the fixed frame O as shown in
fig.2.
Let u, v and w denote the unit vectors pointing along the coordinate axis U, V and W of the
moving frame M respectively, similar to x, y and z along X, Y and Z of the fixed frame
respectively.
Hence,

The point P is expressed in moving frame as:

Substituting (3a), (3b) and (3c) in (4), we get,

( ) ( ) ( )

Grouping x, y and z terms, we get,

( )

Comparing (5) and (2), we get,

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In matrix form, this can be written as:


[ ] [ ]

Where, [ ] [ ] are the representations of the 3D vector p in the frames F and M


respectively.
Q is a 3 x 3 rotation matrix or orientation matrix transforming the vector p from frame M to
F.
The rotation matrix or orientation matrix (Q) satisfies the following properties:


 | |

The rotation matrix for a rotation about the z axis by an angle α is given by:

[ ] [ ]

The rotation matrix for a rotation about the y axis by an angle β is given by:

[ ] [ ]

The rotation matrix for a rotation about the x axis by an angle γ is given by:

[ ] [ ]

3.2.2 Fixed axes rotations:


In fixed axes rotation, all the rotations are carried out with respect to a fixed or reference
frame. The overall or resulting orientation is found by pre – multiplication of successive
rotation matrices.
For example consider that we are rotating a frame by angles ψ, θ and Φ about the x, y and z
axes respectively w.r.to a fixed reference frame, the overall orientation matrix can be found
by finding individual rotation matrices and pre-multiplying them.
The rotation matrix for rotation by an angle ψ in the x axis is given by:

[ ]

The rotation matrix for rotation by an angle θ in the y axis is given by:

[ ]

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The rotation matrix for rotation by an angle Φ in the z axis is given by:

[ ]

The overall orientation is obtained by pre-multiplying the individual rotation matrices.


i.e.

[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]

[ ]

3.2.3 Euler angles representations:


In case of fixed – frame rotations, the rotations are performed w.r.to fixed / reference frames.
But in Euler angle rotations, they are performed to new / modified frames.
In this case, the overall orientation is obtained by post-multiplying the individual rotation
matrices.
i.e.

[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]

[ ]

3.3 Homogeneous Transformation Matrix (HTM)

Homogeneous Transformation Matrix (HTM) is a 4 x 4 matrix which is very useful when


both translation and rotation need to be performed. It describes both the position and
orientation of a frame w.r.to another frame. The HTM is given by:

[ ]

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The general format of HTM matrix is:

[ ]

Consider a vector v, which is translated or rotated by means of a transformation matrix H into


a vector u. The relation between them is given by:

The transformation matrix to achieve a translation by a distance a in x direction, b in y


direction, c in z direction is given by:

[ ]

The transformation matrix to accomplish a rotation by an angle θ about the z axis is given by:

[ ]

The transformation matrix to accomplish a rotation by an angle θ about the y axis is given by:

[ ]

The transformation matrix to accomplish a rotation by an angle θ about the x axis is given by:

[ ]

Problems:

1) Consider a vector Perform a translation by a distance 8 in x


direction, 5 in y direction, and 0 in z direction. Find the new vector u.
Sol.
The given vector is

This vector can be expressed in matrix form as [ ]

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The transformation matrix to achieve a translation by a distance a in x direction, b in y


direction, c in z direction is given by:

[ ]

For the given problem, a=8, b=5 & c=0

[ ]

Hence the new vector is

[ ][ ]

[ ]

[ ]

In vector form, u can be expressed as

2) The coordinates of a point P w.r.to a moving frame are [ ] .


What are the coordinates of P w.r.to. fixed coordinate frame, if the moving frame is
rotated by 90° about the z-axis of the fixed frame.
Sol.

Given [ ] [ ]

It is given that the frame is rotated by an angle about the z axis; hence the transformation
matrix for rotation θ about the z axis is given by:

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[ ]

For this problem, θ is given as 90°, hence the transformation matrix is:

[ ]

[ ]

The new coordinates for P is given by,


|

[ ][ ]

[ ]

|
[ ]

3) A vector is rotated by an angle of 60° about the x axis. Find the new
vector.
Sol.
The given vector is

This vector can be expressed in matrix form as [ ]

It is given that the point is rotated by an angle about the x axis; hence the transformation
matrix for rotation θ about the x axis is given by:

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[ ]

For this problem, θ is given as 60°, hence the transformation matrix is:

[ ]

[ ]

The new coordinates for v is given by,

[ ][ ]

[ ]

[ ]

4) The coordinates of a point P are [ ] . Find the new coordinates if it is


first rotated by 60° about the z-axis of the reference frame and then rotated by 30°
about the x-axis of reference frame.
Sol.

Note:
1) If both the rotations are done w.r.to the reference frame, then the resulting
frame after rotations is given by 𝐻 𝐻2 𝐻
2) If one rotation is done w.r.to the reference frame and the other rotation is w.r.to
the rotated frame, then the resulting frame after rotations is given by 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻2

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Given [ ] [ ]

The transformation matrix (H1) for rotation by an angle θ about the z-axis is given by:

[ ]

Here θ is given as 60°, hence

[ ]

[ ]

The transformation matrix (H2) for rotation by an angle θ about the x-axis is given by:

2 [ ]

Here θ is given as 30°, hence

2 [ ]

2 [ ]

Since both the rotations are w.r.to the reference frame, the resulting transformation matrix is
given by:

[ ] [ ]

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[ ]

The new coordinates of P are,


|

[ ][ ]

[ ]

|
[ ]

5) The coordinates of a point P are [ ] . Find the new coordinates if it is


first rotated by 60° about the z-axis of the reference frame and then rotated by 30°
about the x-axis of the rotated frame.
Sol.

Note:
1) If both the rotations are done w.r.to the reference frame, then the resulting
frame after rotations is given by 𝐻 𝐻2 𝐻
2) If one rotation is done w.r.to the reference frame and the other rotation is w.r.to
the rotated frame, then the resulting frame after rotations is given by 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻2

Given [ ] [ ]

The transformation matrix (H1) for rotation by an angle θ about the z-axis is given by:

[ ]

Here θ is given as 60°, hence

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[ ]

[ ]

The transformation matrix (H2) for rotation by an angle θ about the x-axis is given by:

2 [ ]

Here θ is given as 30°, hence

2 [ ]

2 [ ]

Since the first rotation is w.r.to the reference frame and the second rotation is w.r.to the
rotated frame, the resulting transformation matrix is given by:

[ ] [ ]

[ ]

The new coordinates of P are,


|

[ ][ ]

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[ ]

|
[ ]

6) A vector is rotated by an angle of 60° about the z axis and then


translated by 3, 4 & 5 units in the x, y and z directions respectively. Find the new vector.
Sol.
The given vector is

This vector can be expressed in matrix form as [ ]

The transformation matrix for rotation by angle θ about the z axis and translation by a, b & c
in the x, y & z direction respectively is given by:

[ ]

For this problem, θ is given as 60°, x is given as 3, y is given as 4 and z is given as 5, hence

[ ]

[ ]

The new coordinates for v is given by,

[ ][ ]

[ ]

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[ ]

3.4 Denavit – Hartenberg Parameters


 A n–DOF robotic manipulator is modeled as a chain of rigid links interconnected by
revolute and / or prismatic joints as shown in fig.3.

Fig.3. Manipulator as chain of links


 To describe the position and orientation of a link in space, a coordinate frame is attached
to each link, namely frame {i} to link i.
 The position and orientation of frame {i} relative to previous frame {i–1}, can be
described by a homogeneous transformation matrix as discussed in the previous section.
 A commonly used convention for systematically assigning frames for robots is the
Denavit – Hartenberg or D – H Parameters.
 The D – H notation consists of four parameters to define the relation between one frame
and the next.
 The D – H parameters used are:
 Link Length ai
 Link twist αi
 Joint distance di and
 Joint angle θi
 The link length and link twist are commonly called the link parameters.
 The joint distance and joint angle are called joint parameters.
Consider two links as shown in fig.4.

Fig.4. D – H Convention
 The link length (ai) is the distance measured along the xi axis from the point of
intersection of xi axis with the zi-1 axis to the origin of the frame {i}.
 The link twist (αi) is the angle between zi-1 and zi axes measured about the xi axis in the
right hand sense.

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 The joint distance (di) is the distance measured along zi-1 axis from the origin of frame
{i–1} to the intersection of xi axis with zi-1 axis.
 The joint angle (θi) is the angle between xi-1 and xi axes measured about the zi-1 axis in the
right hand sense.
 For industrial robots, the links are usually straight, that is the two joint axes are parallel,
giving the link length equal to the physical link dimension and the link twist to be zero.
 For a revolute joint di is zero or constant and θi varies. For a prismatic (linear) joint θi is
zero or constant and di varies.
 Another variable called displacement variable (qi) is used, which is defined as:

3.4.1 Link Frame Assignment Algorithm


The link frame assignment algorithm is divided into four parts:
Part 1: Labeling the joints and links
Part 2: Assigning frames to links 1 to (n – 1)
Part 3: Assigning frame to link 0
Part 4: Assigning frame to link n
The link frame assignment algorithm is as follows:
Labeling the joints and links:
Step 0: Identify and number the joints starting with base and ending with end effector.
Number the links from 0 to n starting with the immobile base as 0 and ending with the
last link as n.
Step 1: Align the axis zi with the axis of joint (i+1) for i=0, 1, 2,…………….n – 1.
Assigning frames to links 1 to (n – 1)
For each link i, repeat steps 2 and 3.
Step 2: The xi axis is fixed perpendicular to both zi-1 and zi axes and pointing away from zi-1.
The origin of frame {i} is located at the intersection of zi and xi axes. Three situations
are possible here:
Case (i): If zi-1 and zi axes intersect, choose the origin at the point of their intersection.
The xi axis will be perpendicular to the plane containing zi-1 and zi axes. This will give
ai to be zero.
Case (ii): If zi-1 and zi axes are parallel or lie in parallel planes, then their common
normal is not uniquely defined. If the joint i is revolute then xi axis is chosen along the
common normal, which passes through origin of frame {i–1}. This will fix the origin
and make di zero. If the joint i is prismatic then xi axis is arbitrarily chosen as any
convenient common normal and origin is located at the distal end of link i.
Case (iii): If zi-1 and zi axes coincide, the origin lies on common axis. If the joint i is
revolute then origin is located to coincide with origin of frame {i–1} and xi axis
coincides with xi-1 axis to cause di to be zero. If the joint i is prismatic xi axis is chosen
parallel to xi-1 axis to make ai to be zero. The origin is located at distal end of link i.
Step 3: The yi axis has no choice and is fixed to complete the right – handed orthonormal
coordinate frame {i}.

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Assigning frame to link 0


Step 4: The location of frame {0} is arbitrary. Its choice is made based on simplification of
model and some convenient reference in workspace. The x0 axis is perpendicular to
z0 axis, is chosen parallel to x1 axis in home position to make θ1 equal to zero. The
origin of frame {0} is located based on the type of joint 1. If joint1 is revolute, the
origin of frame {0} can be chosen at a convenient reference such as floor, worktable
and so on, giving a constant value for d1 or at a suitable location along axis of joint1
so as to make d1 zero. If joint1 is prismatic, parallel x0 and x1 axes will make θ1 to be
zero and origin of frame {0} is placed arbitrarily.
Step 5: The y0 axis completes the right handed orthonormal coordinate frame {0}.
Assigning frame to link n
Step 6: The origin of frame {n} is chosen at the tip of the manipulator, i.e. a convenient point
on the last link (the end effector). This point is called tool – point and the frame {n}
is a tool frame.
Step 7: The zn axis is fixed along the direction of zn-1 axis and pointing away from link n.
Step 8: If joint n is prismatic, take xn parallel to xn-1 axis. If joint n is revolute, the choice of
xn is similar to step4, i.e. xn is perpendicular to both zn-1 and zn axes. xn direction is
“normal direction”. The yn is chosen to complete the right handed orthonormal
coordinate frame {n}.
Once the frames are assigned to each link, the joint link parameters can be easily identified,
using which the direct kinematic model is developed.
3.5 Kinematic Modeling of a Manipulator
 There are two types of kinematic modeling:
 Direct Kinematic model or Direct Kinematics
 Inverse Kinematic model or Inverse Kinematics
 The direct kinematic model gives the position and orientation of the end effector as a
function of the joint variables. i.e. using direct kinematics, we can find the position and
orientation of end effector for any given joint angle and joint distance.
 The inverse kinematic model gives the joint variables as a function of position and
orientation of end effector. i.e. using inverse kinematics, we can find the joint variables
(joint distance and joint angle) required to achieve given position and orientation.

3.5.1 Kinematic Relationship between adjacent links


The transformation of frame {i–1} to frame {i} consists of four basic transformations:
 Rotation about zi-1 axis by an angle θi
 Translation along zi-1 axis by a distance di
 Translation by a distance ai along xi axis
 Rotation by angle αi along xi axis.
The composite transformation matrix describing frame {i} w.r.to frame {i–1} is given by:

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[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ]

One major drawback of D – H notation is that it considers the transformations (rotation or


translation) only in the x and z axes. The transformations in y axis are not considered in D – H
notation.

3.5.2 Procedure for Determining Direct Kinematic Model


1. Draw the frame assignment diagram for the given configuration of robot manipulator arm.
2. Find the joint – link parameters from frame assignment diagram and fill the joint – link
parameter table shown below:

Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi


1
2
3
.
.
.
.
n
2
3. Find the individual transformation matrices 2 by substituting

i=1, 2, 3, ………….n in [ ]

4. Find the overall transformation matrix using the formula


2
2

5. The direct kinematic model in matrix form is given by:

[ ] [ ]

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Problems:
1) Derive the direct kinematic model of a 2 DOF RP planar manipulator arm.
Sol. The 2 DOF RP planar manipulator arm is as shown in fig.5.

Fig.5. 2 DOF RP planar manipulator arm


The frame assignment for 2 DOF RP planar manipulator arm is as shown in fig.6.

Fig.6. Frame assignment of 2 DOF RP planar arm


The joint link parameters for the RP manipulator arm is shown in table below.
Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi
1 0 90° 0 θ1 θ1 C1 S1 0 1
2 0 0 d2 0 d2 1 0 1 0
The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive links can be
obtained from the equation

[ ]

Substituting i =1 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 0 to 1.

[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

[ ]

[ ]

Substituting i =2 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 1 to 2.

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2 2 2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

2 [ ]
2

2 [ ]
2

The overall transformation from frame 0 to 2 is given by:


2 2

[ ] [ ]
2

[ 2 ]

Hence the direct kinematic model in matrix form is:


2

[ ] [ 2 ]

The direct kinematic model can also be expressed in the form of equations by equating the
elements of the above matrix.
The direct kinematic model in equation form is:

(3)

Using (2) or (3), we can find the position and orientation for any given joint parameters θ1, d2
2) Derive the direct kinematic model of a 2 DOF PR planar manipulator arm.
Sol. The joint link parameters for the PR manipulator arm is shown in table below.
Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi
1 0 90° d1 –90 d1 0 –1 0 1
2 a2 0 0 θ2 θ2 C2 S2 1 0

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The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive links can be
obtained from the equation

[ ]

Substituting i =1 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 0 to 1.

[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

[ ]

[ ]

Substituting i =2 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 1 to 2.


2 2 2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2

Substituting the values from the table, we get,


2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2]
2

2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2]
2

The overall transformation from frame 0 to 2 is given by:


2 2
2 2 2 2

[ ] [ 2 2 2 2]

2 2 2 2
[ ]
2 2 2 2

Hence the direct kinematic model in matrix form is:

2 2 2 2
[ ] [ ]
2 2 2 2

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The direct kinematic model can also be expressed in the form of equations by equating the
elements of the above matrix.
The direct kinematic model in equation form is:

2
2 (3)

2 2
2
2

2 2
Using (2) or (3), we can find the position and orientation for any given joint parameters d1, θ2
3) Derive the direct kinematic model of a 3 DOF Cylindrical arm.
Sol. A 3 DOF cylindrical arm is RPP configuration as shown in fig.7.

Fig.7. A 3 DOF cylindrical arm


The frame assignment for this configuration is as shown in fig.8.

Fig.8. Frame assignment of a 3 DOF Cylindrical configuration


The joint link parameters for the cylindrical arm is shown in table below.
Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi
1 0 0 0 θ1 θ1 C1 S1 1 0
2 0 –90° d2 0 d2 1 0 0 –1
3 0 0 d3 0 d3 1 0 1 0

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2
The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive links
can be obtained from the equation

[ ]

Substituting i =1 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 0 to 1.

[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

[ ]

[ ]

Substituting i =2 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 1 to 2.


2 2 2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

2 [ ]
2

Substituting i =3 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 2 to 3.

2
[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

2
[ ]

The overall transformation from frame 0 to 3 is given by:


2
2

[ ] [ ] [ ]
2

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[ ] [ ]
2

[ ]
2

Hence the direct kinematic model in matrix form is:

[ ] [ ]
2

4) Derive the direct kinematic model of an Articulated arm.


Sol. An Articulated arm is RRR configuration as shown in fig.9.

Fig.9. An Articulated arm


The frame assignment for this configuration is as shown in fig.10.

Fig.10. Frame assignment of an articulated arm


The joint link parameters for articulated arm is shown in table below.
Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi
1 0 90° 0 θ1 θ1 C1 S1 0 1
2 L2 0 0 θ2 θ2 C2 S2 1 0
3 L3 0 0 θ3 θ3 C3 S3 1 0
2
The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive links
can be obtained from the equation

[ ]

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Substituting i =1 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 0 to 1.

[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

[ ]

Substituting i =2 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 1 to 2.


2 2 2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2

Substituting the values from the table, we get,


2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2]
2

Substituting i =3 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 2 to 3.

2
[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

2
[ ]

The overall transformation from frame 0 to 3 is given by:


2
2
2 2 2 2

[ ] [ 2 2 2 2] [ ]

2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2 ]
2 2 2 2 2

Where, 2 2 2 2
Hence the direct kinematic model in matrix form is:
2 2 2 2 2

[ ] [ 2 2 2 2 2 ]
2 2 2 2 2

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5) Derive the direct kinematic model of a (Roll Pitch Yaw) RPY wrist.
Sol. A RPY wrist configuration as shown in fig.11.

Fig.11. A RPY wrist


The frame assignment for this configuration is as shown in fig.12.

Fig.12. Frame assignment of RPY wrist


The joint link parameters of RPY wrist is shown in table below.
Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi
1 0 90° 0 θ1 θ1 C1 S1 0 1
2 0 90° 0 90 + θ2 θ2 –S2 C2 0 1
3 0 0 0 θ3 θ3 C3 S3 1 0
2
The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive links
can be obtained from the equation

[ ]

Substituting i =1 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 0 to 1.

[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

[ ]

Substituting i =2 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 1 to 2.

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2 2 2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2

Substituting the values from the table, we get,


2 2

[ 2 2 ]
2

Substituting i =3 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 2 to 3.

2
[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

2
[ ]

The overall transformation from frame 0 to 3 is given by:


2
2
2 2

[ ] [ 2 2 ] [ ]

2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 ]
2 2 2

Hence the direct kinematic model in matrix form is:


2 2 2

[ ] [ 2 2 2 ]
2 2 2

6) Derive the direct kinematic model of a SCARA manipulator arm.


Sol. SCARA manipulator is the widely used industrial robot for assembly operations. The
SCARA is a four axis RRPR configuration robot as shown in fig.13.

Fig.13. SCARA manipulator arm

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The frame assignment for this configuration is as shown in fig.14.

Fig.14. Frame assignment of SCARA manipulator


The joint link parameters of SCARA manipulator is shown in table below.
Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi
1 L11 0 L12 θ1 θ1 C1 S1 1 0
2 L2 0 0 θ2 θ2 C2 S2 1 0
3 0 180° d3 0 d3 1 0 –1 0
4 0 0 L4 θ4 θ4 C4 S4 1 0
2
The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive
links can be obtained from the equation

[ ]

Substituting i =1 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 0 to 1.

[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

[ ]
2

Substituting i =2 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 1 to 2.


2 2 2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2

Substituting the values from the table, we get,


2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2]
2

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Substituting i =3 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 2 to 3.

2
[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

2
[ ]

Substituting i =4 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 3 to 4.

[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

[ ]

The overall transformation from frame 0 to 4 is given by:


2
2

2 2 2 2

[ ] [ 2 2 2 2] [ ] [ ]
2

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
[ ]
2

Where,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hence the direct kinematic model in matrix form is:
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
[ ] [ ]
2

3.6 Inverse Kinematics


The inverse kinematic problem is stated as: “The determination of all possible and feasible
set of joint variables which would achieve the specified position and orientation of the
manipulator’s end effector with respect to the base frame.”
Workspace of a manipulator
The workspace of a manipulator is defined as the volume of space in which the manipulator
is able to locate its end effector. The workspace of a manipulator can be classified as:
 Reachable workspace (RWS)
 Dexterous workspace (DWS)

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Unit 3 Robot Kinematics

The region that can be reached by the origin of the end effector frame with at least one
orientation is called the Reachable workspace (RWS).
The space where the end effector can reach every point from all orientation is called the
Dexterous workspace (DWS). The DWS is either smaller or same as RWS.
3.6.1 Solvability of inverse kinematic model
 Inverse kinematics is complex because the solution is to be found for nonlinear
simultaneous equations involving transcendental (harmonic sine and cosine) functions.
 The number of simultaneous equations is also generally more than the number of
unknowns, making some equations mutually dependent.
 These conditions lead to possibility of many solutions (multiple solutions) or non –
existence of any solution for given end effector position and orientation.
Existence of solution
 If the desired point P lies outside the RWS, then no solution exists.
 Even if P is within the RWS, not all orientations are realizable unless P lies within the
DWS.
 If the wrist has less than 3 DOF to orient the end effector, then certain classes of
orientations are not realizable.
 For a manipulator to have all position and orientation solutions, the number of DOF (n)
must at least match the number of constraints (6).

Multiple solutions
 Existence of multiple solutions poses a problem because the robot system must have a
capability to choose one solution, probably the best one.
 The reasons for getting multiple solutions are:
 Parallel axes of revolute joints
 Existence of trigonometric functions in equations
 Presence of non-zero joint – link parameters and the range of joint motions
allowed
 Degrees of freedom
Parallel axis of revolute joints

Fig.15. Multiple solutions due to parallel axis of joints


Consider a 2 DOF planar arm with wrist having only 1 DOF as shown in fig.15. There are
two sets of values of joint displacements 2 ( | 2 | ) as shown in fig.15, which
leads to the same end – effector position and orientation for point P.
| |
The solution 2 is called the elbow up position, while the solution ( 2 ) is
called the elbow down position. The elbow up position is generally preferred as in the elbow
down position, the joint link may collide with objects lying on the work surface or the work
table itself.

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Two solutions are obtained here because the axes of the two consecutive revolute
joints of the arm are parallel. If more than 2 joint axis are parallel, the number of solutions
multiply.
Existence of trigonometric functions in equations
The harmonic nature of Sine and Cosine function gives same magnitudes for angles in
multiples of π radians. For example, the yaw, pitch and roll motions of the RPY wrist for two
sets of joint displacements 2 ( | 2 | | ) with | 2
|
|
2 will lead to same orientation of the wrist.
Presence of non-zero joint – link parameters and the range of joint motions allowed
The number of ways to reach a certain goal is directly related to the number of non – zero
link parameters. For example for a completely general rotary jointed, 6 DOF manipulator
with all six , up to 16 solutions are possible.
Degrees of freedom
A manipulator with more than 6 DOF may have infinitely many solutions. A manipulator
with more DOF than necessary is called kinematically redundant manipulator. The SCARA
configuration is an example of redundant manipulator. It has one redundant DOF in the
horizontal direction. The redundant manipulator has added flexibility, which can be useful in
avoiding obstacles or reaching inaccessible locations as shown in fig.16.

Fig.16. Use of redundant manipulator to avoid obstacles or reach around them


3.6.2 Solution Techniques
 The approaches for determining the solution of inverse kinematic problem are:
 Closed form solutions
 Numerical solutions
 In closed form solution, joint displacements are determined as functions of the position
and orientation of the end effector. They are based on analytical algebra or kinematic
approach, giving expression determining joint displacements.
 In numerical method approach, iterative algorithms such as Newton – Raphson method
are used. Numerical methods are computationally complex and slower compared to
closed form methods. Moreover this method doesn‟t guarantee convergence to correct
solution.
 Closed form solutions may not be possible for all kinds of structures. A sufficient (but not
necessary) condition for a 6 DOF manipulator to possess closed form solution is that
either its 3 consecutive joint axes intersect or its 3 consecutive joint axes are parallel.

Guidelines to be followed to obtain closed form solutions:


1) Obtain the direct kinematic model and equate to matrix as shown
2
2 22 2 2
[ ] [ ]
2
2

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Unit 3 Robot Kinematics

2) By equating the above matrix, obtain 12 equations.


3) Look for equations involving only one joint variable and get the values of these joint
variables.
4) Next look for pair or set of equations, which could be reduced to one equation in one joint
variable, by application of algebraic and trigonometric identities.
5) Use Arctangent (tan–1) function instead of Arccosine (Cos–1) or Arcsine (Sin–1) functions.
6) Try to obtain solution from the matrix elements involving translation terms rather than
rotational terms, as solving the latter is more complex.

Problems:
1) Obtain the Inverse Kinematic model of a 3 DOF RRP arm.
Sol.
To obtain inverse kinematic model, the direct kinematic model must be determined first as
follows:
A RRP configuration is as shown in fig.17.

Fig.17. A RRP arm


The frame assignment for this configuration is as shown in fig.18.

Fig.18. Frame assignment of RRP Arm


The joint link parameters of RRP Arm is shown in table below.
Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi
1 0 90° 0 θ1 θ1 C1 S1 0 1
2 0 –90° 0 θ2 θ2 C2 S2 0 1
3 0 0 d3 0 d3 1 0 1 0
2
The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive links
can be obtained from the equation

[ ]

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Unit 3 Robot Kinematics

Substituting i =1 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 0 to 1.

[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

[ ]

Substituting i =2 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 1 to 2.


2 2 2 2 2 2 2

[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2

Substituting the values from the table, we get,


2 2

[ 2 2 ]
2

Substituting i =3 in (1), we get the transformation from frame 2 to 3.

2
[ ]

Substituting the values from the table, we get,

2
[ ]

The overall transformation from frame 0 to 3 is given by:


2
2
2 2

[ ] [ 2 2 ] [ ]

2 2 2

[ 2 2 2]
2 2 2

To obtain the inverse kinematic model, equate


2 2 2 2
2 2 2] 2 22 2 2
[ [ ]
2 2 2 2
2
As per the guidelines, choosing single variable terms, we get
22 2 2 2
2

22

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Unit 3 Robot Kinematics

2 22
Also
2

2
Consider,
2

2 2
2
Squaring and adding the three equations, we get,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 ( ) 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
( 2 2 ) 2
2 2 2 2
2
√ 2
2
2 2

2) Consider a 4 DOF RPPR manipulator arm with joint link transformation matrices

2
[ ] 2 [ ] [ ]
2

[ ]

If the tool configuration matrix at a given instant is given

by [ ], obtain the magnitude of each joint variable.

The overall transformation from frame 0 to 4 is given by:


2
2

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
2

[ ]
2

But [ ]

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Unit 3 Robot Kinematics

[ ] [ ]
2

Equating the single variable terms, we get,


2

( )

Also

( )

Also

Squaring and adding the equations, we get,


2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
2
2

End of unit-3

33 EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

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