pp1802fCOBALTO OOKK

Cobalt
Chapter F of
Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Economic and
Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply
Professional Paper 1802–F
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Periodic Table of Elements
1A 8A
1 2
hydrogen helium
1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

6.94 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
sodium magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

22.99 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 11B 12B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.79
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
cesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.5 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium
(223) (226) (265) (268) (271) (270) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide Series*
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.2 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Actinide Series**
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
(227) 232 231 238 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
element names in blue are liquids at room temperature

element names in red are gases at room temperature
element names in black are solids at room temperature
Modified from Los Alamos National Laboratory Chemistry Division; available at http://periodic.lanl.gov/images/periodictable.pdf.
Cover. Underground photo of the Skuterud Mine in Norway showing pink secondary erythrite (a hydrated cobalt arsenate mineral).
Photograph by John F. Slack, U.S. Geological Survey.
Cobalt
By John F. Slack, Bryn E. Kimball, and Kim B. Shedd
Chapter F of
Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Economic and
Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply
Edited by Klaus J. Schulz, John H. DeYoung, Jr., Robert R. Seal II, and Dwight C. Bradley
Professional Paper 1802–F

RYAN K. ZINKE, Secretary

William H. Werkheiser, Acting Director
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2017
For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living
resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit https://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS.
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U.S. Government.
Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials
as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., Kimball, B.E., and Shedd, K.B., 2017, Cobalt, chap. F of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and
Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects
for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. F1– F40, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802F.
ISSN 2330-7102 (online)

iii
Contents
Abstract..........................................................................................................................................................F1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................F1
Cobalt Uses, Demand, and Availability of Supply...........................................................................F1
Strategic and Critical Resource Issues...........................................................................................F3
Geology...........................................................................................................................................................F4
Geochemistry.......................................................................................................................................F4
Mineralogy............................................................................................................................................F4
Principal Deposit Types......................................................................................................................F4
Stratiform Sediment-Hosted Cu-Co Deposits........................................................................F4
Ni-Co Laterite Deposits..............................................................................................................F4
Magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) Sulfide Deposits..........................................................................F5
Other Deposit Types............................................................................................................................F5
Black-Shale-Hosted Ni-Cu-Zn-Co Deposits...........................................................................F5
Fe-Cu-Co Skarn and Replacement Deposits..........................................................................F5
Iron Oxide-Cu-Au(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni) Deposits......................................................................F8
Metasedimentary-Rock-Hosted Co-Cu-Au Deposits............................................................F8
Mississippi Valley-Type Zn-Pb(-Co-Ni) Sulfide Deposits.....................................................F8
Polymetallic (Ag-Ni-Co-As-Bi) and Other Cobalt-Rich Vein Deposits...............................F8
Volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au) Massive Sulfide Deposits...............................................F8
Sea-Floor Fe-Mn(-Ni-Cu-Co-Mo) Nodules.............................................................................F9
Sea-Floor Fe-Mn(-Co-Mo-REE) Crusts....................................................................................F9
Sea-Floor Volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au) Massive Sulfide Deposits............................F9
Resources and Production........................................................................................................................F10
Production and Identified Resources.............................................................................................F10
Grade-Tonnage Characteristics.............................................................................................F10
Mining Methods........................................................................................................................F13
Typical Mine Life.......................................................................................................................F14
Ore-Processing Methods........................................................................................................F14
Undiscovered Resources.................................................................................................................F14
Unconventional Resources..............................................................................................................F14
Metamorphosed Black Shales...............................................................................................F14
Modern Sea-Floor Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits.............................................F15
Ancient Ni-Co Laterites...........................................................................................................F15
Ancient Fe-Mn(-Cu-Co-Ni) Nodules......................................................................................F15
Ancient Cobalt-Rich Manganese Deposits..........................................................................F15
Ultramafic Igneous Rocks.......................................................................................................F15
Exploration for New Deposits...................................................................................................................F15
Environmental Considerations..................................................................................................................F16
Sources and Fate in the Environment............................................................................................F16
Mine Waste Characteristics............................................................................................................F16
Human Health Concerns...................................................................................................................F17
Ecological Health Concerns.............................................................................................................F18
Mine Closure......................................................................................................................................F19
Problems and Future Research................................................................................................................F19
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................................F20
References Cited........................................................................................................................................F20
iv
Figures
F1. Pie chart showing major end uses of cobalt as a percentage of consumption
worldwide in 2011........................................................................................................................F2
F2. Bar chart showing world cobalt mine and refinery production and apparent
consumption from 2007 to 2011.................................................................................................F2
F3. Graph showing world cobalt mine production from 1950 to 2011.......................................F3
F4. Pie chart showing percentage of world cobalt mine production in 2011,
by country......................................................................................................................................F3
F5. Pie chart showing percentage of world cobalt mine production in 2011,
by deposit type............................................................................................................................F10
F6. Grade-tonnage plot for 214 cobalt deposits worldwide .....................................................F11
F7. World map showing global distribution of major cobalt-bearing mineral
deposits and selected smaller deposits that represent minor types................................F12
F8. Pie charts showing proportions of cobalt contained in mineral deposits
worldwide, by deposit type......................................................................................................F13
Tables
F1. Location, grade, tonnage, and other data for selected cobalt deposits
of the world.................................................................................................................................F34
F2. Cobalt concentrations in rocks, soils, waters, and air..........................................................F6
v
Conversion Factors
International System of Units to Inch/Pound
Multiply By To obtain
Length
angstrom (Å) (0.1 nanometer) 0.003937 microinch
angstrom (Å) (0.1 nanometer) 0.000003937 mil
micrometer (µm) [or micron] 0.03937 mil
millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)
centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch (in.)
meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft)
meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd)
kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)
Area
hectare (ha) 2.471 acre
square kilometer (km2) 247.1 acre
square meter (m2) 10.76 square foot (ft2)
square centimeter (cm2) 0.1550 square inch (ft2)
square kilometer (km2) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)
Volume
milliliter (mL) 0.03381 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)
liter (L) 33.81402 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)
liter (L) 1.057 quart (qt)
liter (L) 0.2642 gallon (gal)
cubic meter (m3) 264.2 gallon (gal)
cubic centimeter (cm3) 0.06102 cubic inch (in3)
cubic meter (m3) 1.308 cubic yard (yd3)
cubic kilometer (km3) 0.2399 cubic mile (mi3)
Mass
microgram (μg) 0.00000003527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)
milligram (mg) 0.00003527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)
gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)
gram (g) 0.03215075 ounce, troy
kilogram (kg) 32.15075 ounce, troy
kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)
ton, metric (t) 1.102 ton, short [2,000 lb]
ton, metric (t) 0.9842 ton, long [2,240 lb]
Deposit grade
gram per metric ton (g/t) 0.0291667 ounce per short ton (2,000 lb) (oz/T)
Pressure
megapascal (MPa) 10 bar
gigapascal (GPa) 10,000 bar
Density
gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) 62.4220 pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
milligram per cubic meter (mg/m3) 0.00000006243 pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
Energy
joule (J) 0.0000002 kilowatthour (kWh)
joule (J) 6.241 × 1018 electronvolt (eV)
joule (J) 0.2388 calorie (cal)
kilojoule (kJ) 0.0002388 kilocalorie (kcal)
vi
International System of Units to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain
Radioactivity
becquerel (Bq) 0.00002703 microcurie (μCi)
kilobecquerel (kBq) 0.02703 microcurie (μCi)
Electrical resistivity
ohm meter (Ω-m) 39.37 ohm inch (Ω-in.)
ohm-centimeter (Ω-cm) 0.3937 ohm inch (Ω-in.)
Thermal conductivity
watt per centimeter per degree 693.1798 International British thermal unit
Celsius (watt/cm °C) inch per hour per square foot per
degree Fahrenheit (Btu in/h ft2 °F)
watt per meter kelvin (W/m-K) 6.9318 International British thermal unit
inch per hour per square foot per
degree Fahrenheit (Btu in/h ft2 °F)
Inch/Pound to International System of Units

Length
mil 25.4 micrometer (µm) [or micron]
inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)
inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)
foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)
mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)
Volume
ounce, fluid (fl. oz) 29.57 milliliter (mL)
ounce, fluid (fl. oz) 0.02957 liter (L)
Mass
ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28,350,000 microgram
ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28,350 milligram
ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28.35 gram (g)
ounce, troy 31.10 348 gram (g)
ounce, troy 0.03110348 kilogram (kg)
pound, avoirdupois (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg)
ton, short (2,000 lb) 0.9072 ton, metric (t)
ton, long (2,240 lb) 1.016 ton, metric (t)
Deposit grade
ounce per short ton (2,000 lb) (oz/T) 34.285714 gram per metric ton (g/t)
Energy
kilowatthour (kWh) 3,600,000 joule (J)
electronvolt (eV) 1.602 × 10–19 joule (J)
Radioactivity
microcurie (μCi) 37,000 becquerel (Bq)
microcurie (μCi) 37 kilobecquerel (kBq)
Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:
°F = (1.8 × °C) + 32
Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to kelvin (K) as follows:
K = °C + 273.15
Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:
°C = (°F – 32) / 1.8
vii
Datum
Unless otherwise stated, vertical and horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the
World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84). Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance
above the vertical datum.
Supplemental Information
Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (µS/cm
at 25 °C).
Concentrations of chemical constituents in soils and (or) sediment are given in milligrams per
kilogram (mg/kg), parts per million (ppm), or parts per billion (ppb).
Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in milligrams per liter (mg/L),
micrograms per liter (µg/L), nanogams per liter (ng/L), nanomoles per kilogram (nmol/kg),
parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt).
Concentrations of suspended particulates in water are given in micrograms per gram (µg/g),
milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), or femtograms per gram (fg/g).
Concentrations of chemicals in air are given in units of the mass of the chemical (milligrams,
micrograms, nanograms, or picograms) per volume of air (cubic meter).
Activities for radioactive constituents in air are given in microcuries per milliliter (μCi/mL).
Deposit grades are commonly given in percent, grams per metric ton (g/t)—which is equivalent
to parts per million (ppm)—or troy ounces per short ton (oz/T).
Geologic ages are expressed in mega-annum (Ma, million years before present, or 10 6 years ago)
or giga-annum (Ga, billion years before present, or 10 9 years ago).
For ranges of years, “to” and (or) the en dash (“–”) mean “up to and including.”
Concentration unit Equals

milligram per kilogram (mg/kg) part per million
microgram per gram (µg/g) part per million
microgram per kilogram (μg/kg) part per billion (109)
Equivalencies
part per million (ppm): 1 ppm = 1,000 ppb = 1,000,000 ppt = 0.0001 percent
part per billion (ppb): 0.001 ppm = 1 ppb = 1,000 ppt = 0.0000001 percent
part per trillion (ppt): 0.000001 ppm = 0.001 ppb = 1 ppt = 0.0000000001 percent
Metric system prefixes

tera- (T-) 1012 1 trillion
giga- (G-) 109 1 billion
mega- (M-) 106 1 million
kilo- (k-) 103 1 thousand
hecto- (h-) 102 1 hundred
deka- (da-) 10 1 ten
deci- (d-) 10–1 1 tenth
centi- (c-) 10–2 1 hundredth
milli- (m-) 10–3 1 thousandth
micro- (µ-) 10–6 1 millionth
nano- (n-) 10–9 1 billionth
pico- (p-) 10–12 1 trillionth
femto- (f-) 10–15 1 quadrillionth
atto- (a-) 10–18 1 quintillionth
viii
Abbreviations and Symbols

δ-MnO2 delta-manganese dioxide
µCi/mL microcurie per milliliter
µg/g microgram per gram
µg/kg microgram per kilogram
µg/L microgram per liter
Å angstrom
AMD acid mine drainage
CCD carbonate compensation depth
CCZ Clarion-Clipperton zone
cm centimeter
Congo (Kinshasa) Democratic Republic of the Congo
EC50 effective concentration 50 (concentration that results
in 50 percent exhibiting decreased functionality)
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EIS environmental impact statement
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
IOCG iron oxide-copper-gold
LC50 lethal concentration 50 (concentration that kills 50 percent of
test population within a given timeframe)
m meter
mg/kg milligram per kilogram
mg/L milligram per liter
MTR Maderia-Tore Rise
MVT Mississippi Valley-type
ng/m3 nanogram per cubic meter
NTP National Toxicology Program
PGE platinum-group element
ppm part per million
REE rare-earth element
VMS volcanogenic massive sulfide
Cobalt
By John F. Slack, Bryn E. Kimball, and Kim B. Shedd
Abstract advances in technology may soon allow production of these

resources to be economically viable.
Cobalt is a silvery gray metal that has diverse uses based Environmental issues related to cobalt mining concern
on certain key properties, including ferromagnetism, hardness mainly the elevated cobalt contents in soils and waters.
and wear-resistance when alloyed with other metals, low Although at low levels cobalt is essential to human health
thermal and electrical conductivity, high melting point, multiple (it is the central atom in the critical nutrient vitamin B12 ),
valences, and production of intense blue colors when combined overexposure to high levels of cobalt may cause lung and heart
with silica. Cobalt is used mostly in cathodes in rechargeable dysfunction, as well as dermatitis. The ecological impacts of
batteries and in superalloys for turbine engines in jet aircraft. cobalt vary widely and can be severe for some species of fish
Annual global cobalt consumption was approximately and plants, depending on various environmental factors.
75,000 metric tons in 2011; China, Japan, and the United States
(in order of consumption amount) were the top three cobalt-
consuming countries. In 2011, approximately 109,000 metric Introduction
tons of recoverable cobalt was produced in ores, concentrates,
and intermediate products from cobalt, copper, nickel, platinum- Cobalt Uses, Demand, and Availability of Supply
group-element (PGE), and zinc operations. The Democratic
Republic of the Congo (Congo [Kinshasa]) was the principal Cobalt is a technologically important metal that has
source of mined cobalt globally (55 percent). The United States many diverse uses, including in batteries, superalloys, and
produced a negligible amount of byproduct cobalt as an cemented carbides and diamond tools (fig. F1). Globally, the
intermediate product from a PGE mining and refining opera- leading use is in the manufacture of cathode materials for
tion in southeastern Montana; no U.S. production was from rechargeable batteries, primarily lithium-ion, nickel-cadmium,
mines in which cobalt was the principal commodity. China and nickel-metal-hydride batteries, which are used in
was the leading refiner of cobalt, and much of its production consumer electronics, electric and hybrid-electric vehicles,
came from cobalt ores, concentrates, and partially refined energy storage units, and power tools. Superalloys are alloys
materials imported from Congo (Kinshasa). developed for high-temperature service where relatively high
The mineralogy of cobalt deposits is diverse and includes mechanical stress is encountered and where surface stability
both primary (hypogene) and secondary (supergene) phases. is frequently required. The principal use for superalloys is in
Principal terrestrial (land-based) deposit types, which repre- parts for turbine engines for jet aircraft and terrestrial energy
sent most of world’s cobalt mine production, include primary generation. Cemented carbides, which are composite materials
magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfides, primary and secondary made of cobalt and tungsten carbide, are used as cutting tools
stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co sulfides and oxides, and and wear-resistant components by the metalworking, mining,
secondary Ni-Co laterites. Seven additional terrestrial deposit oil and gas drilling, and construction industries. Diamond
types are described in this chapter. The total terrestrial tools are similar to cemented carbides in that cobalt is the
cobalt resource (reserves plus other resources) plus past matrix that binds the wear-resistant particles together. Cobalt
production, where available, is calculated to be 25.5 million is used to make permanent and soft magnetic alloys. Cobalt-
metric tons. Additional resources of cobalt are known to bearing steels include high-speed steels for cutting tools
occur on the modern sea floor in aerially extensive deposits and maraging steels, which are characterized by their great
of Fe-Mn(-Ni-Cu-Co-Mo) nodules and Fe-Mn(-Co-Mo-rare- strength, toughness, and workability. Other cobalt-bearing
earth-element) crusts. Legal, economic, and technological alloys are characterized by their resistance to corrosion and
barriers have prevented exploitation of these cobalt resources, (or) wear or by their particular thermal expansion properties.
which lie at water depths of as great as 6,000 meters, although Additional chemical applications for cobalt include animal
F2 Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Cobalt
feed additives; bonding agents in steel-belted radial tires; of this chapter. Table F1 (back of chapter) gives locations and
catalysts for chemical, petroleum, and other industries; drying grade-tonnage data for significant cobalt deposits of the world.
agents for paint; glass decolorizers; ground coat frits for In 2011, the United States produced a negligible amount
porcelain enamels; humidity indicators; magnetic recording of byproduct cobalt as an intermediate product from Stillwater
media; pigments; and vitamin B12. Mining Co.’s PGE mining and refining operation in south-
In recent years, annual global cobalt consumption (shown eastern Montana. Since then, minor amounts of byproduct
as “apparent consumption” in fig. F2) has generally trended cobalt in nickel concentrate have been produced from Lundin
upward to approximately 75,000 metric tons. World apparent Mining Corp.’s underground Eagle Mine, which is a high-
consumption is the sum of apparent consumption calculated grade magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide orebody located
for individual countries; the calculation for each country northwest of Marquette, Michigan, where mining began in
uses reported data for production, trade, and stock variations, 2014. No U.S. production was from mines in which cobalt
where available. China, Japan, and the United States (in order was the principal commodity. Other projects in the feasibility
of consumption amount) are the top three cobalt-consuming and development stages include Formation Metals Inc.’s
countries (Cobalt Development Institute and World Bureau of underground cobalt mine to be constructed in a strata-bound
Metal Statistics, 2011; Cobalt Development Institute, 2012). Co-Cu-Au deposit in the Blackbird district (part of the Idaho
From 1950 to 2011, global mine production of cobalt cobalt belt) in Lemhi County and PolyMet Mining Corp.’s
increased by more than an order of magnitude (fig. F3). In open pit mine to be constructed in the NorthMet Cu-Ni-Co-
2011, approximately 109,000 metric tons of recoverable PGE deposit in the Duluth Complex, which is a large mafic
cobalt was produced in ores, concentrates, and intermediate intrusive complex in northeastern Minnesota. Cobalt would be
products from cobalt, copper, nickel, platinum-group-element produced as a byproduct from the NorthMet project.
(PGE), and zinc operations (fig. F2). More than one-half of China was the leading refiner of cobalt in 2011, with
the world’s cobalt was mined in the Democratic Republic much of its production coming from cobalt ores, concentrates,
of the Congo (Congo [Kinshasa]). Other leading countries and partially refined materials imported from Congo
where cobalt was mined are shown in figure F4 (Shedd, (Kinshasa). Other significant sources of refined cobalt were
2013a). Trends in cobalt mineral exploration and supply are Australia, Belgium, Canada, Congo (Kinshasa), Finland,
discussed in Wilburn (2012), Menzie and others (2013), and Norway, and Zambia. Refined cobalt from Belgium and
Shedd (2013a). Deposit types from which cobalt currently is Finland was wholly or mainly produced from imported
mined are discussed in the Resources and Production section material, respectively (Shedd, 2013a).
150
Cobalt content, in thousand metric tons
Drying agents for paints, EXPLANATION

rubber adhesion promoters, Mine production
other carboxylate uses
Refinery production
5%
Other chemical uses 100 Apparent consumption
Hardfacing, steels, 3%
and other alloys
5%
Magnetic alloys 50
7%
Batteries
30%
Pigments and 0
other ceramic uses 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
9% Year
Figure F2. Bar chart showing world cobalt mine and refinery
Superalloys Cobalt Figure 2
19% production and apparent consumption from 2007 to 2011. Mine
Catalysts
9%
production consists of the recoverable cobalt content of ores,
concentrates, and intermediate products from cobalt, copper,
nickel, platinum-group-element, and zinc operations. World
apparent consumption is the sum of apparent consumption
Cemented carbides
and diamond tools
calculated for individual countries. The calculation for each
13% country uses reported data for production, trade, and stock
variations, where available. Apparent consumption data are from
Figure F1. Pie chart showing major end uses of cobalt as a the Cobalt Development Institute and World Bureau of Metal
Cobalt Figure
percentage 1
of consumption worldwide in 2011. Data are from the Statistics (2011) and the Cobalt Development Institute (2012);
Cobalt Development Institute (2012). production data are from Shedd (2013a).
Introduction F3
120
Other countries
New Caledonia 6%
Cobalt content, in thousand metric tons
100 3% Morocco
2%
Brazil
80 3%
Australia
60 4%
Cuba
40 4%
Zambia Congo
20 5% (Kinshasa)
55%
0 Russia
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 6%
Years
China
Figure F3. Graph showing world cobalt mine production 6%
Cobalt Figure
from 1950 3 Production consists of the recoverable
to 2011.
cobalt content of ores, concentrates, and intermediate Canada
products from cobalt, copper, nickel, platinum-group- 6%
element, and zinc operations. Data are from U.S. Geological
Survey (2013). Figure F4. Pie chart showing percentage of world cobalt
Cobalt in
mine production Figure
2011, 4by country. The sources of production
are cobalt, copper, nickel, platinum-group-element, and zinc
operations. Data are from Shedd (2013a). Congo (Kinshasa) is a
short-form name for Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Strategic and Critical Resource Issues More than one-half of the world’s cobalt supply is
mined in Congo (Kinshasa). This country has a high risk
Cobalt is generally critical to the performance of the index for doing business owing to poor infrastructure, resource
products in which it is used. Past periods of high prices and nationalism, a high perception of corruption, and a lack of
concern about availability have resulted in various efforts to transparency as well as wars during the 1990s to early 2000s,
conserve, reduce the use of, or substitute for cobalt. In many persistent tension in the eastern part of the country with
applications, further substitution would result in a loss in substantial risk of civil war, and conflicts with neighboring
product performance and (or) increased cost. Cobalt’s diverse Rwanda (Bedder, 2013; The Coface Group, undated).
uses—particularly in parts for aircraft turbine engines; in Although civil unrest in the eastern part of Congo (Kinshasa)
numerous magnet applications, including marine propulsion has not affected the cobalt-producing areas, problems with
systems, missile guidance systems, sensors, and radar; and infrastructure (particularly power and transportation) and
in machine tools—make it important to the U.S. military and reviews of and changes to mining contracts have slowed some
civilian industries. of the potential growth in mine development and production.
That nearly all cobalt is mined as a byproduct of other, In spite of these issues, the copper-cobalt mining industry in
more abundant metals, such as nickel or copper, means that Congo (Kinshasa) has significantly recovered from the collapse
production is driven primarily by the markets for the principal in production that took place in the 1990s (Shedd, 2013a).
metals, not by the need for cobalt. This situation limits The United States is highly reliant on imports for its
producers’ flexibility in adjusting the amount of cobalt mined cobalt needs. In recent years, approximately 75 to 80 percent
in response to changes in demand and can result in periods of the U.S. cobalt supply has come from imports and
of oversupply or shortage. From 2009 to 2015, global cobalt releases from the National Defense Stockpile; the remaining
production was higher than consumption, as production from 20 to 25 percent has been from recycled scrap. This high
new projects and from expansions to existing operations reliance on imports increases the potential for supply
added to global supply. This trend led to a market surplus and disruption and high prices during supply shortfalls. The
downward pressure on prices (Shedd, 2013a, b; Searle, 2015; leading source of refined cobalt for the United States is
Spencer, 2016). China (Shedd, 2013a, b).
Geology Principal Deposit Types

Cobalt deposits of economic or potential economic
Geochemistry
importance are diverse in terms of their geologic setting, age,
Cobalt is a silvery gray metal with diverse uses based morphology, mineralogy, geochemistry, origin, and grade-
on certain key properties, including hardness, wear-resistance tonnage relations (for example, Crockett and others, 1987;
when alloyed with other metals, low thermal and electrical Smith, 2001; British Geological Survey, 2009). The principal
conductivity, high melting point, multiple valences, and deposit types that account for most of the world’s cobalt mine
production of intense blue colors when combined with silica. production are stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits,
Cobalt also is ferromagnetic, and it retains this property at Ni-Co laterite deposits, and magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE)
the highest temperature of any metal. Although pure cobalt is sulfide deposits. These deposit types, together with selected
not found in nature, cobalt-bearing minerals and compounds examples, are described below.
are numerous and widespread. The ionic radius of cobalt is
0.72 angstroms (Å) for Co2+ and 0.63 Å for Co3+, both of
which are similar to the ionic radii of Mg2+, Mn4+, Fe2+, Fe3+,
Stratiform Sediment-Hosted Cu-Co Deposits
and Ni2+, thus allowing substitution under favorable condi- Most of the world’s cobalt is produced as a byproduct
tions for these elements by cobalt within many minerals and of copper mining in sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits that
other phases. Among common rock types, the highest average form strata-bound and commonly stratiform zones within
cobalt content occurs in ultramafic igneous rocks, such as siliciclastic or carbonate strata (Hitzman and others, 2005).
dunite and serpentinite, which contain, on average, 109 and Important ore hosts in some deposits are giant breccias that
115 parts per million (ppm) cobalt, respectively (table F2); originated by the dissolution of former salt beds. Globally,
mafic igneous rocks such as basalt contain, on average, about the deposits contain chalcopyrite, pyrite, and carrollite, plus
47 ppm cobalt. For comparison, Earth’s bulk continental crust, minor amounts of bornite and chalcocite, in gangue material
including all rock types, contains 29 ppm cobalt, on average. composed mainly of potassium feldspar, muscovite, biotite,
Lower cobalt contents characterize shale (which averages albite, quartz, and carbonate. The ages of the mineralization
19 ppm), as well as granite and related felsic igneous rocks are principally Neoproterozoic and Permian, but some impor-
(which average 2 to 3 ppm) (table F2). tant deposits are Mesoproterozoic. Although current genetic
models differ in some respects, the consensus opinion is that
metalliferous saline hydrothermal fluids were introduced at
Mineralogy
low to moderate temperatures during diagenesis and the early
The mineralogy of cobalt deposits is diverse and includes stages of deformation and metamorphism (see Zientek and
both primary (hypogene) and secondary (supergene) phases. others, 2013).
In primary deposits, most cobalt is recovered from sulfide The greatest amount of contained cobalt in this
minerals, such as carrollite (Cu(Co,Ni)2S4 ), pentlandite deposit type occurs in the Central African Copperbelt in
((Fe,Ni,Co)9S8 ), linnaeite (Co3S4), and siegenite ((Co,Ni)3S4 ); Congo (Kinshasa) and Zambia (Selley and others, 2005; Taylor
arsenide minerals, such as skutterudite ((Co,Fe,Ni)As2-3) and and others, 2013). Large deposits in this region from which
safflorite ((Co,Fe)As2 ); and sulfarsenide minerals, including byproduct cobalt is currently or has been produced include
cobaltite (CoAsS) and glaucodot ((Co,Fe)AsS). Cobaltiferous Kamoto, KOV, and Tenke Fungurume, all in Congo (Kinshasa)
pyrite and pyrrhotite—(Fe,Co)S2 and (Fe,Co)1-xS, respectively— (El Desouky and others, 2010; Fay and Barton, 2012), and
are mined in some deposits. Among secondary cobalt-rich Nkana in Zambia (Brems and others, 2009).
phases, which form during surficial weathering, one of the
most important historically was erythrite (Co3(AsO4)2 • 8H2O), Ni-Co Laterite Deposits
which is a bright pink mineral also known as “cobalt bloom.” In
modern mining of secondary cobalt-rich deposits, the principal Laterites are red regoliths that develop in humid tropical
economic phases, in addition to erythrite, are heterogenite climates during the weathering of diverse types of bedrock.
(CoO(OH)) and asbolane ((Ni,Co)2–xMn(O,OH)4 • nH2O), plus Those that developed on ultramafic bedrock may contain
local heazlewoodite ((Ni,Co)3S2), together with cobaltiferous important Ni-Co deposits (Freyssinet and others, 2005; Butt
oxyhydroxides, including goethite (Fe3+O(OH)), limonite and Cluzel, 2013). Ni-Co laterites locally contain abundant
(FeO(OH)•nH2O), and lithiophorite (AlMnO2(OH)2). With scandium and, rarely, elevated concentrations of PGEs.
respect to the cobaltiferous oxyhydroxides, it is unclear from Ni-Co laterite deposits consist of the following layers, from
studies to date whether the contained cobalt is present in the top to bottom: overburden, limonite, saprolite, and weathered
crystal structure or adsorbed onto surfaces. ultramafic source rocks. Ore zones of laterite deposits range
in thickness from about 10 meters (m) to as much as 40 m in
some cases, and generally contain more than 1 percent nickel
and less than 0.15 percent cobalt. Limonite developed over
Geology F5
ultramafic rocks tends to have higher cobalt grades, whereas (d) metasedimentary-rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au, (e) Mississippi
saprolite has higher nickel grades. Metal accumulation involves Valley-type Zn-Pb(-Co-Ni), (f) polymetallic (Ag-Ni-Co-
supergene processes and several key variables, including As-Bi) and other cobalt-rich veins, and (g) volcanogenic
primary bedrock lithology, climate history, topography, and Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au) massive sulfides. Identified cobalt deposits
structural preparation (that is, the fracture or joint density of on the sea floor, which may be mined in the future, include
bedrock). Ages of the deposits typically are mid-Tertiary to Fe-Mn(-Ni-Cu-Co-Mo) nodules, Fe-Mn(-Co-Mo-REE) crusts,
Holocene; some fossil Ni-Co laterites are known. Major ore and volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au) massive sulfides.
constituents include the following: (a) nickeliferous serpentine
(garnierite), talc, and chlorite; (b) nickel- or cobalt-bearing
clays (for example, nontronite, and montmorillonite); and (c) Black-Shale-Hosted Ni-Cu-Zn-Co Deposits
erythrite, heterogenite, asbolane, heazlewoodite, and millerite; Black shales are well known for containing elevated
and (d) goethite, limonite, and lithiophorite. The gangue contents of many metals of economic interest, including Cu,
(non-ore) material may include various amounts of quartz, Mo, Ni, Zn, Co, Cd, Ag, Au, Se, Cr, V, U, and PGEs (for
amorphous silica, clays, and serpentine. example, Desborough and Poole, 1983; Coveney, 2003).
The Kalgoorlie and the Murrin Murrin deposits in Metals concentrated in black shales may reside in pyrite;
Western Australia (Elias and others, 1981; Gaudin and others, organic matter; aluminosilicate minerals, such as illite; and
2005) and the Goro deposit in New Caledonia (Wells and locally in sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Some deposits contain
others, 2009) are examples of some of the world’s many large very high contents of molybdenum, nickel, zinc, and (or)
Ni-Co laterite deposits. The manganiferous Nkamouna Co-Ni vanadium within primary sedimentary beds or laminae. In
deposit in Cameroon is one of the few laterites known for other deposits, high contents of cobalt formed by hydrothermal
which cobalt would be the principal economic metal to be leaching, mobilization, and concentration into sulfide minerals
mined (Lambiv Dzemua and Gleeson, 2012). during deformation and regional metamorphism.
One of the few black-shale-hosted deposits from which
Magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) Sulfide Deposits byproduct cobalt is recovered is the giant Talvivaara orebody
in central Finland, which is being mined for nickel, zinc, and
Large resources (including reserves) of cobalt are copper (Loukola-Ruskeeniemi and Lahtinen, 2013).
contained in Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits hosted in mafic
and ultramafic igneous rocks (Naldrett, 2004; Eckstrand and
Hulbert, 2007). This deposit type comprises semimassive to Fe-Cu-Co Skarn and Replacement Deposits
massive sulfides that occur within or near the basal zones of
Pluton-related skarn and replacement deposits form
layered intrusive complexes, in discordant magmatic conduits,
by the introduction of hydrothermal fluids into chemically
and within ultramafic intrusions and lava flows. The ages of
reactive rocks, mainly carbonate (limestone and dolostone),
the deposits, which approximate those of the host intrusions,
and by metasomatic processes that introduce metals and other
range from Archean to Tertiary. Nickel is the principal metal
components into the precursor strata. These deposits occur
commodity, and it is accompanied by subequal proportions
proximal or distal to intrusive bodies and contain a diverse
of copper in most deposits; cobalt and PGEs are mining
suite of metals (Megaw, 1998; Meinert and others, 2005).
byproducts. Cobalt resides mainly in cobaltiferous pentlandite
Sulfide minerals may include pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite,
and, to a lesser extent, in linnaeite. The gangue minerals
sphalerite, and galena, together with abundant magnetite
consist mostly of primary magmatic minerals, such as olivine,
in some deposits. Cobaltiferous deposits generally contain
pyroxene, and plagioclase. Mineralizing processes involve
mainly copper residing in chalcopyrite; cobalt occurs in
magmatic segregation of sulfides and, in some deposits,
cobaltite or cobalt-rich pyrite. In replacement deposits, which
hydrothermal mobilization into post-magmatic structures.
commonly are located distal from pluton contacts, gangue
Deposits of this type that currently feature significant
minerals typically include quartz or carbonate. The gangue
byproduct production of cobalt include Voisey’s Bay in
minerals of skarn deposits, which occur near plutons, are
Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada (Naldrett and Li, 2007);
generally different and include garnet, pyroxene, amphibole,
the Sudbury district in Ontario, Canada (Ames and Farrow,
epidote, olivine, plagioclase, and (or) scapolite.
2007); and the Norilsk-Talnakh district in Siberia, Russia
The Cornwall and the Morgantown (Grace Mine) Fe-Cu-Co
(Naldrett and others, 1996).
deposits, which are two of only a few large cobaltiferous skarn
deposits in the world, are located in southeastern Pennsylvania
Other Deposit Types (Lapham, 1968) but are no longer operating. Another large
deposit of this type, although it lacks significant amounts of
Types of deposits that on a global scale have produced iron, is Ruby Creek in northwestern Alaska (Bernstein and
relatively minor amounts of cobalt include the following: Cox, 1986). The Mount Elliott Cu-Au(-Co-Ni) skarn deposit
(a) black-shale-hosted Ni-Cu-Zn-Co, (b) Fe-Cu-Co skarn in Queensland, Australia, differs in that it contains a significant
and replacement, (c) iron oxide-Cu-Au(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni), amount of gold (Wang and Williams, 2001).
Table F2. Cobalt concentrations in rocks, soils, waters, and air.—Continued

[DOE, U.S. Department of Energy; EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; cm, centimeter; ppm, part per million; µg/g, microgram per gram;
µg/L, microgram per liter; µm, micrometer; ng/m3, nanogram per cubic meter]
Environment Cobalt
Unit Notes Reference(s)
and (or) location concentration
Rocks
Upper continental crust 10 ppm Average Taylor and McLennan (1995)
Bulk continental crust 29 ppm Average Taylor and McLennan (1995)
Lower continental crust 35 ppm Average Taylor and McLennan (1995)
Basalt 47 ppm average Krauskopf and Bird (1995)
Dunite (alpine-type) 109 ppm Average Gülaҫar and Delaloye (1976)
Granite 2.4 ppm Average Krauskopf and Bird (1995)
Pyroxenite (alpine-type) 55.2 ppm Average Gülaҫar and Delaloye (1976)
Serpentinite (alpine-type) 115 ppm Average Gülaҫar and Delaloye (1976)
Shale 19 ppm Average Krauskopf and Bird (1995)
Soils
United States 5 to 30 ppm Regional background soil Shacklette and Boerngen (1984)
in Idaho
United States 29 to 940 ppm Near mining in the Idaho Giles and others (2009)
copper belt
Conterminous United States 0.5 to 160 ppm 0 to 5 cm depth; median is Smith and others (2005)
7.2 ppm
Conterminous United States 1.8 to 14 ppm O horizon, if present; median Smith and others (2005)
is 3 ppm
Conterminous United States 0.9 to 143 ppm A horizon; median is 7.1 ppm Smith and others (2005)
Conterminous United States 0.7 to 191 ppm C horizon; median is 7.8 ppm Smith and others (2005)
Western United States 7.1 ppm Mean for 20 cm depth Shacklette and Boerngen (1984)
Eastern United States 5.9 ppm Mean for 20 cm depth Shacklette and Boerngen (1984)
Canada 2 to 6 ppm 0 to 5 cm; distant from Narendrula and others (2012)
Sudbury mining district
Canada 22 to 37 ppm 0 to 5 cm; near Sudbury Narendrula and others (2012)
mining district
Canada 5 to 18 ppm 0 to 5 cm; distant from roast beds Hutchinson and Symington (1997)
Canada 58 to 299 ppm 0 to 5 cm; near roast beds Hutchinson and Symington (1997)
Congo (Kinshasa) 17 to 33 ppm 0 to 5 cm; distant from Narendrula and others (2012)
African copper belt mines
Congo (Kinshasa) 204 to 6,150 ppm 0 to 5 cm; near African Narendrula and others (2012)
copper belt mines
Egypt 13 to 25 ppm 0 to 20 cm; distant from industry Zohny (2002)
Egypt 26 to 65 ppm 0 to 20 cm; pollution from Zohny (2002)
industry
Sweden 0.5 to 2.3 ppm Range of profile developed on Tyler (2004)
quartzite and gniess
Proposed DOE benchmark 20 ppm Contaminant screening bench- Efroymson and others (1997)
mark for terrestrial plants
Soil-quality guideline 40 ppm Canadian agricultural Canadian Council of Ministers
soil guideline of the Environment (2013)
Geology F7
Table F2. Cobalt concentrations in rocks, soils, waters, and air.—Continued

[DOE, U.S. Department of Energy; EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; cm, centimeter; ppm, part per million; µg/g, microgram per gram;
µg/L, microgram per liter; µm, micrometer; ng/m3, nanogram per cubic meter]
Environment Cobalt
Unit Notes Reference(s)
and (or) location concentration
Waters
Seawater, South Atlantic and 0.0003 to 0.004 µg/L Dissolved (<0.22 µm) Bown and others (2012)
Southern Oceans
Seawater, Sargasso Sea 0.001 to 0.004 µg/L Dissolved and colloidal Shelley and others (2012)
(<0.4 µm)
African rivers 0.04 to 0.43 µg/L Dissolved load (<0.2 µm) Gaillardet and others (2003)
European rivers 0.08 to 0.26 µg/L Dissolved load (<0.2 µm) Gaillardet and others (2003)
North American rivers 0.02 to 0.15 µg/L Dissolved load (<0.2 µm) Gaillardet and others (2003)
South American rivers 0.02 to 0.18 µg/L Dissolved load (<0.2 µm) Gaillardet and others (2003)
Huanghe River, China 0.006 to 0.03 µg/L Dissolved load (<0.2 µm) Gaillardet and others (2003)
Streamwater, Canada— 3 to 20 µg/L Dissolved load (<0.45 µm); Kwong and others (2007)
Cobalt mine drainage
Streamwater, Sweden 0.057 µg/L Median Huser and others (2011)
(northern)
Streamwater, Sweden 0.24 µg/L Median Huser and others (2011)
(southern)
Streamwater, United States— 0.67 to 30 µg/L Samples distant from mines Eppinger and others (2003)
Cobalt
Streamwater, United States— 10 to 1,100 µg/L Samples near mines Eppinger and others (2003)
Cobalt
Sediment, world rivers 22.5 µg/g Average suspended sediment Viers and others (2009)
Tailings pore water, 70 to 61,000 µg/L Median is 540 µg/L Bortnikova and others (2012)
Khovu-Aksy, Russia
Proposed EPA benchmark 1,500 µg/L Tier II secondary acute value Suter and Tsao (1996)
Proposed EPA benchmark 23 µg/L Tier II secondary chronic value Suter and Tsao (1996)
Air
Worldwide 0.13 to 37 ng/m3 “Polluted air”; median Reimann and de Caritat (1998)
is 3 ng/m3
South Pole 0.1 to 1.2 ng/m3 None Kabata-Pendias and Pendias
(2001)
Greenland 70 to 150 ng/m3 None Kabata-Pendias and Pendias
(2001)
Iron Oxide-Cu-Au(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni) Deposits Mississippi Valley-Type Zn-Pb(-Co-Ni)

The iron oxide-Cu-Au(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni) class of Sulfide Deposits
mineral deposits is globally important as a major source of Strata-bound Zn-Pb(-Co-Ni) sulfide concentrations
copper, gold, and in some cases, silver, uranium, and rare- hosted by carbonate strata are termed Mississippi Valley-type
earth elements (REEs) (Williams and others, 2005). These (MVT) deposits (Leach and others, 2005; Paradis and others,
iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits are mainly of Late 2007). These deposits typically consist of various proportions
Archean, Proterozoic, and Mesozoic ages, and they occur of sphalerite and galena in a gangue of fluorite or barite;
either near plutons or in metamorphic terranes without a clear quartz is uncommon. The principal cobalt mineral is carrollite.
link to intrusive bodies. Their ore mineralogy is dominated Most deposits of this type are Phanerozoic, although a few
by magnetite, hematite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and gold, with Proterozoic examples are known. Mineralization characteristi-
concentrations in some deposits of uraninite, bastnäsite (or cally involves the migration of low-temperature, highly saline
bastnaesite), monazite, cobaltite, glaucodot, bismuthinite, brines and the subsequent precipitation of ore and gangue
native bismuth, arsenopyrite, millerite, molybdenite, and minerals as open-space fillings of paleokarst structures or as
galena; common gangue minerals are fluorite, barite, and replacement zones in carbonate rocks.
quartz; and tourmaline is present locally. This deposit type MVT deposits generally lack high cobalt contents, but a
is thought to have originated from one of the following fluid few, such as the Mine La Motte-Fredericktown and the Higdon
types and sources: magmatic-hydrothermal, metamorphic, deposits in Missouri (Seeger, 2008; Parra and others, 2009)
and evaporitic brine. have produced minor amounts of cobalt as a byproduct of the
Very large IOCG deposits that contain appreciable mining of lead and zinc.
amounts of cobalt include, in Australia, the Olympic Dam
deposit in South Australia (Reynolds, 2000) and the Ernest
Henry deposit in Queensland (Mark and others, 2000), and Polymetallic (Ag-Ni-Co-As-Bi) and
in Brazil, the Sossego deposit (Monteiro and others, 2008). Other Cobalt-Rich Vein Deposits
Cobalt-rich vein deposits fill fractures and faults within
Metasedimentary-Rock-Hosted Co-Cu-Au Deposits metasedimentary or metaigneous rocks of Proterozoic or
younger age (Kissin, 1992). The majority of these deposits
Co-Cu-Au deposits hosted in metasedimentary rocks are
were mined for silver and cobalt; some also produced
strata-bound zones of semimassive to locally massive sulfides
byproduct copper, lead, zinc, gold, uranium, and (or) barite. In
within deformed and metamorphosed siliciclastic strata chiefly
these types of deposits, multistage mineralization is common,
of Proterozoic age (Slack, 2013). The mineralized zones range
typified by a diverse ore mineralogy consisting of native silver
from strata-bound and discordant to stratiform and include
and native bismuth, gold, argentite, rammelsbergite, safflorite,
lenses, veins, and breccias. The deposits consist of cobaltite
skutterudite, gersdorffite, niccolite, uraninite, arsenopyrite,
and (or) other cobalt-rich sulfarsenide or sulfide minerals, or
pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galena, bornite, chalcopyrite,
cobaltiferous pyrite, together with chalcopyrite and magnetite,
tetrahedrite, and Sb-As-Ag sulfosalts. Gangue minerals may
in a gangue of quartz, muscovite, biotite, chlorite, potassium
include quartz, carbonate, fluorite, and (or) barite. The origins
feldspar, albite, and (or) scapolite, accompanied in many
of these deposits vary widely and include mineralization by
deposits by minor amounts of tourmaline. The origins of these
magmatically derived hydrothermal fluids, metamorphic
deposits are thought to be varied; a range of mineralizing
fluids, basinal brines, and meteoric waters.
processes, from diagenetic to epigenetic (the latter occurring
Economically, the most important vein deposits have
both before and during metamorphism) are thought to be
been those in the Erzgebirge region of the Czech Republic and
involved. In some deposits, geochronological and geochemical
Germany (Hermann, 2005), the Kongsberg district of southern
evidence suggests links to granitic and (or) gabbroic plutons,
Norway (Neumann, 1944), the Cobalt district of Ontario,
but the origin of most deposits of this type—and sources of the
Canada (Marshall and Watkinson, 2000), and the Bou Azzer
hydrothermal fluids and metals—are enigmatic.
district of Morocco (Bouabdellah and others, 2016).
The largest tonnages of cobalt in this deposit type are
contained in the Blackbird district of east-central Idaho (Slack,
2013, and references therein), the Kuusamo belt of north- Volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au) Massive
eastern Finland (Vanhanen, 2001), and the NICO deposit in Sulfide Deposits
the Northwest Territories in Canada (Goad and others, 2000).
Cobalt deposits of this type in the Modum district in Norway, Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits occur in
especially those at the Skuterud Mine (Grorud, 1997), were marine volcanic and volcanosedimentary belts of Archean
historically important as the major European source of blue to Holocene age and are mined principally for copper, zinc,
pigment used during the 17th and 18th centuries. lead, silver, and gold (Galley and others, 2007; Shanks and
Geology F9
Thurston, 2012). These deposits precipitate from hydro- Sea-Floor Fe-Mn(-Co-Mo-REE) Crusts
thermal fluids on the sea floor within irregular chimneys and
mounds, and in the subsurface within strata-bound or discor- Ferromanganese crusts on the modern sea floor also
dant zones. The major sulfide minerals are pyrite, pyrrhotite, represent immense resources of cobalt, molybdenum,
chalcopyrite, and sphalerite; some deposits have appreciable REEs, and other metals (Glasby and others, 2010; Hein and
amounts of galena, tetrahedrite, and gold. Gangue minerals others, 2013). These crusts occur on seamounts, plateaus,
may include quartz, muscovite, chlorite, siderite, and barite. and spreading ridges at relatively shallow depths of
Most VMS deposits lack elevated contents (> 0.1 weight 800 to 3,000 m. Growth rates of the crusts are extremely slow,
percent) of cobalt but several have higher grades, especially generally in the range of 1 to 6 millimeters per million years
deposits hosted predominantly by ultramafic or mafic volcanic owing to precipitation of components only from seawater. The
rocks. Extensive research on this deposit type has allowed thickness of the crust varies from less than 1 cm to as much as
the development of refined genetic models that involve 26 cm, and the thickest parts occur on the oldest seamounts.
subsea-floor emplacement of igneous magma that drives The principal minerals are δ-MnO2, iron oxyhydroxides, and
hydrothermal convection and seawater entrainment, coupled carbonate fluorapatite, together with local goethite and minor
with upflow of metalliferous hydrothermal fluids and subse- amounts of detrital minerals, such as quartz and feldspar. The
quent sulfide precipitation (see Shanks and Thurston, 2012, incorporation of cobalt and other metals occurs by processes
and references therein). similar to those that take place in ferromanganese nodules.
Among ancient deposits, the few that have significant The greatest resources in ferromanganese crusts are
amounts of contained cobalt include Outukumpu in central located in the Pacific prime crust zone of the central equatorial
Finland (Peltonen and others, 2008), Windy Craggy in Pacific Ocean (Hein, 2002). Other regions contain appreciable
northwestern British Columbia, Canada (Peter and Scott, resources, however, such as in the Nameless, Unicorn, and
1999), and Deerni in Qinghai Province, China (Hou and Maderia-Tore Rise (MTR) zones of the northeastern Atlantic
others, 1999). Ocean (Muiños and others, 2013), and the Afanasiy-Nikitin
seamount in the Indian Ocean (Parthiban and Banakar, 1999).
Sea-Floor Fe-Mn(-Ni-Cu-Co-Mo) Nodules

Sea-Floor Volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au)
Ferromanganese nodules on the modern sea floor
contain large resources of several metals, including nickel,
Massive Sulfide Deposits
copper, cobalt, and molybdenum (Hein and others, 2013). More than 100 VMS deposits have been discovered
These nodules occur mainly on abyssal plains at depths of on the modern sea floor (Hannington and others, 2005).
3,500 to 6,500 m, having formed by the precipitation of iron Cobaltiferous examples are few and limited to occurrences in
and manganese oxyhydroxide phases from seawater and ultramafic rocks. These relatively cobalt-rich VMS deposits
pore fluids within enclosing sediments. The growth rates are present in serpentinite, which is a rare lithology on the
of nodules vary greatly, from a few millimeters per million modern sea floor, having been exposed by detachment faulting
years, where components are precipitated only from seawater, and core complex formation that raise deeper rocks of the
to as much as 250 millimeters per million years, where lower oceanic crust and upper mantle to the ocean floor.
precipitation is dominantly from pore fluids. Nodule diameters The major sulfide minerals present in ancient VMS deposits
typically are 2 to 8 centimeters (cm). Major constituents are hosted in basalt are chalcopyrite, isocubanite, pyrite (locally
delta-manganese dioxide (δ-MnO2 ), todorokite, and other cobaltiferous), sphalerite, and wurtzite; the gangue minerals
similar manganates, with lesser amounts of birnessite, iron consist of abundant serpentine and smectite, in addition
oxyhydroxides, and detrital aluminosilicate minerals. Metals to chlorite.
of economic interest, such as cobalt, are sorbed onto surfaces The Rainbow vent field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
of the manganese oxyhydroxides, where they are retained (Bogdanov and others, 2002) has VMS deposits that contain
by surface oxidation processes. The formational ages of the the greatest amount of cobalt known among modern sea-floor
nodules generally are no older than the Holocene owing to VMS deposits. Other deposits of this type that are found on
dissolution of manganese oxides within anoxic pore fluids the Mid-Atlantic Ridge occur in the Logatchev (Mozgova
during diagenesis, but ancient nodules of Miocene and and others, 1999) and the Nibelungen fields (Melchert and
Cretaceous age also are known. others, 2008).
The best-documented and largest nodule fields are
located in the Pacific Ocean between the Clarion and
Clipperton fracture zones, in the Cook Islands Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ), in the Penrhyn-Samoa Basin, the Peru
Basin, and in the Pioneer area of the central Indian Ocean
(Hein and others, 2013).
Resources and Production refining those ores and investment by a Canadian company in
one of the laterite operations in Cuba.
Production and Identified Resources
Figure F5 shows cobalt production in 2011, by deposit Grade-Tonnage Characteristics
type. Cobalt production from Congo (Kinshasa) and most The grade-tonnage plot in figure F6, which combines all
of the output from Zambia was as a byproduct of the copper types of cobalt-bearing mineral deposits and districts, shows
mining of stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits. Cobalt a large range in the amounts of contained cobalt. In the figure,
mine production from most other countries was as a byproduct several to many deposits are grouped into districts for some
of nickel mining. Production from Cuba and New Caledonia areas (such as Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and Norilsk-Talnakh,
was from Ni-Co laterite deposits. Production from Canada Russia) because, in these cases, grade and tonnage data for the
and Russia and most of the production from China was from individual deposits were not available. The sizes of the plotted
magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits. Production from deposits and districts, which include past production, reserves,
Australia and Brazil was from Ni-Co laterite and magmatic and other resources (where known) are given in table F1. The
Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits. Only in Morocco was summation of reserves and other resources has the potential
cobalt produced as the principal commodity from a current to introduce double-counting when data are from reports in
mining operation; the deposits in Morocco are hydrothermal which reserves are included as part of resources. In table F1,
polymetallic veins. where possible, reserves were not included when the potential
The proportion of cobalt produced from different deposit for such double-counting was identified. Past production is
types has varied over time. During the 1990s, production from included to give an indication of the original size of the deposit
stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits was relatively low before mining. For many deposits—especially stratiform
owing to a period of civil unrest in Congo (Kinshasa) and sediment-hosted Cu-Co, Ni-Co laterites, and magmatic
a major collapse at the Kamoto Mine in Congo (Kinshasa) Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfides—cumulative past production is
in 1990. The percentage of production from Ni-Co laterite small compared with the amount of cobalt contained in
deposits has increased since the mid-1990s owing to develop- reserves and other resources. Figure F7 shows the global
ment of second-generation hydrometallurgical processes for distribution of the largest cobalt deposits on land and on the sea
floor; the terrestrial deposits shown in the figure also include
selected small deposits that represent minor deposit types.
Other terrestrial 2%
The total terrestrial cobalt resource (plus past production,
where available) calculated from data in table F1 (back of
chapter) is 25.5 million metric tons, which is very similar
to the terrestrial cobalt resource of 26.1 million metric tons
Magmatic presented in a recent independent study by Mudd and others
Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) (2013). Among terrestrial deposits, contained cobalt can vary
sulfide by three orders of magnitude or more (fig. F6). Most types of
23%
Stratiform
cobalt deposits contain between 5,000 and 500,000 metric tons
sediment-hosted of cobalt. The largest tonnages (greater than 500,000 metric
Cu-Co tons of contained Co) are present in numerous magmatic
Ni-Co 60%
laterite Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits (some grouped into
15% districts, such as Sudbury), several stratiform sediment-hosted
Cu-Co deposits, and numerous lateritic Ni-Co deposits.
Similarly, cobalt grades differ greatly—mostly low grades
(0.01 to 0.2 percent cobalt) for magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE)
sulfide deposits, intermediate grades (0.03 to 0.2 percent
cobalt) for the majority of lateritic Ni-Co deposits, and
relatively high grades (0.03 to 1.0 percent cobalt) for most
Figure F5. Pie chart showing percentage of world cobalt
Cobalt Figure stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits. The highest
mine production in 2011,5 by deposit type. Other terrestrial
average grades (about 1.5 percent cobalt) are in relatively
deposits are grouped together and include black-shale-hosted
small cobalt-rich vein deposits of the Bou Azzer district in
Ni-Cu-Zn-Co deposits, polymetallic (Ag-Ni-Co-As-Bi) and
Morocco. As shown in figures F6 through F8, the largest
other cobalt-rich veins, and volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au)
amount of cobalt on land is contained within stratiform
massive sulfide deposits. No recoverable cobalt was known
sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits (41 percent) and lateritic
to be produced in 2011 from deposit types not listed. The
Ni-Co deposits (36 percent), followed at much lower
sources of production are cobalt, copper, nickel, platinum-
proportions by that in magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide
group-element (PGE), and zinc operations. Ag, silver;
deposits (15 percent) and other terrestrial deposits (8 percent),
As, arsenic; Au, gold; Bi, bismuth; Co, cobalt; Cu, copper;
of which the greatest portion is in VMS deposits (2.7 percent).
Ni, nickel; Zn, zinc
Resources and Production F11
10
BA
BB KF
1.0 MU
PC
Grade, in weight percent cobalt
KM MTR CI
NM
TF
WC CC 10 8
JC tC
SC o
0.1
NT SB
KN
OD TV 10 7
tC
NO TM o
0.01
DM
MS
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
tC tC tC tC
o o o o
0.001
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
Deposit tonnage, in million metric tons
EXPLANATION
Cobalt deposit type
Stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co Metasedimentary-rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au
Ni-Co laterite Polymetallic (Ag-Ni-Co-As-Bi) and
other cobalt-rich vein
Magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide
Volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au)
Black-shale-hosted Ni-Cu-Zn-Co massive sulfide
Fe-Cu-Co skarn and replacement Sea-floor Fe-Mn(-Ni-Cu-Co-Mo) nodules
Iron oxide-Cu-Au(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni) Sea-floor Fe-Mn(-Co-Mo-REE) crusts
Figure F6. Grade-tonnage plot for 214 cobalt deposits worldwide. Grades and tonnages
Cobalt Figure 6
include production plus reserves plus other resources where known; reserve and
resource data are from publicly available reports and company Web sites (see table F1),
but in some cases are not defined by a National Instrument 43–101 standard, Joint Ore
Reserves Committee code, or similar mineral-resource classification scheme. Labeled
deposits represent most of those containing more than 500,000 metric tons (t) of cobalt,
many of the U.S. deposits, some examples of the less common deposit types, and some
that are discussed in the text. Small deposits—those with less than 1,000 metric tons of
cobalt—are not shown. Diagonal lines are isolines of contained cobalt, in metric tons.
Abbreviations: BA, Bou Azzer (Morocco); BB, Blackbird (Idaho); CC, Clarion-Clipperton
zone (Pacific Ocean); CI, Cook Islands Exclusive Economic Zone (Pacific Ocean);
DM, Dumont (Canada); JC, Jacaré (Brazil); KF, Kisanfu (Congo [Kinshasa]); KM, Kamoto–
KOV–Musonoi–Mupine deposits (Congo [Kinshasa]); KN, Kalgoorlie Nickel (Australia); MS,
Mesaba (Minnesota); MTR, Maderia-Tore Rise (Atlantic Ocean); MU, Mutanda (Congo
[Kinshasa]); NM, Nkamouna (Cameroon); NO, Northmet (Minnesota); NT, Noril’sk Talnakh
(Russia); OD, Olympic Dam (Australia); PC, Pacific prime crust zone (Pacific Ocean); SB,
Sudbury (Canada); SC, Sheep Creek (Montana); TF, Tenke Fungurume (Congo [Kinshasa]);
TM, Twin Metals (Minnesota); TV, Talvivaara (Finland); WC, Windy Craggy (Canada)
180° 135° 90° 45° 0° 45° 90° 135° 180°
80°
70° Noril’sk-Talnakh
NICO Talvivaara Magnitogorsk
60°
Windy Craggy
Sudbury
50°
Blackbird Maderia-
40°
Tore Rise
30°
Bou Azzer
Moa
20°
PPCZ PPCZ
Clarion-Clipperton
10° zone
Nkamouna
0°
Jacaré Pioneer Afnasiy-
Mutanda
DIMA Tenke Fungurume Nikitin
10° Kisanfu seamount
Kamoto-KOV-
Mukondo
Musonoi-Mupine
20°
Cook
Islands
30°
Olympic Dam
Exclusive
Economic
40° Zone
50°
60°
70°
80°
Base from U.S. Geological Survey Global 30 arc-second elevation data (1996) and from Natural Earth (2014); Robinson projection; World Geodetic System 1984 datum
EXPLANATION
Terrestrial (land-based) cobalt deposit types Sea-floor cobalt deposit types
≥1.0 Mt cobalt 0.5 to 0.99 Mt cobalt <0.5 Mt cobalt >0.1 Mt cobalt
SSH Cu-Co SSH Cu-Co Fe-Cu-Co skarn and SSH Cu-Co Nodules
Magmatic Ni-Cu Ni-Co laterite replacement Ni-Co laterite Crusts
(-Co-PGE) sulfide Iron oxide-Cu-Au
Magmatic Ni-Cu Magmatic Ni-Cu Clarion-Clipperton zone
(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni)
(-Co-PGE) sulfide (-Co-PGE) sulfide
MSRH Co-Cu-Au Pacific prime crust zone (PPCZ)
BSH Ni-Cu-Zn-Co
Volcanogenic
Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au) Polymetallic vein
massive sulfide
Figure F7. World map showing global distribution of major cobalt-bearing mineral deposits (those containing equal to or more than 500,000 metric tons of cobalt) and selected
smaller deposits that represent minor types. The sizes of the symbols for terrestrial (land-based) deposits reflect the amounts of contained cobalt. Additional data on these and
other the deposits are given
Cobaltinfigure
table 7.F1. Note that the Nameless and Unicorn sea-floor deposits (table F1) are within the area of the Maderia-Tore Rise, which is located west of
Portugal (see Muiños and others, 2013). Au, gold; BSH, black-shale-hosted; Co, cobalt; Cu, copper; MSRH, metasedimentary-rock-hosted; Mt, million metric tons; Ni, nickel; SSH,
stratiform sediment-hosted; Zn, zinc
Resources and Production F13
A. Terrestrial deposits B. Terrestrial and sea-floor deposits

Other terrestrial
Stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co 7%
8%
Ni-Co laterite 6%
Magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) 3%
Other terrestrial 1%
Magmatic
Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE)
15% Stratiform Sea-floor
sediment-hosted Fe-Mn(-Co-Mo-REE)
Cu-Co crusts
41% 38%
Ni-Co Sea-floor
laterite Fe-Mn(-Ni-Cu-Co-Mo)
36% nodules
45%
Figure F8. Pie charts showing proportions of cobalt contained in mineral deposits worldwide (cumulative past production plus
Cobalt
reserves Figure
plus other8resources), by deposit type, for A, terrestrial deposits, and B, terrestrial and sea-floor deposits. Mine production in
2011 from terrestrial deposit types is shown in figure F5. Globally, the amount of cobalt contained in reserves plus other resources in
identified mineral deposits is significantly more than the amount of cobalt contained in past production. Co, cobalt; Cu, copper; Fe, iron;
Mn, manganese; Mo, molybdenum; Ni, nickel; PGE, platinum-group element; REE, rare-earth element
The United States has 0.64 million metric tons of cobalt the Pacific prime crust zone in the Pacific Ocean (fig. F6) is
contained in several deposit types (table F1). The vast majority three to four times the cobalt reserves contained in all known
occurs within magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits of terrestrial deposits (Hein and others, 2013).
the Duluth Complex in northeastern Minnesota (which include Production of cobalt during the next several decades will
the Nokomis deposit [291,000 metric tons], the Northmet likely be dominated by the mining of Ni-Co laterites and strati-
deposit [92,400 metric tons], and the Mesaba deposit form sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits, with lesser contributions
[89,000 metric tons]), and in metasedimentary-rock-hosted from magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits. The giant
Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Blackbird district in east-central cobalt resources present in modern sea-floor ferromanganese
Idaho (123,000 metric tons). Much smaller amounts of cobalt nodules and crusts (table F1; fig. F6) will probably be mined in
are present within the Sheep Creek (Black Butte) stratiform the future, but given the technological challenges, environmental
sediment-hosted Cu-Co-Ag deposit in western Montana issues, and uncertain economics involved in such deep-sea
(17,700 metric tons) and the Eagle magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) mining ventures, it is unclear when these sea-floor mineral
deposit in northern Michigan (4,000 metric tons). Resources resources might be exploited profitably for cobalt production.
also may be present in the Ni-Co laterites of southern Oregon
and northern California (Foose, 1991, 1992). Compared with
the estimated global terrestrial resources (plus past production,
Mining Methods
where available) of 25.5 million metric tons of cobalt, the The mining of cobalt deposits is done by conventional
United States has only 2.5 percent of the total amount of underground and open pit methods. Underground mining is
cobalt contained in mined ore (past production) plus reserves used for most magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide, iron oxide-
plus other resources. Cu-Au(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni), volcanogenic Cu-(Co-Zn-Ag-Au)
On a global scale, the largest resources of cobalt occur massive sulfide, and metasedimentary-rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au
in modern sea-floor ferromanganese nodules and crusts. deposits. In contrast, open pit mining is the predominant
Identified resources for eight different areas, each containing method used for stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co and Ni-Co
0.2 to 50 million metric tons of cobalt, have been reported. laterite deposits. Ore from the black-shale-hosted Talvivaara
Crusts tend to have slightly higher cobalt grades but a similar Ni-Cu-Zn-Co deposit in Finland—the only one of its type
range in deposit sizes. Significantly, the amount of cobalt in presently being mined—is extracted from large open pits.
Typical Mine Life (Saari and Riekkola-Vanhanen, 2012). Bacterial leaching was
also used at Kasese, Uganda, to recover cobalt from stockpiled
The mine life for cobalt-bearing deposits depends on pyrite concentrates that were generated during earlier
a variety of parameters, but it is ultimately limited by the copper mining.
size of the resource and the development of reserves, which
is the economically extractable portion of the demonstrated
resource. Mines that produce cobalt generally are worked for Undiscovered Resources
decades. For example, several stratiform sediment-hosted
Cu-Co deposits in the Central African Copperbelt have been Because stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co, Ni-Co
mined for more than 50 years, such as Chibuluma, which laterite, and magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits are
began production in 1955 and is still being mined (Metorex the sources of the greatest amount of cobalt production and
Pty Ltd., 2013). In some other countries, mining started earlier contain the largest reserves of cobalt, most undiscovered
and continues to the present day; for example, the magmatic resources of cobalt are likely to occur in these same deposit
Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits at the Creighton Mine in the types. Descriptive and genetic models for such deposits are
Sudbury district of Ontario were first worked in 1901 (Python relatively well developed; hence, the exploration for new
Mining Consultants, 2013); mining of the cobalt-rich veins in orebodies probably will target geologic terranes that host
the Bou Azzer district of Morocco began in 1928 (Ahmed and known deposits. In the case of stratiform sediment-hosted
others, 2009), and mining of the magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) Cu-Co deposits, prospective geologic settings have been
sulfide deposits of the Norilsk-Talnakh district in Russia thoroughly documented (for example, Hitzman and others,
began in 1936 (Naldrett, 2004). Possibly the longest period 2005; Taylor and others, 2013), yet potentially favorable
of production has come from the Thio Ni-Co laterite mine terranes exist in many remote parts of the world where modern
in New Caledonia, which was first mined in 1880 and is still deposit models have not been applied. A similar situation
being mined (Eramet Group, 2013). exists for Ni-Co laterite deposits in that, despite a robust
understanding of key ore-forming processes (for example,
Freyssinet and others, 2005; Butt and Cluzel, 2013), areas
that may contain deeply weathered ultramafic rocks have not
Ore-Processing Methods been well explored. For magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide
Cobalt-bearing ores are processed by a wide variety of deposits, the most important undiscovered resources are likely
extractive metallurgical techniques, depending on the type to be present in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks, including
of ore, the availability of energy, environmental concerns, large intrusive complexes (Naldrett, 2004; Eckstrand and
market demand for primary products and byproducts, and Hulbert, 2007). The global distribution of such complexes
overall project economics. Ni-Co laterite ores generally is well known for those exposed at the surface, but in some
require minimal beneficiation before being refined. Ores remote parts of the world, buried mafic intrusive complexes
from magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide and stratiform still await discovery.
sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits are processed by standard
rock crushing and grinding techniques, typically followed
by froth flotation to produce mineral concentrates, which are
Unconventional Resources
then refined to recover the metals (De Cuyper, 1988). Metamorphosed Black Shales
The ores or concentrates can be processed in one of the
following ways: (a) leaching, (b) roasting and then leaching, The black-shale-hosted Talvivaara Ni-Cu-Zn-Co deposit
or (c) smelting and then leaching. The resulting solutions in Finland contains an average of 200 ppm cobalt (Loukola-
are purified and refined to separate out the individual metals. Ruskeeniemi and Lahtinen, 2013); however, the economic
The purification and refining are generally carried out by part of this deposit is located within remobilized structures in
one or more hydrometallurgical and (or) electrometallurgical which lower metal contents of the surrounding Proterozoic
methods, including chemical precipitation, electrowinning, black shale were increased during deformation and metamor-
hydrogen reduction, ion exchange, and solvent extraction. phism. Epigenetic cobalt enrichment has also been described
Leaching of cobalt-bearing ores can be done at various for the Permian Kupferschiefer Cu-Ag-Au-PGE deposits in
temperatures and pressures using acids or other solutions, Germany and Poland, where elevated cobalt contents occur
such as ammonia, ammonia–ammonium carbonate, chloride, preferentially within small, paragenetically late veins (Schmidt
or chlorine (Kerfoot and Weir, 1988). For more detailed and Friedrich, 1988; Sun and Püttmann, 1997). Other black
information on the processing of cobalt ores, see, for example, shales may have potential for containing low-grade cobalt
Crundwell and others (2011). deposits, such as the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian
In a few cases, leaching is accelerated by the introduction Chattanooga Shale in the Southeastern United States that
of bacteria. For example, ore from the black-shale-hosted typically has 70 ppm cobalt but locally contains as much as
Talvivaara deposit in Finland is processed by bio-heapleaching 300 ppm (Leventhal and others, 1983).
Exploration for New Deposits F15
Modern Sea-Floor Volcanogenic Massive of subduction zones and hence are not preserved, except in
sedimentary sequences that are obducted onto continents.
Sulfide Deposits
Some VMS deposits on the modern sea floor contain
elevated amounts of cobalt. Documented examples of high
Ancient Cobalt-Rich Manganese Deposits
contents of cobalt in deposits on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are all in Cobalt-rich manganese deposits occur in Pliocene
settings underlain by ultramafic rocks, including in the Rainbow alkaline basalts of the Calatrava region in central Spain
vent field (Bogdanov and others, 2002), in the Logatchev (Crespo and Lunar, 1997). These unusual manganiferous
field (Mozgova and others, 1999), and in the Nibelungen field deposits, which contain up to 1.7 weight percent cobalt, are
(Melchert and others, 2008). Samples of massive sulfide rock interpreted to have formed in a hot-spring environment within
from the Logatchev field have as much as 1,310 ppm cobalt a predominantly subaerial volcanic sequence. Although the
(Murphy and Meyer, 1998). None of these modern deposits known cobalt deposits are small, the potential may exist
has been explored sufficiently for resource delineation, for larger deposits elsewhere in this volcanic field and also
however, because of their occurrence at relatively deep water within other subaerial alkaline basaltic provinces that display
depths of 3,000 m or more, which are considered unfavorable evidence of hot-spring environments.
for the profitable mining of such deposits (Herzig and others,
2002). Despite this constraint, ultramafic-hosted modern
VMS deposits may represent a resource for cobalt. Ultramafic Igneous Rocks
The highest cobalt concentrations in common rock types
are in ultramafic igneous rocks, including dunite, peridotite,
Ancient Ni-Co Laterites
and pyroxenite, and in altered varieties, such as serpentinite.
Because Ni-Co laterite deposits of Cretaceous or Dunite tends to have the greatest contents because this rock
younger ages are the predominant source of cobalt mined type consists mainly of olivine, which is a ferromagnesian
today (fig. F7; Berger and others, 2011), ancient laterites—if silicate mineral that preferentially concentrates cobalt.
preserved and not eroded—could represent a nonconventional The average cobalt contents in dunite and serpentinite are
resource for nickel and cobalt. Gleeson and Herrington (2005) 109 and 115 ppm, respectively (Gülaҫar and Delaloye, 1976);
evaluated this potential, using the data of Bárdossy and Aleva hence, these rock types potentially could become large-
(1990) on time periods of extensive global weathering, to tonnage and low-grade cobalt resources if the extraction of
suggest that fossil Ni-Co laterites preferentially formed during cobalt from olivine and serpentine can be made commercially
the Carboniferous, late Permian, Eocene-Oligocene, Miocene, viable. The large amount of energy required to extract such
and Pliocene, if favorable settings (including tropical to cobalt suggests that this type of deposit has only a small
subtropical climates) existed at those times (see Thorne chance of being developed and mined, however.
and others, 2012). Two examples of ancient laterites are the
Çaldağ Ni-Co deposit in Turkey and the Ni-Co laterites of
Greece, which formed during the Late Cretaceous to Eocene
and Late Jurassic to Cretaceous, respectively (Çağatay and
Exploration for New Deposits
others, 1983; Valeton and others, 1987). Even older forma- Because of the diversity of deposit types that contain
tional ages are possible, although paleoclimatic conditions economic cobalt concentrations, exploration methods vary
during the Paleozoic and Precambrian are not well known. greatly. In the exploration for stratiform sediment-hosted
Cu-Co deposits, prospecting may involve the integration
Ancient Fe-Mn(-Cu-Co-Ni) Nodules of data from soil geochemical surveys, as well as structure,
stratigraphy, geophysical, and drilling data. For lateritic
Ancient Fe-Mn(-Cu-Co-Ni) nodules are also a possible Ni-Co deposits, key exploration criteria are the presence of
nonconventional resource of cobalt. Fossil nodules have deeply weathered ultramafic rocks, development of a thick
been described from Miocene strata in Chile (Achurra and lateritic profile, and optimum topography and rainfall required
others, 2009) and Cretaceous strata in West Timor, Indonesia to effectively concentrate cobalt and nickel within the weath-
(Margolis and others, 1978). In both cases, however, the metal ering zone. Geochemical sampling, including of vegetation,
contents in the ancient nodules are much lower than those in is typically effective in locating Ni-Co laterite deposits. Many
modern nodules on the Pacific Ocean floor; such low metal magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits occur within large
concentrations may reflect shallow formation on continental mafic intrusive complexes where refined deposit models and
slopes above the carbonate compensation depth (CCD). local geologic knowledge can be used to focus exploration
Metal-rich ancient nodules are most likely to be found within to geophysics and drilling. Exploration for this deposit type
strata that formed in deepwater, abyssal plain settings below is centered on the basal zones of the complexes using mainly
the CCD. These types of strata are generally carried on top electrical and magnetic geophysical methods.
Environmental Considerations others, 2005; Narendrula and others, 2012). Cobalt concen
trations in seawater are 0.0003 to 0.004 micrograms per liter
Cobalt is an essential nutrient for most life, but it (µg/L, or parts per billion) (Bown and others, 2012; Shelley
can cause toxic effects when present in solids or waters at and others, 2012). In streams and rivers, cobalt concentrations
concentrations that are significantly enriched relative to vary from 0.006 to 0.43 µg/L (Gaillardet and others, 2003;
normal background levels. Such elevated concentrations may Huser and others, 2011). Elevated background concentrations
result from cobalt mining, processing, manufacturing, and of as high as 30 µg/L cobalt have been reported near Cobalt,
use. Consequently, an understanding of the behavior of cobalt Idaho (Eppinger and others, 2003). Suspended particulates in
in the environment can assist in developing technologies world rivers contain an average of 22.5 micrograms per gram
and working practices that do not lead to potentially toxic cobalt (Viers and others, 2009). Cobalt occurs naturally in the
concentrations of cobalt during its production and use. The atmosphere within mineral dust particles. In relatively clean
control, mitigation, and prevention of potential environmental air over the South Pole, cobalt ranges from 0.1 to 1.2 nano-
impacts from mining and related processing facilities will vary grams per cubic meter (ng/m3) (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias,
depending on the deposit type, but they are also dependent on 2001, and references therein).
regulations in place within the host country, State, and local Concentrations of cobalt in the environment that are
area. Therefore, no attempt is made herein to describe every higher than background concentration can result from
type of mine and its potential for cobalt pollution. Instead, mining and ore processing (table F2). For example, soils
the focus is on some of the better documented environmental near mines and processing facilities may contain as much as
impacts associated with cobalt mining. 22 to 6,150 ppm cobalt (Hutchinson and Symington, 1997;
Zohny, 2002; Giles and others, 2009; Narendrula and others,
2012). Likewise, streams near the mining towns of Cobalt,
Sources and Fate in the Environment Ontario, Canada, and Cobalt, Idaho, have 3 to 20 µg/L and
10 to 1,100 µg/L cobalt, respectively (Kwong and others,
In weathering environments at Earth’s surface, cobalt 2007; Gray and Eppinger, 2012). Extremely high cobalt
typically occurs in the +2 and +3 oxidation states, and concentrations of 70 to 61,000 µg/L (median is 540 µg/L)
may dissolve from host minerals and form complexes with occur in the pore waters of mine waste impoundments at the
hydroxide, fluoride, sulfate, phosphate, chloride, and (or) Khovu-Aksy Mine in Russia (Bortnikova and others, 2012).
organic material. The behavior of cobalt in weathering environ- Cobalt also can be emitted to the atmosphere during the
ments follows that of iron and manganese. Manganese oxide metal refining process; air affected by industry may contain
minerals, in particular, have a strong capacity to sorb dissolved 0.13 to 37 ng/m3 cobalt (Reimann and de Caritat, 1998, and
cobalt. Much of the literature about the behavior of dissolved references therein).
cobalt focuses on optimizing cobalt sorption to various natural
and synthetic solids as a means of removing dissolved cobalt
from solution (for example, Chen and others, 2011). Mine Waste Characteristics
The tendency for cobalt to be dissolved and transported
largely depends upon the pH and temperature of weathering Mine waste is generally considered to be the material that
solutions. Because cobalt typically is concentrated in sulfide originates and accumulates at a mine site but has no current
and arsenide minerals, it can be expected to be relatively economic value (Lottermoser, 2010); it includes both solid and
mobile under some weathering conditions because of the liquid waste. The character of the waste generated from cobalt
instability of these minerals at Earth’s surface. Dissolution mining varies according to the geology of the deposit and the
of sulfide minerals, in particular, releases metals and forms methods used to extract the ore. Mine wastes produced by
sulfuric acid, and the low pH values thus produced allow the extraction of copper and nickel ores from which cobalt is
higher concentrations of metals to be dissolved—potentially produced typically consist of waste rock, tailings, and possibly
causing the environmental problem known as acid mine pit lakes. Tailings are the residual silt- to fine sand-sized grains
drainage (AMD). Metals, including cobalt, which are generated from ore grinding and processing, and generally are
dissolved in AMD can be naturally attenuated through stored in dams or ponds.
precipitation, sorption to (oxyhydr)oxide minerals, or dilution The mining of cobalt typically produces large volumes
by mixing with water at circumneutral pH; if not fixed in this of solid and liquid waste. Estimates for the amounts of solid
manner, these metals are transported downstream and become waste generated from the mining of many deposits are difficult
more widely dispersed in the environment. to obtain. The mining of laterite deposits requires the stripping
Natural concentrations of cobalt in rocks, soils, waters, of overburden before extraction of the exposed ore. As a
and air are given in table F2. The cobalt content in soil varies result, reclamation of the mined area is often a significant
widely depending upon the type of parent rock, but soils issue, as soil needs to be reestablished and revegetated.
unaffected by pollution from industry generally contain a Further, once the nickel and cobalt have been extracted, a
range of 0.5 to 30 ppm cobalt (Shacklette and Boerngen, 1984; volume of material nearly equal in volume to the original
Hutchinson and Symington, 1997; Tyler, 2004; Smith and deposit must be secured in tailings so that it cannot be a source
Environmental Considerations F17
of contamination. Laterite deposits typically are between Cu-Co deposits is predicted to be greater owing to the pres-
20 and 200 million metric tons (table F1). In addition, laterite ence of such gangue minerals as calcite and dolomite. For
ores that are mined and then leached to recover nickel and example, the paste pH of tailings samples from the mines
cobalt can generate large amounts of metal-rich sludge that in the Central African Copperbelt are as high as 6.9 at the
must be contained in impoundments, which are known as Mindolo Mine and 8.5 at the Chambishi Mine (Sracek and
“dry stacks” (Power and others, 2011), or, if deemed environ- others, 2010). Zinc in carbonate-hosted sulfide deposits of the
mentally safe, combined with additives to revegetate mined Central African Copperbelt can make up a large percentage
areas (Powers and Siemens, 1983). of the total dissolved metals that drain from the deposits and
Other open pit mines, such as those that are used to associated waste piles (Plumlee and others, 1999). Lateritic
develop many strata-bound copper deposits, can be quite deep Ni-Co deposits generally lack acid-generating minerals, so
(for example, Taylor and others, 2013). A constraint on their the likely oxidizing and circumneutral (5 < pH < 8) weathering
economic viability is the stripping ratio, which determines conditions in these and carbonate-bearing, stratiform
how much waste rock must be moved. For example, the large sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits allow many of the accessory
Cu-Co mine at Tenke Fungurume (Congo [Kinshasa]) has an elements listed above to be less mobile or immobile (Smith
approximate stripping ratio of 3.3:1 (International Mining, and Huyck, 1999).
2012), which means that 3.3 metric tons of rock must be Liquid waste includes ore-processing fluids that are
moved to extract 1 metric ton of ore. The result is that large stored onsite, as well as natural water that interacts with solid
volumes of rock must be moved and managed, and waste rock mine waste. Liquid mine waste can occur as surface water,
must be placed in holding areas and secured. Underground groundwater, and soil pore water within and surrounding the
mines, such as those typically used to mine certain sulfide ore mine site. As an example of liquid mine waste at a former
deposits (magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposits and some stratiform cobalt mine, surface water draining from the Blackbird
sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits), generally produce less Mine near Cobalt, Idaho, is contaminated with As, Co, Cr,
waste than open pit mines; however, the waste commonly is Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn (Agency for Toxic Substances
highly reactive because of its high content of sulfide minerals. and Disease Registry, 1995). Cobalt concentrations in the
These minerals are capable of producing significant amounts waters in surrounding creeks may be nearly 70 times higher
of AMD, which, if not contained, must be remediated. One than background values (10 to 2,000 µg/L cobalt), as well
example of waste generated from a past-producing sulfide- as have high copper (10 to 1,800 µg/L copper), and arsenic
bearing cobalt mine is the Blackbird Mine near Cobalt, Idaho, (0.45 to 6.2 µg/L arsenic) concentrations (Mok and Wai,
which was mined intermittently from 1949 to 1960, yielding 1989). A survey of streams within the broader Idaho cobalt
4.8 million metric tons of waste rock and 2 million metric belt revealed elevated concentrations (in µg/L) of cobalt
tons of tailings, and resulting in AMD (U.S. Environmental (0.67 to 1,100), copper (1 to 2,000), arsenic (less than
Protection Agency, 2012). 0.2 to 44), and iron (28 to 3,800) (Eppinger and others, 2003).
Solid mine waste includes overburden (the soil and rock Metal contamination of groundwater, surface water, soil, and
that overlie an orebody that must be removed to access the ore stream sediments near the Blackbird Mine, as a result of runoff
in an open pit mine) and gangue (the material that surrounds from waste rock, tailings, and mill debris, led to the proposed
or is mixed with the valuable metallic minerals in the ore addition of the Blackbird Mine to the U.S. Superfund National
deposit). The mineralogy of solid mine waste in cobalt-rich Priorities List in 1993 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
deposits tends to be similar to the mineralogy of the deposit, 2012). Acid mine drainage like that at the Blackbird Mine
except that the proportion of ore minerals is lower relative may be typical for historic mining districts, but, with modern
to gangue minerals. Because of their association with sulfide controls, similar damage can generally be avoided or the
minerals, trace elements present in many cobalt-bearing harmful effects can be mitigated.
deposits and wastes typically include As, Au, Bi, Co, Cr,
Cu, Pb, Se, and Zn, and locally include Ag, Ba, Fe, Hg, Mg,
Ni, Sb, Sc, Sn, Ti, V, and PGEs (Evans and others, 1995; Human Health Concerns
Foose and others, 1995; Lindsey and others, 1995). Common
elements associated with lateritic Ni-Co deposits are Al, Co, The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Cr, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, and Si (Watling and others, 2011; Lambiv (2004) provides a useful summary of the health effects of
Dzemua and others, 2013). Under oxidizing and acidic cobalt on humans. The general public is most likely to be
(pH < 3) weathering conditions, which would be expected in exposed to cobalt through consumption of food and drinking
mine waste having little to no acid-neutralizing capacity (such water. Human dietary intake of cobalt typically ranges from
as those typically found in some stratiform sediment-hosted 10 to 30 micrograms per day (Schrauzer, 2004). Occupational
Cu-Co deposits, nearly all magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide exposure generally results from inhalation of cobalt-bearing
deposits, and in metasedimentary-rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au dust during cobalt processing and industrial activities that
deposits), many of the aforementioned accessory elements use cobalt, although the current use of appropriate protective
are expected to be mobile (Smith and Huyck, 1999). The equipment is thought to effectively minimize such exposure to
acid-neutralizing capacity of some stratiform sediment-hosted levels that do not cause harm. At low levels, cobalt is essential
to human health, particularly because it is the central atom in Ecological Health Concerns
the critical nutrient vitamin B12. Overexposure to high levels
of cobalt, however, may cause lung and heart dysfunction, as Many studies focus on the ecological impacts of cobalt
well as dermatitis. bioaccessibility in the environment. Various organisms,
Isotopes of cobalt range from 50Co to 71Co. The including fish, amphibians, crustaceans, insects, and plants,
naturally occurring isotope is 59Co. 60Co, which has a are used in chronic (lower doses over longer time periods)
half-life of 5.27 years and is the most commercially and acute (higher doses over shorter time periods) tests of a
important radioactive isotope of cobalt, is made by placing substance toxicity. The aquatic toxicity of cobalt depends on
59
Co in a nuclear reactor for 1.5 to 2 years (Reimann and multiple factors, including its chemical form (for example, free
de Caritat, 1998). 60Co is used in commercial and medical cobalt ion [Co2+], cobalt(II) chloride [CoCl2], and cobalt (II)
applications. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease sulfate [CoSO4(H2O)x]) and ambient physicochemical factors,
Registry (2004) stated that exposure to radiation from such as pH, temperature, and overall water chemistry. One
radioactive cobalt can damage cells and potentially cause of several useful measurements used in toxicity tests is the
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, coma, cancer, and, lethal concentration that leads to 50 percent mortality (LC50 )
in rare cases, death. Additionally, nonradioactive cobalt after exposure to a substance for a certain amount of time.
does not appear to cause cancer in humans or animals when Another commonly used measure of toxicity is the effective
ingested, but when inhaled, animals have shown cancer concentration that results in 50 percent of the tested population
development. More recently, the National Toxicology exhibiting decreased functionality (EC50 ), such as inhibited
Program (NTP), made up of three U.S. Government health growth.
organizations, listed nonradioactive cobalt sulfate and The freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca is known to
cobalt-tungsten carbide in the Report on Carcinogens as be sensitive to dissolved cobalt, exhibiting a 1-week LC50 of
reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens (National 16 µg/L in soft water and 61 µg/L in hard water (Borgmann
Toxicology Program, 2014a, b). Beyond these listings, and others, 2005). The toxic effects of cobalt on this and other
the NTP’s recent report revealed that there is not enough species decrease with increasing water hardness because less
unequivocal evidence connecting cancer development in toxic ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+ are able to outcompete Co2+
humans with exposure to cobalt and cobalt compounds for biological sites. Acute toxicity tests with dissolved cobalt
(National Toxicology Program, 2016). chloride and the freshwater green alga Chlorella vulgaris
Primary and secondary drinking water regulations resulted in an EC50 of 530 µg/L cobalt, based on inhibited
for cobalt currently do not exist in the United States, but growth over 96 hours (Rachlin and Grosso, 1993). Fish
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2013) appear to be more resistant to dissolved cobalt. For example,
has set an exposure limit of 0.1 milligram per cubic meter acute toxicity tests with dissolved cobalt (ranging from
for cobalt-bearing dust in workplace air over an 8-hour 0 to 2,000 mg/L) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
workday. Likewise, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commis- showed no lethality and an LC50 value of 1.4 mg/L cobalt
sion (2013a, b) limits radioactive cobalt in workplace air after 2 and 3 days of exposure, respectively (Marr and others,
to 1x10– 6 microcuries per milliliter (µCi/mL) of 57Co and 1998). Interestingly, when this latter species was exposed to
7x10-8 µCi/mL of 60Co. solutions containing dissolved copper only, dissolved cobalt
Mining of cobalt-rich ore deposits can potentially only, or a mixture of the two metals, toxicity for time periods
mobilize elements that are known human toxins. Perhaps greater than 2 days decreased in the following order: 250 µg/L
the best-known examples of the effects of elements that Co + Cu, 50 µg/L Co + Cu, Cu only, and Co only (Marr and
are known human toxins are the neurological impacts others, 1998). These results indicate that exposure to the
of lead on children (Holecy and Mousavi, 2012) and the combination of dissolved cobalt and copper, which is closer to
carcinogenic effects of arsenic in drinking water (Gupta actual environmental conditions, is more toxic than exposure
and others, 2012). Other commonly associated elements, to either metal alone. Some regions of the United States have
such as nickel, copper, and zinc, also have the potential adopted secondary acute and chronic screening benchmarks of
to affect human health when present above threshold 1,500 µg/L cobalt and 23 µg/L cobalt, respectively, for aquatic
concentrations in air, drinking water, and soil resources. freshwater life (Suter and Tsao, 1996).
The current U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Although cobalt may be toxic to some species, it is an
lead is 0.15 microgram per cubic meter (U.S. Environmental essential nutrient for many life forms, primarily because it
Protection Agency, 2013), and the current U.S. primary and is an integral component in vitamin B12 (Schrauzer, 2004).
secondary drinking water standards for arsenic, lead, and Microorganisms are responsible for the biosynthesis of natural
copper are 0.01, 0.0, and 1.3 milligrams per liter (mg/L), vitamin B12. Some microorganisms secrete enzymes known
respectively (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016). as siderophores, which are known to have a high capacity for
Canadian agricultural soil quality guidelines for nickel, dissolving iron from relatively insoluble minerals, thereby
copper, lead, and zinc are 50, 63, 70, and 200 milligrams per increasing the bioavailability of iron in iron-limited environ-
kilogram (mg/kg, which is equivalent to ppm), respectively ments. Recent work has shown that a commonly studied
(Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2013). siderophore has a binding capacity for cobalt that is five
Problems and Future Research F19
orders of magnitude greater than that for iron (Duckworth limestone-lined channels, or constructed wetlands (Plumlee
and others, 2009). Microorganisms may use siderophores to and Logsdon, 1999). The end result of both active and passive
increase cobalt solubility and bioavailability in cobalt-limited approaches is the eventual precipitation of dissolved metals.
environments as a means of contending with the generally Precipitated metals in passive wetland systems tend to be
low cobalt concentrations in the environment (Bi and others, more stable under the prevailing anoxic conditions, whereas
2010). Microorganisms are responsible for synthesizing the metal-rich precipitates that result from active treatment
vitamin B12 in the gut of ruminants, including those that facilities form a sludge that can be similar to Ni-Co laterite
humans depend on for food, such as cows and sheep. Cobalt- processing wastes, and both materials can cause environmental
deficient sheep and cattle may experience weight loss and problems if not disposed of responsibly.
frequent miscarriages, but such symptoms are often curtailed At large mines, mine waste is typically consolidated
by adding cobalt salts to feed and cobalt additives to soil into pits and submerged under water, forming a tailings pond
(Schrauzer, 2004). or impoundment. Acid-generating minerals are less reactive
Fewer studies have focused on the toxic effects of under water, but any seepage usually needs to be treated. A
cobalt on higher level plants. The cobalt content of food tailings impoundment in the Chambishi catchment in Zambia
plants varies widely (from 1.1 to 380 micrograms per covers 1.6 hectares and is submerged during the wet season,
kilogram) and depends upon the soil conditions and the but becomes completely dry by the middle of the dry season
species (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2001, and references (von der Heyden and New, 2004). The acid-neutralizing
therein). This dependence is illustrated by a study that tested capacity of the Chambishi tailings is sufficient to attenuate
the phytotoxicity of cobalt to barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), groundwater cobalt, nickel, and zinc concentrations to within
oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), and tomato (Lycopersicon local drinking water guideline levels, but evaporation in the
esculentum L.) in 10 different soils collected from around the tailings impoundment causes precipitation of metal-bearing
world (Li and others, 2009). The EC50, based on decreased evaporite minerals that can be mobilized as wind-blown dust
shoot growth and biomass, was highly variable. The most during the dry season (von der Heyden and New, 2004). Like-
sensitive EC50 was 7 mg/kg of cobalt for oilseed rape growing wise, dried tailings pond dust has settled in soils near the Tuva
in soil from Athens (Georgia), and the least sensitive EC50 cobalt plant (Khovu-Aksy Mine site, Russia), contributing to
was 1,708 mg/kg of cobalt for barley growing in soil from soil arsenic concentrations as high as 540 mg/kg (Bortnikova
Brécy (France). The bladder campion (Silene vulgaris and others, 2012).
[Moench] Garcke) plant is native to Europe and is widespread Another common long-term mine-closure issue related
in North America. This species has the capacity for high to the mining of cobalt-rich deposits is the generation of
metal tolerance, as expressed by seedling specimens collected large volumes of waste rock and tailings piles. These waste
in Canada from mine tailings near Cobalt, Ontario, having piles have the potential to become unstable and can be a
a greater ability to withstand elevated arsenic, cobalt, and source of metal-rich dust. If the use of mine waste as backfill
nickel concentrations in the growth medium than counterparts into mine workings is not an option, waste pile stability and
collected from an uncontaminated site near Baymouth, dust-generating issues can often be addressed through grading
Ontario (Paliouris and Hutchinson, 1991). For healthy and covering of the piles with vegetation. Securing waste piles
terrestrial plant growth, some regions of the United States and prevention and treatment of AMD typically are taken into
have adopted a soil screening benchmark of 20 mg/kg cobalt account in the long-term costs of active and proposed metal
(Efroymson and others, 1997). The Canadian agricultural soil mining projects.
quality guideline for cobalt is 40 mg/kg (Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment, 2013).
Problems and Future Research

Mine Closure
Several types of studies could benefit the delineation
Most recent and new mining operations include closure of new cobalt resources for the future and the mining and
plans that address issues related to the mine’s footprint. A processing of known cobalt deposits. First would be better
mine’s footprint includes the waste left on site and locally geologic models for cobalt-rich ores, which could be used in
affected soil and water, as well as ecological impacts, such as the exploration for new deposits. Second would be improved
habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity. Long-term plans methods for increased recovery of cobalt from Ni-Co laterites
for closed mining operations where cobalt is an economic based on the typically lower recovery rates for cobalt relative
byproduct also depend upon country, state, and local to nickel (Xu and others, 2005); in situ leaching of laterite
regulations. Following mining in many cobalt-rich deposits, deposits could also be evaluated. Third would be the develop-
a typical long-term mine closure issue is the potential for ment of processes for the efficient and economic recovery of
AMD derived from the site. Acidic drainage may seep from cobalt from silicate minerals, such as olivine in dunite and
waste piles or tailings ponds. Common methods for treating other types of ultramafic rocks. Fourth, and last, would be
AMD include active water treatment facilities, passive technological advances to help make the mining and extraction
of cobalt from deep-sea ferromanganese nodules and crusts

economically profitable.
Acknowledgments
Considerable challenges exist for the profitable We thank Michael P. Foose (U.S. Geological Survey) and
extraction of cobalt from sea-floor resources in ferroman- Andrew G. Gunn (British Geological Survey) for thorough and
ganese nodules and crusts (figs. F6 and F8). These cobalt constructive reviews of the manuscript, and John H. DeYoung, Jr.
resources lie at water depths of as great as 6,000 m, so (U.S. Geological Survey) for editorial suggestions. Comments
technological, economic, and legal barriers have prevented by David Weight and Paul Marsh (The Cobalt Development
their exploitation to date. The International Seabed Authority Institute), and William Stubblefield (Oregon State University)
has developed guidelines for the environmental impact are also appreciated. Keith Labay (U.S. Geological Survey)
statement (EIS) that must be submitted to governing bodies helped create the deposit location maps, and Suzanne Nicholson
by companies applying for licenses to explore and mine (U.S. Geological Survey) provided additional editorial
sea-floor mineral deposits. According to the EIS guidelines, comments after the technical review was complete.
developers must address all environmental and social issues
that could result from the mining activity, as well as the
relevant mitigation measures (International Seabed Authority,
2012). Discussion of all potential issues is beyond the scope References Cited
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Table F1
Table F1. Location, grade, tonnage, and other data for selected cobalt deposits of the world.— Continued
[Tonnage and grade include reserves, other resources, and past production (where available). WGS 84, World Geodetic System of 1984; negative values
for latitude indicate that the deposit is in the Southern Hemisphere; negative values for longitude indicate that the deposit is in the Western Hemisphere;
Congo (Kinshasa), Democratic Republic of the Congo; EEZ, Exclusive Economic Zone; Mt, million metric tons; %, percent. Element: Ag, silver; Au, gold;
As, arsenic; Bi, bismuth; Co, cobalt; Cu, copper; Fe, iron; Mn, manganese; Mo, molybdenum; Ni, nickel; REE, rare-earth-elements; Zn, zinc]
Latitude Longitude Co
Tonnage Grade Principal data source
Deposit Country (decimal degrees content
(Mt) (% Co) and notes
WGS 84) (Mt)
Stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits
Browns Australia –13.07 131.08 84.0 0.120 0.101 Compass Resources NL (2007)
Emmie Bluff Australia –31.10 137.17 25.0 0.100 0.025 Hitzman and others (2005)
Mount Gunson Australia –31.45 137.25 11.7 0.060 0.007 Hitzman and others (2005)
Mount Isa Australia –20.57 139.47 182.0 0.050 0.091 Mount Isa Mines Ltd. (2012)
Pyrite Hill-Big Hill Australia –32.12 141.20 20.8 0.085 0.018 Broken Hill Prospecting Ltd. (2013)
Windabout Australia –31.30 137.16 18.7 0.050 0.009 Gunson Resources Ltd. (2013)
Tangdan (Dongchuan) China 26.12 103.17 146.8 0.010 0.015 Hitzman and others (2005)
Deziwa Congo (Kinshasa) –10.78 25.77 319.4 0.120 0.383 Zijin Mining Group Co. Ltd. (2010)
Dilala East Congo (Kinshasa) –10.70 25.47 19.1 0.900 0.172 Metorex Pty Ltd. (2011)
DIMA Congo (Kinshasa) –10.74 25.38 280.0 0.189 0.530 Wilson and others (2013)
Disele Congo (Kinshasa) –10.75 26.25 4.1 0.068 0.003 Wilson and others (2013)
Écaille C Congo (Kinshasa) –10.76 26.12 21.8 0.060 0.013 Zijin Mining Group Co. Ltd. (2010)
Etoile (Ruashi) Congo (Kinshasa) –11.63 27.58 52.6 0.300 0.158 Metorex Pty Ltd. (2011)
Kababankola Congo (Kinshasa) –10.73 26.42 1.9 1.120 0.021 Wilson and others (2013)
Kabolela Congo (Kinshasa) –10.69 26.45 11.7 0.501 0.059 Wilson and others (2013)
Kakanda Congo (Kinshasa) –10.74 26.40 32.4 0.180 0.058 Wilson and others (2013)
Kalukundi-Kii Congo (Kinshasa) –10.62 25.91 12.8 0.457 0.058 Wilson and others (2013)
Kambove Congo (Kinshasa) –10.85 26.61 46.9 0.213 0.100 Wilson and others (2013)
Kamfundwa Congo (Kinshasa) –10.81 26.59 26.8 0.200 0.054 Wilson and others (2013)
Kamoto-KOV- Congo (Kinshasa) –10.72 25.40 416.0 0.387 1.608 Wilson and others (2013)
Musonoi-Mupine
Kananga Congo (Kinshasa) –10.68 25.48 8.1 0.884 0.072 Wilson and others (2013)
Kazibizi Congo (Kinshasa) –10.83 26.57 1.0 0.600 0.006 Wilson and others (2013)
Kipapila Congo (Kinshasa) –12.02 27.90 2.6 0.540 0.014 Wilson and others (2013)
Kipoi Central Congo (Kinshasa) –11.26 27.10 4.6 0.143 0.007 Wilson and others (2013)
Kipoi North Congo (Kinshasa) –11.26 27.10 5.3 0.049 0.003 Wilson and others (2013)
Kisanfu Congo (Kinshasa) –10.77 25.98 108.0 1.080 1.166 Freeport-McMoRan Copper &
Gold Inc. (2013)
Luishia Congo (Kinshasa) –11.17 27.01 72.3 0.152 0.110 Wilson and others (2013)
Luiswishi Congo (Kinshasa) –11.51 27.42 8.0 1.100 0.088 Wilson and others (2013)
Lupoto Congo (Kinshasa) –11.60 27.26 24.1 0.088 0.021 Wilson and others (2013)
M’Sesa Congo (Kinshasa) –10.85 26.58 8.0 0.213 0.017 Wilson and others (2013)
Mukondo (includes Congo (Kinshasa) –10.73 26.35 70.0 0.714 0.500 CAMEC Plc (2007)
C19 and C21)
Mutanda Congo (Kinshasa) –10.79 25.81 299.5 0.59 1.767 Glencore International plc (2011)
Mutoshi Congo (Kinshasa) –10.65 25.51 10.8 0.304 0.033 Wilson and others (2013)
Tenke Fungurume1 Congo (Kinshasa) –10.58 26.19 674.0 0.245 1.651 Nilsson and others (2011)
Tilwezembe Congo (Kinshasa) –10.80 25.69 23.4 0.637 0.149 Wilson and others (2013)
Table F1 F35
WGS 84) (Mt)
Stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits—Continued
Boleo Mexico 27.33 –112.30 424.5 0.054 0.231 Baja Mining Corp. (2011)
Kilembe Uganda 0.22 30.05 16.2 0.170 0.028 Vangold Resources Ltd. (2013)
Sheep Creek United States 46.73 –110.90 11.6 0.100 0.012 Tintina Resources Inc. (2016)
(Black Butte)
Baluba-Muliashi- Zambia –13.50 28.38 339.0 0.033 0.111 Wilson and others (2013)
Luanshya
Chambishi Southeast Zambia –12.66 28.05 178.0 0.069 0.123 Wilson and others (2013)
Chibuluma- Zambia –12.92 28.08 19.9 0.186 0.037 Wilson and others (2013)
Chibuluma West
Chimiwungo Zambia –12.18 25.85 761.0 0.009 0.069 Wilson and others (2013)
Chingola-Nchanga Zambia –12.51 27.87 576.0 0.026 0.149 Wilson and others (2013)
Kalumbila Zambia –12.21 25.35 340.0 0.030 0.102 Wilson and others (2013)
Malundwe Zambia –12.16 25.75 162.0 0.014 0.023 Wilson and others (2013)
Mindola-Nkana N-S Zambia –12.80 28.18 656.0 0.065 0.429 Wilson and others (2013)
Nama Zambia –12.26 27.62 185.8 0.059 0.109 Wilson and others (2013)
Ni-Co laterite deposits
Bell Creek-Neck- Australia –18.14 144.79 18.4 0.050 0.009 Metallica Minerals Ltd. (2013)
Minnamoolka
Cawse Australia –30.38 121.15 217.0 0.040 0.087 Berger and others (2011)
Claude Hills Australia –26.00 129.30 33.3 0.070 0.023 Metals X Ltd. (2013)
Greenvale-Kokomo- Australia –18.97 144.94 59.5 0.070 0.042 Metallica Minerals Ltd. (2013)
Lucknow
Kalgoorlie Nickel2 Australia –30.10 121.05 727.0 0.044 0.320 Heron Resources Ltd. (2013)
Marlborough Australia –23.01 149.89 210.0 0.060 0.126 Berger and others (2011)
Murrin Murrin Australia –28.77 121.89 464.0 0.076 0.351 Minara Resources Pty Ltd. (2011)
Ora Banda Australia –30.24 121.00 30.0 0.080 0.024 Berger and others (2011)
Ravensthorpe Australia –33.65 120.40 386.0 0.027 0.104 Berger and others (2011)
Summervale/Westlynn Australia –31.55 147.17 16.0 0.064 0.010 Jervois Mining Ltd. (2013)
Weld Range Australia –26.82 117.75 330.0 0.060 0.198 Minara Resources Pty Ltd. (2005)
Wingellina Australia –26.06 128.97 347.7 0.080 0.278 Metals X Ltd. (2013)
Yerilla Australia –29.73 122.04 135.4 0.052 0.070 Heron Resources Ltd. (2013)
Young Australia –35.77 148.82 167.0 0.070 0.117 Jervois Mining Ltd. (2013)
Jacaré Brazil –6.21 –52.86 495.0 0.130 0.644 Berger and others (2011)
Niquelandia Brazil –14.35 –48.40 56.3 0.060 0.034 Berger and others (2011)
Santa Fe Brazil –15.67 –51.12 61.0 0.060 0.037 Berger and others (2011)
Serra do Tapa Brazil –6.85 –49.33 60.3 0.050 0.030 Berger and others (2011)
Vale dos Sonhos Brazil –6.97 –49.26 13.0 0.070 0.009 Berger and others (2011)
WGS 84) (Mt)
Ni-Co laterite deposits—Continued
Vermelho Brazil –6.24 –49.75 290.0 0.026 0.075 Berger and others (2011)
Vila Oito Brazil –7.79 –49.35 12.9 0.065 0.008 Berger and others (2011)
Musongati Burundi –3.79 30.19 185.0 0.080 0.148 Berger and others (2011)
Nyabikere Burundi –3.28 30.09 46.4 0.030 0.014 Berger and others (2011)
Waga Burundi –3.56 29.91 35.0 0.040 0.014 Berger and others (2011)
Nkamouna (includes Cameroon 3.27 13.81 391.5 0.220 0.860 Geovic Mining Corp. (2013)
Mada)
Moa Cuba 20.60 –74.96 290.0 0.180 0.522 Berger and others (2011)
Nicaro Cuba 20.63 –75.54 200.0 0.100 0.200 Berger and others (2011)
Pinares de Mayari Cuba 20.54 –75.72 400.0 0.100 0.400 Berger and others (2011)
Punta Gorda Cuba 20.63 –74.89 310.0 0.110 0.341 Berger and others (2011)
Sechol Guatemala 15.43 –89.66 36.1 0.080 0.029 Berger and others (2011)
Bhimatangar India 21.01 85.74 63.9 0.150 0.096 Berger and others (2011)
Kansa India 21.06 85.86 40.9 0.080 0.033 Berger and others (2011)
Saruabil India 21.06 85.82 18.4 0.080 0.015 Berger and others (2011)
Gag Island Indonesia –0.45 129.88 240.0 0.080 0.192 Berger and others (2011)
Halmahera/Weda Bay Indonesia –0.50 127.94 277.0 0.090 0.249 Berger and others (2011)
La Sampala Indonesia –2.70 121.93 162.0 0.080 0.130 Berger and others (2011)
Tiuba-Biankouma Ivory Coast 7.74 –7.62 293.0 0.110 0.322 Berger and others (2011)
Gornostai Kazakhstan 50.61 78.76 9.7 0.059 0.006 Berger and others (2011)
Kempirsai Kazakhstan 50.34 58.28 179.7 0.054 0.097 Berger and others (2011)
Cikatova Kosovo (Serbia) 42.22 21.26 13.0 0.070 0.009 Berger and others (2011)
Glavica Kosovo (Serbia) 42.54 21.01 7.5 0.050 0.004 Berger and others (2011)
Ržanovo Macedonia 41.17 21.99 43.0 0.060 0.026 Berger and others (2011)
Ambatovy Madagascar –18.87 48.35 164.4 0.091 0.150 Berger and others (2011)
Analamay Madagascar –18.85 48.37 56.3 0.104 0.059 Berger and others (2011)
Tavai Malaysia 5.58 117.33 270.0 0.070 0.189 Tiger International
Resources Inc. (2006)
Goro New Caledonia –22.31 166.93 323.0 0.110 0.355 Berger and others (2011)
Kouaoua New Caledonia –21.42 165.74 30.0 0.080 0.024 Berger and others (2011)
Nakety New Caledonia –21.51 166.05 229.0 0.120 0.275 Berger and others (2011)
Nepoui New Caledonia –21.22 165.04 16.0 0.080 0.013 Berger and others (2011)
Thio New Caledonia –21.62 166.18 208.0 0.100 0.208 Berger and others (2011)
Tiébaghi New Caledonia –20.45 164.22 39.2 0.090 0.035 Berger and others (2011)
Mambare Papua New –9.00 147.70 162.5 0.090 0.146 Direct Nickel Pty Ltd. (2013)
Guinea
Ramu Papua New –5.53 145.19 143.2 0.100 0.143 Berger and others (2011)
Guinea
Wowo Gap Papua New –9.68 148.96 190.0 0.060 0.114 Berger and others (2011)
Guinea
Table F1 F37
WGS 84) (Mt)
Ni-Co laterite deposits—Continued
Acoje/Zambales Philippines 15.72 120.04 72.3 0.070 0.051 Berger and others (2011)
Agata/Bolobolo/ Philippines 9.28 125.52 35.0 0.060 0.021 Gifford and others (2011)
Karihatag
Berong Philippines 9.39 118.14 275.0 0.080 0.220 Berger and others (2011)
Cagdianao Philippines 9.92 125.67 8.0 0.140 0.011 Berger and others (2011)
Ipilan Philippines 8.97 117.98 77.0 0.100 0.077 Berger and others (2011)
Mindoro Philippines 12.94 121.07 315.0 0.060 0.189 Berger and others (2011)
Nonoc Philippines 9.84 125.62 144.7 0.110 0.159 Berger and others (2011)
Rio Tuba (Coral Bay) Philippines 8.59 117.41 57.7 0.123 0.071 Nickel Asia Corp. (2011)
Taganaan Philippines 9.78 125.72 20.0 0.092 0.018 Nickel Asia Corp. (2011)
Taganito/Adlay Philippines 9.53 125.83 123.0 0.116 0.143 Nickel Asia Corp. (2011)
Guanajibo Puerto Rico 18.13 –67.16 44.4 0.080 0.036 Berger and others (2011)
Las Mesas Puerto Rico 18.19 –67.10 22.7 0.120 0.027 Berger and others (2011)
Akkermanov Russia 51.21 58.23 40.0 0.010 0.004 Berger and others (2011)
Buruktal Russia 50.85 60.83 79.0 0.100 0.079 Berger and others (2011)
Cheremshanskoe Russia 56.12 60.30 45.0 0.024 0.011 Berger and others (2011)
Lipovskoe Russia 57.43 61.11 46.0 0.057 0.026 Berger and others (2011)
Rogozhinskoe Russia 56.17 60.26 2.5 0.060 0.002 Berger and others (2011)
Serovskoe Russia 59.71 60.56 52.8 0.043 0.023 Berger and others (2011)
Sinarskoe Russia 56.07 60.40 18.0 0.055 0.010 Berger and others (2011)
Rudjinci Serbia 43.59 20.84 14.0 0.050 0.007 Berger and others (2011)
Isabela Island (Bugotu) Solomon Islands –8.39 159.71 24.0 0.063 0.015 Berger and others (2011)
Dutwa Tanzania –3.67 33.42 107.0 0.028 0.030 African Eagle Resources Plc (2013)
Çaldağ Turkey 38.62 27.77 37.9 0.050 0.019 Berger and others (2011)
Magmatic Ni-Cu(-Co-PGE) sulfide deposits
Kambalda Australia –31.64 121.65 67.0 0.207 0.139 Naldrett (2004)
Mt. Keith Australia –27.71 120.53 478.0 0.014 0.067 Naldrett (2004)
Savannah (Sally Australia –17.35 128.02 8.1 0.073 0.006 Panoramic Resources Ltd. (2012)
Malay)
Americano do Brasil Brazil –16.10 –50.08 7.9 0.040 0.003 Votorantim Group (2006)
(Salgado)
Fortaleza de Minas Brazil –21.00 –48.50 10.3 0.200 0.021 Votorantim Group (2006)
Santa Rita Brazil –14.19 –39.73 159.3 0.015 0.024 Mirabela Nickel Ltd. (2012)
Dumont Canada 48.65 –78.44 2,134.2 0.011 0.226 Staples and others (2012)
Ferguson Lake Canada 62.92 –96.97 44.2 0.080 0.035 Starfield Resources Inc. (2013)
Makwa (Maskwa) Canada 50.47 –95.43 19.1 0.010 0.002 Mustang Minerals Corp. (2013)
WGS 84) (Mt)
Magmatic Ni-Cu(Co-PGE) sulfide deposits—Continued
Nunavik (includes Canada 61.57 –73.26 27.1 0.048 0.013 Armstrong, Puritch, and Yassa
Mesamax) (2010)
Raglan Canada 61.59 –74.29 44.0 0.060 0.026 Xstrata plc (2011)
Shakespeare Canada 46.35 –81.83 11.8 0.020 0.002 Prophecy Platinum Corp. (2013a)
Sudbury Canada 46.63 –81.38 2,648 0.038 1.006 Naldrett (2004)
Thompson Canada 53.76 –98.81 150.0 0.046 0.069 Naldrett (2004)
Turnagain Canada 58.48 –128.83 763.0 0.013 0.102 Hard Creek Nickel Corp. (2013)
Voisey’s Bay Canada 45.50 –73.57 137.0 0.090 0.123 Naldrett (2004)
Wellgreen Canada 60.75 –139.50 461.0 0.021 0.097 Prophecy Platinum Corp. (2013b)
Jinchuan China 38.47 102.17 515.0 0.019 0.098 Naldrett (2004)
Yangliuping China 30.67 102.00 63.8 0.016 0.010 Pirajno (2013)
Hitura Finland 63.84 25.05 19.4 0.020 0.004 Eilu (2012)
Kevitsa Finland 67.70 29.97 435.4 0.015 0.064 First Quantum Minerals Ltd. (2011)
Kotalahti Finland 62.52 27.68 12.4 0.030 0.004 Eilu (2012)
Laukunkangas Finland 62.05 28.77 7.9 0.030 0.002 Eilu (2012)
Stormi Finland 61.33 24.90 9.0 0.040 0.004 Eilu (2012)
Bruvann (Råna) Norway 68.33 16.94 43.0 0.010 0.004 Eilu (2012)
Stormyra (including Norway 61.34 9.66 11.1 0.022 0.002 Eilu (2012)
Dalen)
Ertelien Norway 60.07 10.05 3.1 0.074 0.002 Eilu (2012)
Flåt Norway 58.60 7.87 3.2 0.075 0.002 Eilu (2012)
NKT Russia 67.94 32.82 8.2 0.230 0.019 Eilu (2012)
Noril’sk-Talnakh area Russia 69.36 88.31 1,309.0 0.061 0.798 Naldrett (2004)
Pechenga Russia 69.33 29.74 339.0 0.045 0.153 Naldrett (2004)
Sopchuaivench Russia 67.88 32.82 131.2 0.014 0.018 Eilu (2012)
Nkomati South Africa –25.67 30.50 290.6 0.020 0.058 African Rainbow Minerals Ltd. (2011)
Aguablanca Spain 37.85 –6.18 6.0 0.600 0.036 Lundin Mining Corp. (2012)
Kabanga Tanzania –2.87 30.58 58.2 0.198 0.115 Xstrata plc (2011)
Eagle United States 46.75 –87.90 5.2 0.080 0.004 Owen and Meyer (2013)
Mesaba (Babbitt/ United States 47.63 –91.88 1,106.5 0.008 0.089 Teck Resources Ltd. (2010)
Minnamax)
Northmet United States 47.60 –91.97 923.9 0.010 0.092 Polymet Mining Corp. (2013)
Twin Metals United States 47.80 –91.76 2,425.9 0.012 0.291 Duluth Metals Ltd. (2012)
(Nokomis)3
Munali Zambia –16.00 28.00 27.7 0.069 0.019 Albidon Ltd. (2007)
Black-shale-hosted Ni-Cu-Zn-Co deposits
Talvivaara Finland 63.98 28.17 2,053 0.020 0.411 Talvivaara Mining Company Plc
(2013)
Table F1 F39
WGS 84) (Mt)
Fe-Cu-Co skarn and replacement deposits
Goroblagodat Russia 61.42 60.50 160.0 0.022 0.035 Herrington and others (2005)
Magnitogorsk Russia 53.42 59.10 500.0 0.018 0.090 Herrington and others (2005)
Cornwall United States 40.27 –76.40 100.0 0.025 0.025 Rose and others (1985); grade
calculated
Iron oxide-Cu-Au(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni) deposits
Basil Australia –22.07 135.55 26.5 0.050 0.013 Mithril Resources Ltd. (2013)
Ernest Henry Australia –20.43 140.70 166.0 0.050 0.083 Williams and Pollard (2001)
Greenmount Australia –21.03 140.53 23.8 0.049 0.012 Williams and Pollard (2001)
Mount Oxide Australia –19.48 139.47 15.5 0.050 0.008 Chalice Gold Mines Ltd. (2012)
Olympic Dam Australia –30.43 136.88 605.0 0.020 0.121 Williams and Pollard (2001)
Rover 1 Australia –20.00 133.66 6.8 0.060 0.004 Metals X Ltd. (2013)
Lala (Lalachang) China 26.10 101.90 200.0 0.022 0.044 Chen and Zhou (2012)
Guelb Moghrein Mauritania 19.75 –14.38 23.7 0.014 0.003 Kolb and others (2006)
Metasedimentary-rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits
NICO Canada 63.55 –116.75 31.0 0.120 0.037 Slack (2013)
Werner Lake Canada 50.47 –94.97 1.3 0.270 0.004 Slack (2013)
Haarakumpu Finland 66.42 28.57 4.7 0.170 0.008 Slack (2013)
Juomasuo Finland 66.29 29.20 5.0 0.128 0.006 Slack (2013)
Kouvervaara Finland 66.13 28.82 1.6 0.100 0.002 Slack (2013)
Vähäjoki Finland 66.11 25.28 10.5 0.030 0.003 Slack (2013)
Skuterud Norway 59.91 9.89 1.0 0.260 0.003 Slack (2013)
Blackbird (district) United States 45.12 –114.35 16.8 0.735 0.123 Slack (2013)
Polymetallic (Ag-Ni-Co-As-Bi) and other cobalt-rich veins
Cobalt-Gowganda Canada 47.40 –79.69 2.0 1.000 0.020 Petruk and others (1971)
(districts)
Bou Azzer (district) Morocco 30.53 –6.91 4
5.7 4
1.500 0.085 Bouabdellah and others (2016)
Karakul Russia 49.91 89.55 14.9 0.260 0.039 Puget Ventures Inc. (2013)
Volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au) massive sulfide deposits
Chu Chu Canada 51.38 –120.06 7.0 0.100 0.007 Mosier and others (2009)
Soucy No. 1 Canada 58.32 –69.87 5.4 0.090 0.005 Mosier and others (2009)
Windy Craggy Canada 59.73 –137.73 297.0 0.069 0.205 Peter and Scott (1999)
Deerni China 34.40 100.13 54.0 0.080 0.043 Galley and others (2007)
Dur’ngoi China 34.33 100.24 31.9 0.089 0.028 Xu and Zhu (2000)
Luikonlahti Finland 62.92 28.67 3.4 0.130 0.004 Mosier and others (2009)
Outokumpu Finland 62.73 29.01 29.2 0.250 0.073 Mosier and others (2009)
WGS 84) (Mt)
Volcanogenic Cu(-Zn-Co-Ag-Au) massive sulfide deposits—Continued
Outokumpu Finland 62.72 29.00 7.8 0.240 0.019 Altona Mining Ltd. (2013)
(Kylylahti)
Outokumpu Finland 63.60 27.40 7.7 0.120 0.009 Eilu (2012)
(Luikonlahti)
Outokumpu Finland 62.94 29.13 3.4 0.090 0.003 Eilu (2012)
(Saramäki)
Outokumpu (Vuonos) Finland 62.76 29.09 5.9 0.150 0.009 Eilu (2012)
Gaiskoye (Gai and Russia 51.46 58.49 300.0 0.020 0.060 Prokin and Buslaev (1999)
Gai East)
Ishkinino Russia 51.45 58.28 1.0 0.200 0.002 Herrington and others (2005)
Ivanovskoe Russia 52.45 57.92 10.0 0.400 0.040 Mosier and others (2009)
Komsomolskoye Russia 51.23 56.97 25.0 0.020 0.005 Prokin and Buslaev (1999)
Letneye Russia 51.06 59.37 10.0 0.090 0.009 Prokin and Buslaev (1999)
Sibaiskoye Russia 52.70 58.63 100.0 0.130 0.130 Prokin and Buslaev (1999)
Kure (Asikoy) Turkey 41.81 33.69 13.6 0.300 0.041 Mosier and others (2009)
Turner Albright United States 42.00 –123.76 4.0 0.050 0.002 Mosier and others (2009)
Sea-floor Fe-Mn(-Ni-Cu-Co-Mo) nodules
Clarion-Clipperton Pacific Ocean 10.00 –140.00 21,100.0 0.209 44.00 Hein and others (2013)
zone
Cook Islands EEZ Pacific Ocean –10.00 –170.00 5,122.0 0.410 21.00 Hein and others (2013)
Pioneer Indian Ocean –14.00 74.00 700.0 0.100 0.700 Banakar (2010)
Sea-floor Fe-Mn(-Co-Mo-REE) crusts
Pacific prime Pacific Ocean 15.00 160.00 7,533.0 0.664 50.00 Hein and others (2013)
crust zone
Nameless Atlantic Ocean 35.20 –15.00 71.0 0.340 0.240 Muiños and others (2013)
Unicorn Atlantic Ocean 34.60 –14.50 130.0 0.350 0.450 Muiños and others (2013)
Maderia-Tore Rise Atlantic Ocean 36.00 –15.00 1,100.0 0.350 3.800 Muiños and others (2013)
(MTR)
Afanasiy-Nikitin Indian Ocean –3.00 83.00 180.0 0.580 1.044 Parthiban and Banakar (1999)
seamount
1
Data for Tenke Fungurume include results for 7 deposits: Fwaulu, Fungurume, Kansalawile, Kwatebala, Mambilima, Mwadinkomba, and Tenke.
Data for Kalgoorlie Nickel include results for 10 deposits: Big Four, Black Range, Bulong, Ghost Rocks, Goongarrie Hill, Goongarrie South, Highway,
2
Kalpini, Siberia, and Siberia North.

3
Cobalt data from D.M. Peterson, Duluth Metals Ltd., written commun. to J.F. Slack, March 25, 2013.
4
Size and grade estimated.
For more information concerning this report,
please contact:
Mineral Resources Program Coordinator
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Telephone: 703– 648– 6100
Fax: 703– 648– 6057
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
Home page: https://minerals.usgs.gov
Prepared by the USGS Science Publishing Network

Reston Publishing Service Center
Edited by J.C. Ishee
Illustrations by Caryl J. Wipperfurth
Layout by Caryl J. Wipperfurth and Cathy Y. Knutson
Posting by Angela E. Hall
Slack and others—Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Cobalt —Professional Paper 1802–F
https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802F
ISSN 2330-7102 (online)

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Cobalt

Professional Paper 1802–F

U.S. Department of the Interior

lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

sodium magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

element names in blue are liquids at room temperature

By John F. Slack, Bryn E. Kimball, and Kim B. Shedd

Professional Paper 1802–F

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2017

ISSN 2330-7102 (online)

International System of Units to Inch/Pound

Inch/Pound to International System of Units

Concentration unit Equals

Metric system prefixes

Abbreviations and Symbols

By John F. Slack, Bryn E. Kimball, and Kim B. Shedd

Abstract advances in technology may soon allow production of these

Drying agents for paints, EXPLANATION

Geology Principal Deposit Types

Table F2. Cobalt concentrations in rocks, soils, waters, and air.—Continued

Table F2. Cobalt concentrations in rocks, soils, waters, and air.—Continued

Iron Oxide-Cu-Au(-Ag-U-REE-Co-Ni) Deposits Mississippi Valley-Type Zn-Pb(-Co-Ni)

Sea-Floor Fe-Mn(-Ni-Cu-Co-Mo) Nodules

Deposit tonnage, in million metric tons

A. Terrestrial deposits B. Terrestrial and sea-floor deposits

Problems and Future Research

of cobalt from deep-sea ferromanganese nodules and crusts

Kalpini, Siberia, and Siberia North.

Prepared by the USGS Science Publishing Network

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