Time-varying Load Failures

Piyush Shakya

405, Machine Design Section

Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Madras
email: pshakya@iitm.ac.in

August 22, 2020

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 1 / 47

Contents

1 Fatigue Failure: Introduction

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 2 / 47

History

• Source: www.trainweb.org/tgvpages/images/maintain/bogie.jpg

• Source: Meral Bayraktar, Necati Tahrali and Rahmi Guclu, “Re-

liability and fatigue life evaluation of railway axles”, Journal of
Mechanical Science and Technology 24 (3) (2010) 671 679.
Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 3 / 47
History

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 4 / 47

Loss of Life to Fatigue Failure

• Aloha Airlines, Boeing 737, Hawaii, USA, 28th April 1988.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 5 / 47
Fatigue Failure Examples

• Source: Machine Design An Integrated Approach, R. L. Norton.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 6 / 47
Fatigue Failure Examples

• Source: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, R G Budynas, J

K Nisbett.
Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 7 / 47
Fatigue Failure Examples

• Source: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, R G Budynas, J

K Nisbett.
Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 8 / 47
Fatigue Failure Examples

• Source: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, R G Budynas, J

K Nisbett.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 9 / 47

August Wohler Experiments

• Source: S. S. Manson and G. R. Halford, Fatigue and Durability of

Structured Materials, ASM International, March 2006, pp. 45-46.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 10 / 47

Mechanism of Failure

• Fatigue failure always be-

gins at a crack.
• Cracks tend to form near
stress concentration areas.
(i) Any geometric feature
that increases stress locally
(ii) A hole in a plate causes
stress to increase around
the hole.
• Cracks propagate due to
cyclic loading finally caus-
ing fracture

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 11 / 47

Stress Concentration

• In practice, discontinuities and abrupt

changes in cross-section are unavoid-
able due to certain features of the
component such as oil holes and
grooves, keyways and splines, screw
threads and shoulders.
• The distribution of stresses near the
hole can be observed by using the
Photo-elasticity technique.
M y
• σt = AP , σb = Ib , and τ = MJt r are
called elementary equations.
• Kt = σσmax
0
= ττmax
0

• Theoretical stress concentration factor

highest values o f actual stress near discontinuity
Kt = Nominal stress obtained by elementary equations f or minimum cross−section
Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 12 / 47
Stress Concentration

• When the stress in the vicinity of the discontinuity reaches the yield
point, there is plastic deformation, resulting in a redistribution of
stresses.

• Therefore, it is common practice to ignore the theoretical stress con-

centration factor for components that are made of ductile materials
and subjected to static load

• The effect of stress concentration is more severe in case of brittle

materials, due to their inability to plastic deform

• Therefore, stress concentration factors are used for components

made of brittle materials subjected to both static load as well as
fluctuating load.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 13 / 47

Reduction of Stress Cocentration

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 14 / 47

Reduction of Stress Cocentration

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 15 / 47

Stress Cocentration Factor (Kt )

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 16 / 47

Stress Cocentration Factor (Kt )

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 17 / 47

Stress Cocentration Factor (Kt )

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 18 / 47

Fatigue Failure

• Failure fatigue occurs under repetitive or fluctuating loading con-

ditions.

• Fatigue failure occurs at stress levels much lower that the stresses
that cause static failures.

• The life (often referred to as the number of cycles to failure) becomes

a critical parameter in design.

• The cracks initiating the fatigue failure usually begins at a stress

raiser (stress concentration)

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 19 / 47

Situations under Fatigue Loading

• Mean Stress σm = σmax +σ

2
min

σmax −σmin
• Stress Amplitude σa = 2
• The repeated stress and re-
versed stress are special cases
of fluctuating stress with
(σmin = 0) and (σm = 0), re-
spectively.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 20 / 47

Fatigue Failure (Assumptions)

• Loads alternate between a clear maximum and minimum (OR) are

totally random.

• The alternating frequency does not matter.

• The presence of corrosion is not considered. Typically, the effect of

corrosion will enhance under loads.

• Sinusoidal loading has been assumed for convenience. It has been

observed that the actual pattern of the load does not matter as long
as σm and σa remain constant.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 21 / 47

Rotating Beam Machine

• Source: Design of Machine Elements, V B Bhandari.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 22 / 47

Rotating Beam Machine

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 23 / 47

Rotating Beam Machine

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 24 / 47

Rotating Beam Machine Sample Preparation

• The sample is carefully machined and polished. The final polishing

is done in the axial direction to avoid the circumferential scratches.
• Notice the fixed dimensions.
• 250 mm radius curve to avoid any stress concentration.
• No effect of temperature.
• No consideration of the variability between sample to sample (for
reliability).

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 25 / 47

Strength Life Diagram (Ferrous Material)

• Source: Design of Machine Elements, V B Bhandari.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 26 / 47
Strength Life Diagram (Aluminium Alloys)

• Since aluminum does not have an endurance limit, normally the

fatigue strength is reported at a specific number of cycles.
• Source: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, R G Budynas, J
K Nisbett.
Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 27 / 47
Endurance Limit and Tensile Strength Correlation

• Source: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, R G Budynas, J

K Nisbett.
Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 28 / 47
Endurance Limit - Approximate Estimation

• A number of tests are required to prepare one S − N curve and each

test takes considerable time. It is, therefore, not possible to get the
experimental data of each and every material.

• When the laboratory data regarding the endurance limit of the

materials is not available, the procedure discussed here can be
adopted.

• The endurance limit is not exactly like a material property like

ultimate tensile strength, as it is affected by the factors such as the
size of the component, shape of the component, the surface finish,
and the notch sensitivity of the material.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 29 / 47

Endurance Limit - Approximate Estimation

• S0e =endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to

reversed bending stress (N/mm2 )

• Se =endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component

subjected to reversed bending stress (N/mm2 )

• For steels S0e = 0.5Sut

• For iron and cast steels S0e = 0.4Sut

• For wrought aluminium alloys S0e = 0.4Sut

• For cast aluminium alloys S0e = 0.3Sut

• These above expressions are based on 50% reliability.

• Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S0e

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 30 / 47

Surface Finish Factor (Ka ) for Steel

• The value of grey cast iron components is taken as one irrespective

of their surface finish.
Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 31 / 47
Surface Size Factor (Kb )

• For bending and torsion, the values of size factor (Kb ) are as follow-
ing:

• For axial loading, Kb = 1

• Source: Design of Machine Elements, V B Bhandari.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 32 / 47

Kuguel’s Equality for Non-Circular Cross-Section

• Kuguel’s equality may be used to define effective diameter of an

equivalent circular cross-section.

• According to Kuguel’s equality, the effective diameter is obtained

by equating the volume of the material stressed at and above 95%
of the maximum stress to the equivalent volume in the rotating
beam specimen.

• When two volumes are equated, the lengths of the component and
rotating beam specimen cancel out and only areas are considered.

• The rotating beam specimen is subjected to bending stresses. The

bending stress is linearly proportional to the distance from the
centre of the cross-section.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 33 / 47

Kuguel’s Equality for Non-Circular Cross-Section

• A95 = portion of cross-sectional

area of the noncylindrical part that
is stressed between 95% and 100%
of the maximum stress
• de = effective diameter of the non-
cylindrical part
 2 
d −(0.95d)2
• A95 = π 4 = 0.0766d2
• The effective diameter of any
q non-
A95
circular cross-section de = 0.0766
• This result is also valid for a hollow
rotating shaft.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 34 / 47

Kuguel’s Equality for Non-Circular Cross-Section

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 35 / 47

Z Statistic for Reliability Factor

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 36 / 47

Reliability Factor (Kc )

• Source: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, R G Budynas, J

K Nisbett.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 37 / 47

Notch Sensitivity Factor (q)

• It is observed that the actual reduction in the endurance limit of a

material due to stress concentration is less than the amount indi-
cated by the theoretical Kt .

• Kt is applicable to ideal materials that are homogeneous, isotropic

and elastic.

Endurance limit o f notch f ree specimen

• Fatigue stress concentration factor K f = Endurance limit o f notched specimen

• This factor is applicable to actual materials and depends upon the

grain size of the material. It is observed that there is a greater reduc-
tion in the endurance limit of fine-grained materials as compared
to coarse-grained materials, due to stress concentration.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 38 / 47

Notch Sensitivity Factor (q)

• Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to

succumb to the damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue
loading. The notch sensitivity factor q is defined as

Increase o f actual stress over nominal stress

• Notch Sensitivity q = Increase o f theoretical stress over nominal stress

K f −1
• q= Kt −1 ; q = 0 =⇒ k f = 1 and q = 1 =⇒ k f = Kt

• The value of q varies between 0 and 1. In case of doubt, for safe

side the designer should use (q = 1) or (K f = Kt )

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 39 / 47

Notch Sensitivity Factor (q)

• Source: Design of Machine Elements, V B Bhandari.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 40 / 47

Derating Factor for Stress Concentration (Kd )

• The endurance limit is reduced due to stress concentration. The

stress concentration factor used for cyclic loading is less than the
theoretical stress concentration factor due to the notch sensitivity
of the material.

• The modifying factor (Kd ) to account for the effect of stress concen-
tration is defined as, Kd = K1f

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 41 / 47

Endurance Limit - Approximate Estimation

• The endurance limit in reversed bending Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S0e

• The endurance limit in fluctuating torsional shear stresses

• According to the maximum shear stress theory, Sse = 0.5Se

• According to distortion energy theory, Sse = 0.577Se

• The endurance limit for axial loading (Se )a = 0.8Se

• The bending stress is lower towards the center; however, the axial
load is constant throughout; therefore, a micro crack near the center
line may be more harmful in the case of axial load than the bending
load.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 42 / 47

Reversed Stresses - Design for Infinite and Finite Life

• Case 1: Design for Infinite

Life When the component is
to be designed for infinite life,
the endurance limit becomes
the criterion of failure.
• Stress amplitudes in the com-
ponent reversed bending σa =
Se Sse
fs and torsion τa = fs

• Case 2: Design for Finite Life Locate the point A with coordi-
nates [3, log10 (0.9Sut )] as log10 (103 ) = 3 and point B with coordinates
[6, log10 (Se )] as log10 (106 ) = 6
• Corresponding to N cycles, the value of the fatigue strength (S f )
obtained from the figure is used for the design calculations.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 43 / 47

Example 1

• A 25 mm diameter shaft is made of forged steel 30C8 (Sut = 600

N/mm2 ). There is a step in the shaft and the theoritical stress
concentration factor at the step is 2.1. The notch sensitivity factor
is 0.84. Determine the endurance limit of the shaft if it is subjected
to reversed bending moment?

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 44 / 47

Example 2

• A cantilever beam made of steel Fe 540 (Sut = 540 N/mm2 and S yt

= 320 N/mm2 ) and subjected to a completely reversed load (P) of
5 kN is shown below. The beam is machined and the reliability is
50%. The factor of safety is 2 and the notch sensitivity factor is 0.9.
Calculate the diameter d of the beam for infinite life.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 45 / 47

Example 3

• A forged steel bar, 50 mm in diameter, is subjected to a reversed

bending stress of 250 N/mm2 . The bar is made of steel 40C8 (Sut =
600 N/mm2 ). Calculate the life of the bar for a reliability of 90%.

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 46 / 47

Thank You

Piyush Shakya ME3201 (Design of Machine Elements) August 22, 2020 47 / 47