Chapter II

19TH CENTURY PHILIPPINES AS RIZAL'S CONTEXT

Contextualization aids comprehension. Generally, to contextualize something is to place

it within its proper and larger setting in which it presents its true and complete meaning. As Jose
Rizal was born and grew up in the 19th century, to contextualize him-so as to properly understand
his life, thoughts, and works-is to understand the social and political context of that century.

Nineteenth century is commonly depicted as the birth of modern life, as well as the birth
of many nation-states around the globe. The century was also a period of massive changes in
Europe, Spain, and consequently in the Philippines. It was during this era that the power and glory
of Spain, the Philippines' colonizer, had waned both in its colonies and in the world.

Discussions on the 19th century Philippines as Rizal's context are hereby divided into three
(3) aspects: the economic, social, and political. Under these main headings are major historical
events or issues, which characterized the country during that era.

The Economic Context

At least four historical elements basically compose the economic context of the era in
which Jose Rizal was born: (a) the end of the Galleon Trade, (b) the opening of the Suez Canal, (c)
the rise of the export of the crop economy, and (d) the established monopolies in the Philippines.

End of Galleon Trade

Our locals were already trading with China, Japan, Siam (now Thailand), India, Cambodia,
Borneo, and the Moluccas (Spice Islands) when the Spanish colonizers came to the Philippines. In
1565, the Spanish government closed the ports of Manila to all countries except Mexico, thereby
giving birth to the Manila-Acapulco Trade, popularly known as the "Galleon Trade."

The Galleon Trade (1565 to 1815) was a ship ("galleon") trade going back and forth
between Manila (which actually landed first in Cebu) and Acapulco, Mexico. It started when
Andres de Urdaneta, in convoy under Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, discovered a return route from
Cebu to Mexico in 1565. The trade served as the central income generating business for Spanish
colonists in the Philippines.
Through this trans-Pacific trade, the mango de Manila, tamarind and rice, the carabao (known in
Mexico by 1737), cockfighting, Chinese tea and textiles, fireworks display, tuba (coconut wine)
making went to Mexico. The return voyage, on the other hand, brought numerous and valuable
flora and fauna into the Philippines, including guava, avocado, papaya, pineapple, horses, and
cattle ("Galleon Trade." n.d.). Other consequences of this 250-year trade were the intercultural
exchanges between Asia (especially Philippines), Spanish America, and onward to Europe and
Africa.

Because of the galleon trade, Manila became a trading hub where China. India, Japan, and
Southeast Asian countries sent their goods to be consolidated for shipping. Those who ran the
hub and did most of the work were primarily Chinese. They arrived in the Philippines in junks
yearly, bringing goods and workforce. With the huge migration of Chinese because of the galleon
trade, the Spaniards feared them, taxed them, sent them out to the Parian and eventually, when
tensions rose. massacred some of them. "Such massacres were at their height in the 17th century
from suspicion, unease, and fear, until the Spaniards and the Chinese learned to live with each
other in the next few centuries" (Ongpin, n.d.).

The Manila Galleon trade allowed modern, liberal ideas to enter the Philippines.
Eventually and gradually inspiring the movement for independence from Spain. On September
14, 1815, the Galleon Trade ended with Mexico's war of independence.

BIOGRAPHY, WRITINGS, AND LEGACIES OF OUR BAYANI CR 11

Previously, the Philippines was governed by Spain from Mexico. The Spanish Crown took
direct control of the Philippines and administered it directly from Madrid. The opening of the Suez
Canal and the invention of steam ships, which lessened the travel time from Spain to the country
to 40 days. Made this more convenient.

Opening of the Suez Canal

An artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, the Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea
to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. Constructed by the Suez Canal Company between
1859 and 1869 under the leadership of French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps. it was officially
opened on November 17. 1869.
With the opening of the canal, and the Philippines was considerably abbreviated and thus virtually
brought the country closer to Spain. Before the opening of the canal, a steamer from Barcelona
had to sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach Manila after a menacing journey of more than
three months. With the Suez Canal, the voyage was lessened to only 32 to 40 days.

The opening of the Suez Canal became a huge advantage in commercial enterprises
especially between Europe and East Asia. More importantly, it served as a significant factor that
enabled the growth of nationalistic desires of Jose Rizal and other Filipino ilustrados.

The Suez Canal expedited the importation not only of commercial products but also of
books, magazines, and newspapers with liberal ideas from America and Europe, which ultimately
affected the minds of Rizal and other Filipino reformists. The political views of Western liberal
thinkers entered the Philippines. Furthermore, the reduced route 'stimulated more and more
Spaniards and Europeans with liberal ideas to come to the country and interact with local
reformists.

The availability of the Suez Canal has also encouraged the ilustrados, especially Jose Rizal,
to pursue education abroad and learn scientific and liberal in European academic institutions.
Their social dealings with liberals in the West have influenced their thoughts on nationhood,
politics, and government.

Rise of the Export of Crop Economy

During the Galleon Trade, most of the Spaniards in the Philippines were engrossed in
maritime trading undertakings between Manila and Mexico. The exploitation of the Philippines'
natural resources and the progress of an export crop economy were phenomena of the
nineteenth century, not of the Spanish rule's early period.

Some years after the end of the Galleon Trade, between 1820 and 1870, the Philippines
was well on its way of developing an export crop economy. Products, such as sugar. Manila hemp,
and coffee were produced for foreign markets while imported goods of the European factory
industry found their way into many parts of the Philippines. The various economic activities in the
new export-crop economy in the country provided many opportunities for the expanding Chinese
population. Formerly concentrated in Manila, many Chinese moved to provinces that produced
export crops: the hemp-producing areas of southeastern Luzon and the eastern Visayas, the sugar
areas of the western Visayas, and the tobaccco provinces of northeastern Luzon.
 The development of the export crop industry in the Philippines was motivated by the
commercial undertakings of North European and North American merchants, who provided
capital, organization, and access to foreign markets and sources of imports. But since they based
their operations in port cities, especially Manila, they needed agents who could distribute imports
in the interior and buy up goods for export. This role was assumed primarily by the Chinese.

Monopolies

Another main source of wealth during the post-galleon era was monopoly contracting.
After 1850, government monopoly contracts for the collection of different revenues were opened
to foreigners for the first time. The Chinese instantly took advantage of this commercial
opportunity and thus, for the rest of the 19th century, enjoyed a pre-eminent position in
monopoly contracting in the Philippines. The opium monopoly was specifically a profitable one.
During the 1840's, the Spanish government had legalized the use of opium (provided it was
limited to Chinese) and a government monopoly of opium importation and sales was created. The
majority of contracts in the monopoly were held by the Chinese. But even before 1850,
monopolies on some products had been established, which were basically controlled by the
colonial government. There were monopolies of special crops and items, such as spirituous
liquors (1712-1864), betel nut (1764) tobacco (1782-1882), and explosives (1805-1864). Among
these monopoly systems, the most controversial and oppressive to locals was perhaps the
tobacco monopoly.

On March 1, 1782, Governor General Jose Basco placed the Philippine tobacco industry
under government control, thereby establishing the tobacco monopoly. It aimed to increase
government revenue since the annual subsidy coming from Mexico was no longer sufficient to
maintain the colony. An order was thus issued for the widespread cultivation of tobacco in the
provinces of Cagayan Valley, Ilocos Norte. Ilocos Sur, La Union, Isabela, Abra, Nueva Ecija, and
Marinduque.

These provinces planted nothing but tobacco and sold their produce only to the
government at a pre-designated price, leaving little or no profit for the local farmers. The system
set the required number of tobacco plants that must be sold to them by each family. Nobody was
allowed to keep even a few tobacco leaves for personal use, thereby forcing the local farmers to
buy the tobacco they themselves planted from the government. Fines and/or physical
punishments were sanctioned to anyone who would transgress any of the decrees under the
system.
 The colonial government exported the tobacco to other countries and to the cigarette
factories in Manila. The tobacco monopoly positively raised revenues for the government and
made Philippine tobacco prominent all over Asia and some parts in Europe. Negatively though,
the monopoly brought about food shortages since the planting of basic crops like rice was
somewhat neglected and abandoned.
The tobacco monopoly was finally abolished in 1882. (Some references state that the tobacco
monopoly in the Philippines was from 1781 to 1881. not 1782 to 1882. although most authors
agree that it lasted for exactly 100 years.) A century of hardship and social injustice caused by
the tobacco monopoly prompted Filipinos in general and Novo Ecijanos in particular, to seek
freedom from colonial bondage.

The Social Background

Concerning the social picture of the 19th century Philippines, at least three topics are needed to
be discussed: (a) education. (b) The rise of Chinese Mestizo, and (c) the rise of the inquilinos.

Education in the 19th Century

With the coming of Spanish colonizers, the European system of education was somewhat
introduced to the archipelago. Schools were established and run by Catholic missionaries.Aiming
to convert the natives to the Catholic faith and make them obedient. The colonial government
and the Catholic Church made religion a compulsory subject at all levels.

King Philip II's Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies) mandated Spanish authorities in the
Philippines to educate the locals, to teach them how to read and write and to learn Spanish. The
Spanish missionaries thus established schools, somewhat educated the natives, but did not
seriously teach them the Spanish language. Fearing that the Indios would become so
knowledgeable and turn out to be their co-equal. Less than one-fifth of those who went to school
could read and write Spanish, and far fewer could speak the language properly.

The first formal schools in the land were the parochial schools opened in their parishes by
the missionaries, such as the Augustinians, Franciscans, Jesuits, and Dominicans. Aside from
religion, the native children were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and some vocational and
practical arts subjects. Aside from the Christian Doctrines, Latin (the official language of the
Catholic Church) was also taught to the students instead of Spanish. The Spanish friars believed
that the natives would not be able to match their skills, and so one way for the locals to learn fast
was to use strict discipline, such as applying corporal punishment.

Later on, colleges (which were the equivalent of our high schools today) were established
for boys and girls. There was no co-education during the Spanish regime as boys and girls studied
in separate schools. The subjects taught to college students included history, Latin, geography,
mathematics, and philosophy.
University education was opened in the country during the early part of the 17th century. Initially,
the colleges and universities were open only to the Spaniards and those with Spanish blood
(mestizos). It was only in the 19th century that these. Universities started accepting native
Filipinos. Still giving emphasis on religion. Universities then did not earnestly teach science and
mathematics.

In 1863, a royal decree called for the establishment of a public school system in the
Philippines. Formerly run totally by religious authorities, the education in the colony was thus
finally administered by the government during the last half of the 19th century though even then
the church controlled its curriculum. Previously exclusive for Spaniards and Spanish mestizos,
universities became open to natives though they limited their accommodations to the sons of
wealthy Indio families.

Nonetheless, as a result of the growing number of educated natives, a new social class in
the country emerged, which came to be known as the Ilustrados. But despite their wealth and
education, the ilustrados were still deemed by the Spaniards as inferior. One of the aims of the
ilustrados was to be in the same level with the proud Spaniards.

With the opening of the Suez Canal, which made the travel to Europe faster. Easier, and more
affordable, many locals took advantage of the chance to pursue higher and better education in
that continent. Typically in Madrid and Barcelona. There nationalism and the thirst for reform
bloomed in the liberal atmosphere. The new enlightened class in Philippine society would later
lead the Philippine independence movement, using the Spanish language as their key means of
communication. Out of this talented group of students from the Philippines arose what came to
be known as the Propaganda Movement. The most prominent of the Ilustrados was José Rizal.
Who inspired the craving for freedom and independence with his novels written in Spanish?
The Rise of Chinese Mestizo

At the beginning of the 19th century, economic and political changes in Europe were
finally starting to affect Spain and. consequently the Philippines. Significant as an impetus to
broader trade was the gradual abolition of the monopoly enjoyed by the Manila-Acapulco
Galleon. Upon the elimination of the galleon trade. Manila. Became open to foreign merchants
almost without restriction by the mid-1830s. The demand for Philippine sugar and abaca (hemp)
grew swiftly, and the amount of exports to European countries increased even more after the
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.

The development of commercial agriculture in the archipelago resulted in the presence of

a new class. Alongside the landholdings of the church and the rice estates of the pre-Spanish
nobility, there emerged haciendas of sugar, coffee, and hemp, typically owned by enterprising
Chinese-Filipino mestizos. In fact, some of the families which attained reputation in the 19th
century have continued to play a vital role in the country's economics and politics.

In a larger perspective, the fast rhythm of economic progress in the Philippines during the
19th century expedited by some mentioned factors resulted in the rise of a new breed of rich and
influential Filipino middle class. Non-existent in earlier centuries, this class, composed of Spanish
and Chinese mestizos ascended to a position of power in the Philippine society and in due course
became leaders in education and finance. This middle class included:

The ilustrados who belonged to the landed gentry and who were highly respected in their
respective pueblos or towns, though regarded as filibusteros or rebels by the friars. The relative
prosperity of the period has enabled them to send their sons to Spain and Europe for higher
studies. Most of them later became members of freemasonry and active in the Propaganda
Movement. Some of them sensed the failure of reformism and turned to radicalism, and looked
up to Rizal as their leader." (Vallano, n.d.)

The Rise of the Inquilinos At least in modern Spanish, the term inquilino has the same
meaning as the English "tenant." Contextually, the 19th Century inquilino system in the
Philippines is better understood as a qualified system of tenancy, or the right to use land in
exchange for rent. As earlier explained, the elimination of the Galleon Trade and the opening of
the Suez Canal gave way for more intensive rice cultivation and production of crops, such as sugar
cane and tobacco. Consequently, many estates turned progressively to the inquilino system of
land tenure. But since the friars and secular Spanish were normally absentee landlords, estate
management was granted to an administrator who was typically a lay Spanish mestizo or Filipino
lay brother. During harvest time, the administrator would collect the rent of the inquilinos,
organize the delivery of the harvests to the local market or to Manila, and remit the income from
sales and rents to the estate owners. In some estates though, these farm duties were consigned
to trusted inquilinos. Acting as overlords, some inquilinos would make innumerable and irrational
demands from farm workers.

Inquilinos paid a fixed rent and the amount was determined by the size and quality of the
land being worked on. But with the expansion of land owned by missionary congregations (friar
estates), the proportions of farmlands leased to inquilinos also increased allowing many of them
to sub-lease parcels of their land to sharecroppers or kasamas. This system eventually became
very profitable that some inquilinos acquired lands of their own and entered in other gainful
commercial ventures. Some inquilinos even ceased becoming farmers and relegated the job
completely to their sub-tenants.

As friar estates enlarged, outlining the boundaries that separated these estates from
communal lands became a common cause of conflict:
Disputes over communal woodcutting and grazing areas occured regularly between villages and
estates, with the latter denying to the former their traditional communal privileges. In Bulacan,
for instance, the villagers once complained that the friars took illegal possession of their land and
to compound this crime, they even denied the use of rivers for fishing and the forests for
collecting firewood and wild fruits. In Cavite and Laguna, the Dominicans and Tagalogs frequently
fought over border lands. In one incident, the former claimed that the pasture lands in a nearby
mountain was included in their land grant, while the latter denied this and regularly killed the
estate cattle grazing there. Land border conflicts became so acute in these provinces that they
served as catalysts for agrarian uprisings. (Sobritchea, n.d.) There were also conflicts between
estate owners and workers. These stemmed from collection of excessive taxes and land rent, the
decline of sharing agreements. Extreme demands for labor services and capricious fixing of crop
prices: the hacienda structure consisted of three strata: the estate owner, the leaseholder or
inquilino and the tenant-sharecropper. Between the owner and the inquilino, however, was the
administrator who often demanded a share of the produce, over and above the stipulated land
rent. Each year at harvest time, the inquilino paid the land rent separated the seed, and divided
the remaining crop equally between the sharecropper and himself. Since the sharecropper was
at the bottom rung of the hierarchy, he suffered most abuses and demands of the two
nonproducing sectors above him." (Sobritchea, n.d.)

Consequently, there were instances of peasants taking arms to protest the alleged abuses
and usurpation of their lands by the Jesuits. Dominicans, Augustinians, and the Recollects. The
relative freedom, which the inquilinos acquired by sub-leasing their farms provided them a
tactical advantage for arranging and leading these peasant protest movements.

The Political Landscape

The so-called political influences affecting the 19th century-Philippines largely impacted
the locals, particularly Jose Rizal. Under these political influences, worthy of mention are (a)
Liberalism. (b) The impact of the Bourbon reforms, and (c) the Cadiz constitution.

Liberalism

Liberalism is a worldview founded on ideas of freedom and equality. It includes a wide

range of political philosophies that consider individual liberty to be the most significant political

goal, and underscore individual rights and equality of opportunity. Liberals normally believe that

government is necessary to protect individuals from being abused by others though they are also

aware that government itself can pose a threat to liberty.

The French revolution (1789-1799) started a political revolution in Europe and Fraternity
as its battle cry, this revolution became a period of fundamental consequently in some other parts
of the globe. "Having Liberty, Equality, and change in the political history of France as the French
governmental structure was changed from absolute monarchy (with feudal privileges for the rich
and clergy) into a more liberal government system founded on the principles of citizenship and
Inalienable rights.

As an eventual repercussion of the French Revolution. Spain later experienced a stormy

century of political disturbances, which included "numerous changes in parliaments and
constitutions, the Peninsular War, the loss of Spanish America, and the struggle between liberals
and conservatives (Vallano, n.d.). The liberals in Spain considered the Catholic Church as an
enemy of reforms. They thus pursued curbing its influence in political life and education. In the
19th century, this movement against the Catholic Church, called anti-clericalism, had gained some
strength.

Radical modifications in government form were also introduced by liberals in Spain. These
political changes had their repercussions in the Philippines, "cracking the fabric of the old colonial
system and introducing through cracks perilous possibilities of reform, of equality and even
emancipation" (De la Costa, as cited in Vallano, n.d.).

When the Philippines was opened to world trade in the 19th century, liberal ideas from
America carried by ships and people from foreign ports started to penetrate the country and sway
the ilustrados. These political thoughts included the ideologies of the American and French
Revolutions.

Furthermore, the opening of the Suez Canal eased the importation of books. Magazines,
and newspapers with liberal ideas from the West, which eventually impacted the thoughts of
local reformists, such as Jose Rizal. The political views of liberal thinkers, such as Jean Jacques
Rousseau (Social Contract), John Locke (Two Treatises of Government). Thomas Paine (Common
Sense). Thomas Jefferson. Montesquieu, Voltaire, and some others thus entered the Philippines.

The valuable canal also encouraged more and more liberal Spaniards and Europeans to
come to the country and intermingle with the natives. The abbreviated route has also stimulated
the ilustrados like Rizal to pursue higher studies abroad and learn liberal ideas in European
universities. For sure, their social interaction with liberals in foreign lands had affected their
beliefs on politics and nationhood.
Philippines' actual experience of liberalism came from the role modeling of the "first liberal
governor general in the Philippines," Governor-General Carlos María De la Torre. After the liberals
in Spain had deposed Queen Isabela II in the 1868 mutiny, a provisional government was formed,
and the new government extended to Spain's colonies the reforms they implemented in the
motherland. The liberal

General Carlos Maria De la Torre was appointed by the provisional government as

Governor General of the Philippines. He held the position from 1869 to 1871, and is widely
considered to be the most beloved of the Spanish Governors General ever assigned in the
country.

General De la Torre's rule was essential in the dawn of national consciousness of the locals
in the 19th century. His liberal and democratic governance had provided Jose Rizal and the others
a preview of a democratic rule and way of life:

De la Torre put into practice his liberal and democratic ways by avoiding luxury and living
a simple life. During his two-year term. Governor De la Torre had many significant achievements.
He encouraged freedom and abolished censorship. He recognized the freedom of speech and of
the press, which were guaranteed by the Spanish Constitution. Because of his tolerant policy.
Father Jose Burgos and other Filipino priests were encouraged to pursue their dream of replacing
the friars with the Filipino clergy as parish priests in the country. His greatest achievement was
the peaceful solution to the land problem in Cavite. This province has been the center of agrarian
unrest in the country since the 18th century because the Filipino tenants who lost their land had
been oppressed by Spanish landlords. Agrarian uprisings led by the local hero, Eduardo Camerino,
erupted several times in Cavite. This agrarian problem was only solved without bloodshed when
Governor De la Torre himself went to Cavite and had a conference with the rebel leader. He
pardoned the latter and his followers, provided them with decent livelihood and appointed them
as members of the police force with Camerino as captain." (Vallano, n.d.)

The Impact of the Bourbon Reforms

When the Spanish Bourbon King Philip V (b. 1700-1746) assented to the throne, he and
his successors. Ferdinand VI (r. 1746-1759). Charles III (r. 1759-1788), and Charles IV (r.
17881807), advocated a century-long effort to reform and modify the Spanish empire. These
policy changes, known jointly as the Bourbon Reforms, endeavored to curtail contraband
commerce, reclaim control over transatlantic trade, restrict the church's power, reform state
finances to fill dwindling royal coffers, and found tighter administrative and political control
within the empire.
Ideally, the Bourbon reform policies were advantageous to the Philippines, which was
under Spain from 1565 to 1898. They surely impacted the way the colony was run by Spanish
administrators but only to a limited extent. For one thing, the Philippines was practically far from
Spain, and so it was hard for Bourbon advocates to check if reform policies were properly
implemented in Spain's colony in the Far East.

Moreover, there were questionable matters as regards the effectiveness of the Bourbon
reform project. The policies lacked some ideological coherence, with the diverse and frequently
contradictory aims of Madrid policy makers, who struggled haltingly to balance the crown's
several commercial, administrative, fiscal and military aims. The reform process was also seen as
so complex, much so that Spanish reformers sometimes promoted distinctly different kinds of
policies for provinces in its diverse empire. Furthermore, there were instances when European
conflicts forced Charles IV to go from one policy to another by the mid 1790s to meet the needs
of financing Spain's wars.
 As a consequence, there were very different impacts of reform in the diverse Spanish
empire, having deep consequences of colonial policy innovations in areas. such as Mexico, while
in some other regions, such as the Philippines, Chile, and New Granada, the reforms had a much
more limited impact. But while historians are questioning the overall timing, impact, and
effectiveness of the Bourbon Reforms, its impact at least is that it gave people, especially the
natives in the Philippines, the idea that colonization could be done without much intervention
from the Catholic Church.

The Cadiz Constitution

During the Napoleonic occupation of Spain. a liberal constitution was promulgated in
Cádiz in March 1812. Drafted by elected representatives, the Cadiz Constitution was put in
practice in almost all the areas of the Hispanic Monarchy still under control of the Spanish crown.

This milestone constitution had an impact on many other European constitutions, as well
as on the American states after independence. The Cadiz Constitution was the first constitution
in Europe to deal with national sovereignty, recognizing sovereignty as coming from the people
and not from the king. Unlike the French constitution, which applied to all French-speaking
citizens of France, this Spanish Constitution of 1812 had a universal character as it included
everyone from overseas, like the Italian kingdoms and even the Philippines.

During the occupation of almost all of the Iberian peninsula by the French army in that
fateful year, a group of around 300 deputies from Spain. Spanish America. and the Philippines a
liberal constitution in the Mediterranean port of Cádiz. This became possible especially because
the city was protected by the British Navy.

The first delegates from the Philippines were Pedro Perez de Tagle and Jose Manuel
Coretto who took their oath of office in Madrid. The Cadiz Constitution. which was formally
implemented in Manila soon after, established the principles of universal male suffrage, national
sovereignty, constitutional monarchy, and freedom of the press, and advocated land reform and
free enterprise. Dealing with policies on Spain's colonies including the Philippines, the
constitution issued a decree "granting all its colonies representation as provinces in the Spanish
Cortes through deputies chosen by the various capital cities" (Pedrosa, n.d.). Under the Cadiz
Constitution:
 Governor General Manuel Gonzales Aguilar called for an election of Manila officials which
resulted in the selection of Don Ventura de los Reyes, a wealthy merchant and member of the
Royal Corps of Artillery of Manila, as the deputy. The Vigan-born Don Ventura de los Reyes was a
son of poor Ilocano parents. He took part in the Ilocos revolt led by Diego Silang in 1762, but later
on engaged in the vegetable and indigo business. He was one of the delegates who signed the
Constitution but it was only after a year that those in Manila knew about its decrees." (Pedrosa,
n.d.)

The constitutional monarchy that the Cadiz Constitution attempted to put in place did not
come to fruition because in May of 1814, King Fernando VII declared it invalid and restored
absolutism. However, Cádiz was a very significant period in the political history of the
Spanishspeaking world at least. On the part of the locals in the Philippines, one crucial creed
embodied in the constitution was the exemption of the natives from paying tributes and
rendering public services based on its equality clause.

For the freedom-loving people of the Philippines in the 19th century, the constitution was
very influential as it was a liberal constitution, which vested sovereignty in the people, recognized
the equality of all men and the individual liberty of the citizen, and granted the right of suffrage.

Seeing Rizal's Life in His Society

In various social sciences, it is a widely accepted principle that we see the life of an
individual in his/her society, and society in the life of an individual. This is precisely the reason
that 19th century Philippines, as Rizal's society, is discussed here as a preliminary in studying the
hero's life and works.
One unique feature of Rizal, nonetheless, is that he did not only know the valuable
information about his society but also had a quality of mind that helped him use the information
in a way that he could think about what was going on in the world and of what might be happening
within himself. Sociologists call this quality of mind the "sociological imagination."

Having this sociological imagination, people can view their inner life and career in terms
of larger historical forces. Those who possess this quality of mind can understand their own
experiences by locating themselves in history: they can recognize the responses available to them
by becoming aware of all of the individuals who share the same situation as themselves.

People who cannot locate their lives in history are unlikely to know how to respond
effectively to a world in which the lives of people around the globe are interconnected and in
which one society's problems are part of larger global problems. On the other hand, those who
have the sociological imagination can grasp history in the context of realities they face and the
connections between the two. As will be discussed in this book, Rizal had this quality-he knew his
place in the greater scheme of things, he understood the societal forces shaping his life, and thus
able to respond in ways that benefitted others.