3.1 Mathematical Representation of Position of A Robot
3.1 Mathematical Representation of Position of A Robot
3.1 Mathematical Representation of Position of A Robot
The position of any point „P’ on a rigid body in motion with respect to the fixed reference
frame can be described by three – dimensional Cartesian vector „p’ as indicated in fig.1.
Z
pz
P
p
z
y py
x Y
px Fixed Frame F
[ ] [ ]
Where x, y, z denote the unit vectors along the axes X, Y, Z of the frame F.
The orientation of a rigid body with respect to the fixed frame can be described in following
ways:
Direct Cosine representation
Fixed – axes rotations
Euler – angles representation
Single and double – axes rotations
Euler parameters etc.
The most commonly used orientation representations are direct cosine, fixed – axes and Euler
– angle representations.
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
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The rotation matrix for a rotation about the z axis by an angle α is given by:
[ ] [ ]
The rotation matrix for a rotation about the y axis by an angle β is given by:
[ ] [ ]
The rotation matrix for a rotation about the x axis by an angle γ is given by:
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
The rotation matrix for rotation by an angle θ in the y axis is given by:
[ ]
The rotation matrix for rotation by an angle Φ in the z axis is given by:
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
The transformation matrix to accomplish a rotation by an angle θ about the z axis is given by:
[ ]
The transformation matrix to accomplish a rotation by an angle θ about the y axis is given by:
[ ]
The transformation matrix to accomplish a rotation by an angle θ about the x axis is given by:
[ ]
Problems:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Given [ ] [ ]
It is given that the frame is rotated by an angle about the z axis; hence the transformation
matrix for rotation θ about the z axis is given by:
[ ]
For this problem, θ is given as 90°, hence the transformation matrix is:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ]
|
[ ]
3) A vector is rotated by an angle of 60° about the x axis. Find the new
vector.
Sol.
The given vector is
It is given that the point is rotated by an angle about the x axis; hence the transformation
matrix for rotation θ about the x axis is given by:
[ ]
For this problem, θ is given as 60°, hence the transformation matrix is:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Note:
1) If both the rotations are done w.r.to the reference frame, then the resulting
frame after rotations is given by 𝐻 𝐻2 𝐻
2) If one rotation is done w.r.to the reference frame and the other rotation is w.r.to
the rotated frame, then the resulting frame after rotations is given by 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻2
Given [ ] [ ]
The transformation matrix (H1) for rotation by an angle θ about the z-axis is given by:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
The transformation matrix (H2) for rotation by an angle θ about the x-axis is given by:
2 [ ]
2 [ ]
2 [ ]
Since both the rotations are w.r.to the reference frame, the resulting transformation matrix is
given by:
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ]
|
[ ]
Note:
1) If both the rotations are done w.r.to the reference frame, then the resulting
frame after rotations is given by 𝐻 𝐻2 𝐻
2) If one rotation is done w.r.to the reference frame and the other rotation is w.r.to
the rotated frame, then the resulting frame after rotations is given by 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻2
Given [ ] [ ]
The transformation matrix (H1) for rotation by an angle θ about the z-axis is given by:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
The transformation matrix (H2) for rotation by an angle θ about the x-axis is given by:
2 [ ]
2 [ ]
2 [ ]
Since the first rotation is w.r.to the reference frame and the second rotation is w.r.to the
rotated frame, the resulting transformation matrix is given by:
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ]
|
[ ]
The transformation matrix for rotation by angle θ about the z axis and translation by a, b & c
in the x, y & z direction respectively is given by:
[ ]
For this problem, θ is given as 60°, x is given as 3, y is given as 4 and z is given as 5, hence
[ ]
[ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Fig.4. D – H Convention
The link length (ai) is the distance measured along the xi axis from the point of
intersection of xi axis with the zi-1 axis to the origin of the frame {i}.
The link twist (αi) is the angle between zi-1 and zi axes measured about the xi axis in the
right hand sense.
The joint distance (di) is the distance measured along zi-1 axis from the origin of frame
{i–1} to the intersection of xi axis with zi-1 axis.
The joint angle (θi) is the angle between xi-1 and xi axes measured about the zi-1 axis in the
right hand sense.
For industrial robots, the links are usually straight, that is the two joint axes are parallel,
giving the link length equal to the physical link dimension and the link twist to be zero.
For a revolute joint di is zero or constant and θi varies. For a prismatic (linear) joint θi is
zero or constant and di varies.
Another variable called displacement variable (qi) is used, which is defined as:
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]
i=1, 2, 3, ………….n in [ ]
[ ] [ ]
Problems:
1) Derive the direct kinematic model of a 2 DOF RP planar manipulator arm.
Sol. The 2 DOF RP planar manipulator arm is as shown in fig.5.
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2
2 [ ]
2
2 [ ]
2
[ ] [ ]
2
[ 2 ]
[ ] [ 2 ]
The direct kinematic model can also be expressed in the form of equations by equating the
elements of the above matrix.
The direct kinematic model in equation form is:
(3)
Using (2) or (3), we can find the position and orientation for any given joint parameters θ1, d2
2) Derive the direct kinematic model of a 2 DOF PR planar manipulator arm.
Sol. The joint link parameters for the PR manipulator arm is shown in table below.
Link i ai αi di θi qi cθi sθi cαi sαi
1 0 90° d1 –90 d1 0 –1 0 1
2 a2 0 0 θ2 θ2 C2 S2 1 0
The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive links can be
obtained from the equation
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2
[ 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2 2
[ 2 2 2 2]
2
[ ] [ 2 2 2 2]
2 2 2 2
[ ]
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
[ ] [ ]
2 2 2 2
The direct kinematic model can also be expressed in the form of equations by equating the
elements of the above matrix.
The direct kinematic model in equation form is:
2
2 (3)
2 2
2
2
2 2
Using (2) or (3), we can find the position and orientation for any given joint parameters d1, θ2
3) Derive the direct kinematic model of a 3 DOF Cylindrical arm.
Sol. A 3 DOF cylindrical arm is RPP configuration as shown in fig.7.
2
The individual transformation matrices 2 for relating the successive links
can be obtained from the equation
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2
2 [ ]
2
2
[ ]
2
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
2
[ ] [ ]
2
[ ]
2
[ ] [ ]
2
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2
[ 2 2 2 2]
2
2
[ ]
2
[ ]
[ ] [ 2 2 2 2] [ ]
2 2 2 2 2
[ 2 2 2 2 2 ]
2 2 2 2 2
Where, 2 2 2 2
Hence the direct kinematic model in matrix form is:
2 2 2 2 2
[ ] [ 2 2 2 2 2 ]
2 2 2 2 2
5) Derive the direct kinematic model of a (Roll Pitch Yaw) RPY wrist.
Sol. A RPY wrist configuration as shown in fig.11.
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2
[ 2 2 ]
2
2
[ ]
2
[ ]
[ ] [ 2 2 ] [ ]
2 2 2
[ 2 2 2 ]
2 2 2
[ ] [ 2 2 2 ]
2 2 2
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2
[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2
[ 2 2 2 2]
2
2
[ ]
2
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2 2 2 2
[ ] [ 2 2 2 2] [ ] [ ]
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
[ ]
2
Where,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hence the direct kinematic model in matrix form is:
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
[ ] [ ]
2
The region that can be reached by the origin of the end effector frame with at least one
orientation is called the Reachable workspace (RWS).
The space where the end effector can reach every point from all orientation is called the
Dexterous workspace (DWS). The DWS is either smaller or same as RWS.
3.6.1 Solvability of inverse kinematic model
Inverse kinematics is complex because the solution is to be found for nonlinear
simultaneous equations involving transcendental (harmonic sine and cosine) functions.
The number of simultaneous equations is also generally more than the number of
unknowns, making some equations mutually dependent.
These conditions lead to possibility of many solutions (multiple solutions) or non –
existence of any solution for given end effector position and orientation.
Existence of solution
If the desired point P lies outside the RWS, then no solution exists.
Even if P is within the RWS, not all orientations are realizable unless P lies within the
DWS.
If the wrist has less than 3 DOF to orient the end effector, then certain classes of
orientations are not realizable.
For a manipulator to have all position and orientation solutions, the number of DOF (n)
must at least match the number of constraints (6).
Multiple solutions
Existence of multiple solutions poses a problem because the robot system must have a
capability to choose one solution, probably the best one.
The reasons for getting multiple solutions are:
Parallel axes of revolute joints
Existence of trigonometric functions in equations
Presence of non-zero joint – link parameters and the range of joint motions
allowed
Degrees of freedom
Parallel axis of revolute joints
Two solutions are obtained here because the axes of the two consecutive revolute
joints of the arm are parallel. If more than 2 joint axis are parallel, the number of solutions
multiply.
Existence of trigonometric functions in equations
The harmonic nature of Sine and Cosine function gives same magnitudes for angles in
multiples of π radians. For example, the yaw, pitch and roll motions of the RPY wrist for two
sets of joint displacements 2 ( | 2 | | ) with | 2
|
|
2 will lead to same orientation of the wrist.
Presence of non-zero joint – link parameters and the range of joint motions allowed
The number of ways to reach a certain goal is directly related to the number of non – zero
link parameters. For example for a completely general rotary jointed, 6 DOF manipulator
with all six , up to 16 solutions are possible.
Degrees of freedom
A manipulator with more than 6 DOF may have infinitely many solutions. A manipulator
with more DOF than necessary is called kinematically redundant manipulator. The SCARA
configuration is an example of redundant manipulator. It has one redundant DOF in the
horizontal direction. The redundant manipulator has added flexibility, which can be useful in
avoiding obstacles or reaching inaccessible locations as shown in fig.16.
Problems:
1) Obtain the Inverse Kinematic model of a 3 DOF RRP arm.
Sol.
To obtain inverse kinematic model, the direct kinematic model must be determined first as
follows:
A RRP configuration is as shown in fig.17.
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2]
2
2 2 2
[ 2 2 ]
2
2
[ ]
2
[ ]
[ ] [ 2 2 ] [ ]
2 2 2
[ 2 2 2]
2 2 2
22
2 22
Also
2
2
Consider,
2
2 2
2
Squaring and adding the three equations, we get,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 ( ) 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
( 2 2 ) 2
2 2 2 2
2
√ 2
2
2 2
2) Consider a 4 DOF RPPR manipulator arm with joint link transformation matrices
2
[ ] 2 [ ] [ ]
2
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
2
[ ]
2
But [ ]
[ ] [ ]
2
( )
Also
( )
Also
End of unit-3