Module-1

Scope of different fields of civil engineering

Surveying
The study of surveying enables the engineer to determine relative positions of points on the surface
of earth. Before the construction of any structure, surveying of the land, on which the construction is
to come up, is always done.

Applications:

• Determining correct distance between the objects and stations.

• Alignment of the tunnels, dams, canals, roads and the railway lines, water-supply lines etc.
• Determination of elevations of stations and preparing contour maps.
• Calculation of the earthwork involved in the construction activities.
• Preparing cadastral maps showing houses, boundaries of fields etc.

Hydraulics
It is a branch of science in which the study of fluids, i.e., liquids and gases, at rest and in motion
is done. Usually, the liquid is water and the subject is titled hydraulics.
Applications:

• Determination of fluid properties such as density, viscosity, vapour pressure etc.

• Control and monitoring the flow of oil, water, gas etc.
• Design conveying system for the fluids.
• Design of rotodynamic machines.
• Design of hydropower system.
• Measurement of fluid flow parameter.

Water Resource and Irrigation

It deals with the tapping the storage of water and supplying water either for crops cultivation
and other domestic/ Industrial usage
Application:
• Estimation of quality and quantity for surface and subsurface water available given
places.
• Calculation of reservoir capacity, catchment area, command area etc.
• Estimation of water requirement for cropping so that most efficient and economical
use of water is made.
• Flood control arrangement, diversion works etc.

Transportation Engineering
This subject deals with the transport of men and materials through different communication
routes such as land, water and air.
Application:

• Design, construction and management of roads, railways, navigation and air-routes.

• Design and provision of curves and allied structures such as bridges, culverts, tunnel
etc.
• Traffic management and parking facilities.
• Avoid heavy traffic through cities/ village by providing bye-pass/ diversion roads and
expressways.
Environmental Engineering
This is an important branch of civil engineering which covers both water supply and sanitary
engineering.
Application:
• Water treatment for supplying potable drinking water.
• Waste water treatment – design, construction and maintenance of wastewater
treatment plants.
• Planning for the Collection, processing and disposal methods of Municipal Solid
Waste.
• Monitoring, control and prevention for different types of pollution.
• Environmental impact assessment for the factories and industries.

Geotechnical Engineering
This branch of civil engineering is also called soil mechanics. The properties and strength
characteristics of different types of soil are studied in this subject.
Application:
• Determination of important physical and engineering properties of underlying soil.
• Design, construction of foundation for water structures, buildings and machines.
• Design of retaining walls, earthen dams.
• Assessing stability of ground slopes and also improving the stability to control the
landslides.
• Estimation of bearing capacity of the soil and improving the bearing capacity.

Structural Engineering
It is the branch of civil engineering that includes safe and economical design of structures and
structural members like beams, column etc., as well as connection.
Application:
• Calculation of different types of loads and forces on the structures.
• Deciding the dimensions of the structural members to be used and making them safer
and more economical.
• Analysis of shear force and bending moments on the structures.
• Designing the earthquake resistant structures.
Construction Technology and Management.
It is the discipline that deals with the different types of construction of structures with the
requisite economy, efficiency and factor of safety.
Application:
• Project management and systematic completion of a construction work.
• Maximization and optimisation of material. Labour, money and time requirement for
the construction.
• Scheduling and phasing of work for the operations and stages involved in the
construction.
• Ensuring the quality of the material, workmanship by following the rules and
regulation of the construction practice.
• Reviewing the contracts, bids and employing the contractors and sub-contractors for
the particular construction activities.

Infrastructure
The economic development of a country depends on the growth and production rate of
industries and agricultural fields. This in turn depends upon the facilities such as
transportation, energy, communication, science and technology, irrigation facilities,
equipment and machinery. These facilities are referred to as infrastructural facilities.
Impact of infrastructural development on a country
Infrastructural development has the following major impacts on a country.
1. Increase in food production
2. Protection from famine
3. Safe, domestic and industrial water supply
4. Improvement in communication and transportation
5. Generation of hydroelectric power
6. Addition to the wealth of the country
7. Increase in prosperity of people
8. Overall development of the country.

Role of Civil Engineer

The success of civil engineering depends on how effectively the civil engineer plays his role.
They have many jobs to attend to. Apart from being a technician, he has to coordinate the
complex activities as a project manager to achieve the goals set by the owner.

Some of the duties of CIVIL ENGINEER are:

1. Reporting to managers, consultants and owner the progress of the work
2. Discussing anticipated problems and finding solutions
3. Providing general supervision to field activities
4. Guiding and monitoring the control systems for projects
5. Providing emergency/specific advice to field managers and staff
6. Deciding the type of site layout and levelling requirements
7. Arranging for all permissions required for executing the project work
8. Managing, coordinating and supervising the work of the site-contractors
9. Programming for schedule, performance and cost control management
10. Maintaining day-to-day records, registers, and keeping the necessary records for change
orders.
11. Developing guidelines for industrial contractors and coordinating performances of all
contractors.
12. Fulfilling job safety requirements.
13. Explaining designs, working drawings and specifications, project status and preparing
project reports.
Bricks
Bricks play a primary role in construction at all levels beginning from thatched roofs to multi-
storeyed buildings. Over many years, the process of brick making has not changed except for
minor refinements. Bricks are the oldest construction material which has been broadly used
at present due to its durability, availability and low cost. Refined brick making and burning
techniques have exceptionally improved the quality of buildings.
Manufacturing of bricks constitutes four stages i.e., preparation of soil, moulding, drying and
burning.

Preparation of Soil
Removal of Top Soil: The removal of top soil involves the loose materials present at the top
of the soil for a depth of about 200 mm. These materials should be removed as they contain
a lot of impurities and are not used in the preparation of bricks.

Digging and Spreading: After digging the soil for about 200 mm, the soil is spread on the level
ground, and the heaps of clay are about 600 to 1200 mm.

Cleaning: After spreading the soil on the ground, it should be cleaned of stones, vegetable
matter, pebbles, etc... If excess non-clay materials are present, the clay should be washed and
screened. This whole process will become expensive and clumsy. The lumps in soil should be
crushed into a powder form.

Weathering: The soil is then exposed to the atmosphere for softening for a few weeks
depending on the nature of the soil, which imparts plasticity and strength to the soil.

Blending: To increase the quality of soil, additionally, sandy or calcareous clays may be added
in suitable proportions along with coal, ash, etc. and the whole mass is mixed uniformly with
water.

Tempering: After adding the sufficient quantity of water, the soil is kneaded under the feet of
men or cattle to make it stiff and homogeneous. In general, for handmade bricks, the soft
plastic clay could be prepared by using about 25 to 30 per cent water. For making superior
bricks on a large scale of about 20,000, the earth is tempered in a pug mill.
Moulding of Bricks
Bricks are made in metric sizes called modular bricks, as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian
Standards. Nominal size of the bricks is 20cm X 10cm X 10cm, which include the thickness of
the mortar and the actual size of modular brick is 19cm X 9cm X 9cm. A brick mould is a
rectangular box of steel or wood, which is open at the top and bottom of the box and inside
dimensions of the mould are 20cm X 10cm X 10cm.

Moulding of bricks can be done using either hand or machine.

Hand Moulding
There are two types in hand moulding, i.e. ground moulding and table moulding. In this type,
bricks are moulded manually and preferred where only a small quantity of bricks is needed.

Ground Moulding: The process of moulding bricks on the ground manually by labour is called
ground moulding. On an average, a moulder can mould about 750 bricks per day. When the
bricks have dried sufficiently, they are moved to the drying shed and placed in an orderly
manner.

Table Moulding: This moulding is done on a table of size 2m X 1m X 0.7m instead of on the
ground. This table moulding process is almost similar to ground moulding expect for some
minor changes.

Machine Moulding
Moulding machines are used when a large scale of bricks are to be manufactured in less
time. These types of bricks are heavier and stronger than the hand moulded ones and possess
a sharp regular shape, a smoother surface and sharp edges. There are two types in machine
moulding

Plastic Method: In this method, pugged earth is used, which is placed in the machine that
contains a rectangular shape of size equal to the length and width of the brick. A beam of the
moulded earth comes out of it and is cut into strips by wires fixed in the frames. These bricks
are also called wire-cut bricks.
Dry Method: In this method, the machine first converts the hard earth into a powder form
and a small quantity of water is added to the powder to make it a stiff plastic paste. This paste
is placed in the mould and pressed by the machine to form hard and correct-shaped bricks.
These bricks are known as pressed bricks, which do not require any drying and can be sent
directly to the burning section.

Drying of Bricks
Moulded bricks cannot be burnt directly, as they may get damaged. So before burning they
should be dried either naturally or artificially for about two weeks.

Natural Drying: It is also called hack drying, which comprises placing moulded bricks in rows
on their edges, slightly above the ground called a hack. These bricks are air and sun-dried that
is strong enough to use for the construction of small structures.

Artificial Drying: When bricks are needed to dry on a large scale, then this artificial drying is
preferred. They are dried in special dryers which receive heat from specially made furnaces
for artificial drying.

Burning of Bricks
After the process of moulding and drying, bricks are burnt in kilns to impart hardness, strength
and to increase the density of the brick. Some physical and chemical changes take place in the
burning of bricks. Heating brick to about 640°C produces only physical changes. If a brick is
heated up to 700-1,000°C, it undergoes chemical changes. During this reaction, the materials
present in brick alumina and silica fuse together to make the brick strong and stable to
prevent from cracking and crumbling.

The types of Kilns used for burning purposes are

Clamp or Open Kiln: This is a temporary structure with some advantages like low initial cost,
low fuel cost and a few skilled labourers are sufficient to complete the process. The
disadvantage is only a small quantity of bricks is manufactured at a time and in that only 60%
are good quality bricks.

Intermittent Kiln: When a large number of good quality bricks are needed, intermittent or
continuous kilns are preferred. In this kiln, the process of burning is discontinuous.

Continuous Kilns: In this process, the burning is continuous and they are of three types’
i.e., Bull's Trench Kiln, tunnel Kiln and Hoffman's Kiln. To get a good quality brick it has to be
heated to the required temperature. The bricks begin to lose their shape and materials get
vitrified if heating of brick earth goes beyond 1,300°C.

Burnt bricks are classified into 4 different types, these are:

First-Class Bricks – This category of burnt clay bricks complies with all the quality of good
bricks. These are table moulded and are burnt in kilns. These bricks hold standard shape,
smooth surfaces, and sharp edges and are more durable and have more strength.
Second-Class Bricks – These bricks are of moderate quality. These are ground-moulded and
then burnt in brick kilns. The shape of these bricks is irregular, and the surface isn’t smooth
but rough. In addition to this, these bricks can have hair cracks. This class of bricks is used in
places where the brickwork is covered with a coat of plaster.
Third-Class Bricks – As the name suggests, these are poor quality bricks which are normally
used for structures that are temporarily constructed. Note, these are not suitable for areas
that receive a lot of rain. Third Class bricks are moulded on the ground and are further burnt
in clamps. The surface of this category of bricks are rough and these have edges that are
unfair.
Fourth-Class Bricks – These are over-burnt, irregular shaped and dark in colour. This class of
bricks is used as the aggregate for concrete in foundations, roads, floors, etc. Owing to its
compact structure, these bricks are sometimes found to be stronger than the first-class bricks.
The essential properties of bricks may be conveniently discussed under the following four
headings: physical, mechanical, thermal and durability properties.

(1) Physical Properties of Bricks.

These properties of bricks include shape, size, colour, and density of a brick.
(i) Shape.
The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has Well defined and sharp edges.
The surface of the bricks is regular and even.
Special purpose bricks may, however, be either cut or manufactured in various other shapes.
These are generally modifications of rectangular shapes.
(ii) Size.
The size of brick used in construction varies from country to country and from place to place
in the same country. In India, the recommended standard size of an ideal brick is 19 x 9 x 9
cm which with mortar joint gives net dimensions of 20 x 10 x 10 cm.
These dimensions have been found very convenient in handling and making quantity
estimates. Five hundred such bricks will be required for completing 1 m3 brick masonry.
It may be interesting to note that in U.K, U.S, the commonly used bricks have following
dimensions:
The Standard size of Brick in India, US, UK.

Country Length (cm) Thickness Height

(cm) (cm)
Standard Size of Brick in UK. 20 9.5 5.5
Standard Size of Brick in US. 20 10 10
Standard Size of Brick in India. 19 9 9

(iii) Colour.
The most common colour of building bricks falls under the class RED. It may vary from deep
red to light red to buff and purple. Very dark shades of red indicate over burnt bricks whereas
yellow colour is often indicative of under-burning.
(iv) Density.
The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the type of clay used and
the method of brick moulding(soft-mud, Stiff-mud, hard-pressed etc.). In the case of standard
bricks, density varies from 1600 kg/cubic meter to 1900 kg/cubic meter.
A single brick (19 x 9 x 9 cm) will weigh between 3.2 to 3.5 kg. depending upon its density.

(2) Mechanical Brick Properties.

Under this heading of properties of bricks, compressive strength and flexure strength are
included.
(i) Compressive Strength of Bricks.
It is the most important property of bricks especially when they are used in load-bearing walls.
The compressive strength of a brick depends on the composition of the clay and degree of
burning. It may vary from 35 kg/cm2 to more than 200 kg/cm2 in India.
It is specified under the I.S.S. codes that an ordinary type building brick must possess a
minimum compressive strength of 35 kg/cm2.
The first and 2nd class bricks shall have a compressive strength not less than 70 kg/cm2 and
140 kg/cm2 respectively.
(ii) Flexure Strength.
Bricks are often used in situations where bending loads are possible in a building. As such,
they should possess sufficient strength against transverse loads.
It is specified that the flexural strength of a common building brick shall not be less than 10
kg/cm2.Best grade bricks often possess flexural strength over 20 kg/cm2.
Similarly, it is required that a good building brick shall possess a shearing strength of 50-70
kg/cm2.

(3) Thermal Properties of Building Bricks.

Besides being hard and strong, ideal bricks should also provide an adequate insulation against
heat, cold and noise. The heat and sound conductivity of bricks vary greatly with their density
and porosity.
Very dense and heavy bricks conduct heat and sound at a greater rate. They have, therefore,
poor thermal and acoustic (sound) insulation qualities.
For this reason, bricks should be so designed that they are light and strong and give adequate
insulation.

(4) Durability.
By durability of bricks, it is understood that the maximum time for which they remain
unaltered and strong when used in construction. Experience has shown that
properly manufactured bricks are among the most durable of man-made materials of
construction. Their life can be counted in hundreds of years. The durability of bricks depends
on some factors such as: absorption value, frost resistance, and efflorescence.
(i) Absorption Value.
This property is related to the porosity of the brick. True Porosity is defined as the ratio of the
volume of pores to the gross volume of the sample of the substance.
Apparent porosity, more often called Absorption value or simply absorption, is the quantity
of water absorbed by the (brick) sample. This is expressed in percentage terms of the dry
weight of the sample:
Absorption=W2 – W1 / W1 x 100
Where W2 is weight after 24 hours of immersion in water and W1 is the oven dry weight of
the sample.
The absorption values of bricks vary greatly. It is, however, recommended that for first class
bricks, they shall not be greater than 20 percent and for ordinary building bricks, not greater
than 25 percent.
The absorption characteristic of bricks effects their quality in many ways:
Firstly: higher porosity means fewer solid materials; hence, strength is reduced.
Secondly: higher absorption will lead to other water-related defects such as frost-action and
efflorescence.
Thirdly: higher absorption results in deeper penetration of water which becomes a source of
dampness.

(ii) Frost Resistance.

Water on freezing expands by about 10% in volume and exerts a pressure on the order of 140
kg/cm2.
When bricks are used in cold climates, their decay due to this phenomenon of “frost action”
may be a common process. This is especially so because bricks are quite porous materials
(apparent porosity = 20-25%). It is, therefore, essential that bricks in these areas should be
properly protected from rain to minimize absorption.
(iii) Efflorescence.
It is a common disfiguring and deteriorating process of bricks in hot and humid climates.
Brick surface gets covered with white or Gray colored patches of salts. These salts are present
in the original brick clay.
When rain water penetrates into the bricks, the salts get easily dissolved. After the rains,
evaporation starts. The salts move out along with the water and form thin encrustations on
the surface of the bricks. Salts which are commonly precipitated during efflorescence are:
sulfates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium.
It is why great emphasis should be laid while testing the chemical composition of the clay for
brick manufacturing.

SUMMARY (Properties of Bricks).

1. It should have a rectangular shape, regular surface and red colored appearance.
2. It should confirm in size to the specified dimensions (19 x 9 x 9 cm).
3. It should be properly burnt. This can be ascertained by holding two bricks freely, one ineach
hand, and striking them. A sharp metallic sound indicates good burning whereas a dull thud
would indicate incomplete burning.
4. A good building brick should not absorb water more than 20 percent of its dry weight.
Absorption should not exceed 25 percent in any case.
5. A good building brick should possess requisite compressive strength, which in no case
should be less than 35 kg/cm2 .
A rough test for the strength of the brick is to let it fall freely from a height of about one meter
on to a hard floor. It should not break.
6. Brick should be hard enough so that it is not scratched by a finger nail.
7. A good brick has a uniform color and structure through its body. This can be checked by
taking a brick from the lot and breaking it into two parts. The broken surface in both the halves
should have same appearance and structure.
Types of Tests on Bricks
1. Absorption Test on Brick
The absorption test is the type of test conducted on bricks to determine the moisture
absorbed by the bricks when subjected to extreme conditions. The absorption test can be
used as an indicator of the durability properties of bricks such as quality, degree of burning
and behaviour of bricks in weathering.
The test can be briefly explained as follows:
Apparatus Required
1. A ventilated oven
2. A weighing balance with a sensitivity of less than 0.1%
3. Sample of whole bricks
Procedure
The procedure for the absorption test on bricks includes the following series of steps:
i. The brick specimen is first dried in the ventilated oven at a temperature ranging from 105
degrees Celsius to 115 degrees Celsius until the specimen attains a constant mass.
ii. The heated specimen is then allowed to cool at room temperature.
iii. The specimen is weighed and its mass is recorded (M1).
iv. Then, the specimen is immersed in water at a temperature of about 27 degrees Celsius
for 24 hours.
v. The brick specimen is taken out from the water and wiped with a clean cloth to remove
the traces of water that may be present.
vi. The specimen thus obtained is then weighed (M2).
Calculation of Water Absorption of Bricks
Water absorption by the brick specimen is given by the formula,

The average result shall be reported, where,

M2 = Wet Weight of brick after immersion of brick in water for 24 hours
M1 = Dry Weight after oven drying of brick at 105-110 deg. C
Result Water absorption of the given bricks = ………….%
S.N. Brick Class The maximum water absorption
percentage
1. First 20%
2. Second 22%

3. Third 25%

4. Heavy-duty machine-made bricks 5%

2. Crushing Strength or Compressive Strength Test on Brick
Bricks that are used for masonry construction are generally subjected to compressive loads
thus it is necessary to determine the compressive strength of bricks. The compressive
strength test is also known as the crushing strength test which is an important type of
laboratory test conducted on bricks to determine the load-carrying capacity of bricks when
subjected to a compressive load.

This test is performed utilizing a compression testing machine.

The test can be briefly explained as follows:
Apparatus & Materials Required
1. Compression Testing Machine
2. Sample of whole bricks
3. Cement, sand, aggregate for specimen preparation
Specimen Preparation
The samples of whole bricks are first taken and the unevenness is removed. The dimensions
are duly measured. The samples are then immersed in water for 24 hours at room
temperature. After 24 hours, the specimen is removed and dried.
If traces of water are still present, it is wiped out with a clean cloth. Then, cement mortar is
prepared and the frog of the specimen is filled with the prepared cement mortar. Any voids
present are also filled with cement mortar. The mortar filled bricks specimen is then stored
in damp jute bags for 24 hours. Keep the bricks in water for 3 to 7 days. This is to permit the
mortar to harden.
Procedure
The procedure for the crushing strength test on bricks involves the following series of steps:
1. The specimen with the mortar filled face upwards is placed in the plates of the
compression testing machine.
2. The load is then applied axially at a uniform rate of 14N/ mm² per minute until failure
occurs. The maximum load at failure is recorded.
3. The compressive strength is then calculated using the following formula:
Compressive Strength= Maximum load at failure / Average Area of Bed Face

3. Soundness Test of Brick

A soundness test on bricks is carried out to determine the nature of bricks when subjected to
sudden impact. It is a simple test in which two bricks are taken randomly from the stack of
bricks. The bricks are then struck against each other. If it emits a clear metallic ringing sound;
the brick is of good quality.

4. Hardness Test on Brick

The hardness of bricks generally implies the resistance of bricks to scratch. For this test, the
brick is scratched with a sharp tool or fingernail. If the scratching does not leave behind any
impression on the brick, it is considered as a hard brick.
5. Shape and Size Test on Brick
To maintain uniformity in the construction, the bricks must be of proper shape and uniform
size. A good brick must have a proper rectangular shape with sharp edges. For this test, about
20 bricks from the stacked bricks are taken. The samples taken are then stacked along the
length, breadth and height and duly compared. If all the bricks are of similar size, then they
can be used in construction works.

6. Colour Test of Brick

The Colour test of bricks simply involves the visual examination of bricks for acceptable bright
uniform colour throughout the body of the brick.

7. Structure Test of Brick

Structure test of bricks includes the process of breaking the brick followed by the observation
of the inner portion of brick clearly to check the homogeneity and presence of lumps.

8. Efflorescence Test on Brick

A good brick should be free from soluble salts. The presence of soluble salts in the bricks
leads to efflorescence on the bricks thereby decreasing the quality of bricks. To carry out the
efflorescence test on bricks, the sample bricks are taken and immersed in water for 24 hours.
Then, the specimen is allowed to dry in shade. After complete drying, the specimen is
thoroughly observed. If any white or grey patches are seen on the brick surface, it indicates
the presence of soluble salts and is not suitable for construction.

Bonds in Masonry
Bonds in Bricks
Types of bonds in brick masonry wall construction are classified based on laying and
bonding style of bricks in walls. The bonds in brick masonry is developed by the mortar
filling between layers of bricks and in grooves when bricks are laid adjacent to each other
and in layers in walls. Mostly used material for bonds in brick masonry is cement mortar.
Lime mortar and mud mortar are also used.

Types of Bonds in Brick Masonry Wall Construction

The most commonly used types of bonds in brick masonry are:
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond
4. Flemish bond

1. Stretcher bond
Longer narrow face of the brick is called as stretcher as shown in the elevation of figure below.
Stretcher bond, also called as running bond, is created when bricks are laid with only their
stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the courses of bricks below and above.
Stretcher bond in the brick is the simplest repeating pattern. But the limitation of stretcher
bond is that it cannot make effective bonding with adjacent bricks in full width thick brick
walls. They are suitably used only for one-half brick thick walls such as for the construction
half brick thick partition wall. Walls constructed with stretcher bonds are not stable enough
to stand alone in case of longer span and height. Thus they Then need supporting structure
such as brick masonry columns at regular intervals. Stretcher bonds are commonly used in
the steel or reinforced concrete framed structures as the outer facing. These are also used as
the outer facing of cavity walls. Other common applications of such walls are the boundary
walls, gardens etc.

Fig: Stretcher Bond

2. Header bond
Header is the shorter square face of the brick which measures 9cm x 9cm. Header bond is also
known as heading bond. In header bonds, all bricks in each course are placed as headers on
the faces of the walls. While Stretcher bond is used for the construction of walls of half brick
thickness whereas header bond is used for the construction of walls with full brick thickness
which measures 18cm. In header bonds, the overlap is kept equal to half width of the brick.
To achieve this, three quarter brick bats are used in alternate courses as quoins.

Fig: Header Bond

 Fig: Header Bond Isometric View
3. English Bond
English bond in brick masonry has one course of stretcher only and a course of header above
it, i.e. it has two alternating courses of stretchers and headers. Headers are laid centred on
the stretchers in course below and each alternate row is vertically aligned. To break the
continuity of vertical joints, quoin closer is used in the beginning and end of a wall after first
header. A quoin close is a brick cut lengthwise into two halves and used at corners in brick
walls.

Fig: English Bond

 Fig: English Bond – Isometric View

4. Flemish Bond
For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in alternate
courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd number of half
bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the bond. Flemish bond, also known as Dutch bond,
is created by laying alternate headers and stretchers in a single course. The next course of
brick is laid such that header lies in the middle of the stretcher in the course below, i.e. the
alternate headers of each course are centered on the stretcher of course below. Every
alternate course of Flemish bond starts with header at the corner. The thickness of Flemish
bond is minimum one full brick. The disadvantage of using Flemish bond is that construction
of Flemish bond is difficult and requires greater skill to lay it properly as all vertical mortar
joints need to be aligned vertically for best effects. For the breaking of vertical joints in the
successive courses, closers are inserted in alternate courses next to the quoin header. In walls
having their thickness equal to odd number of half bricks, bats are used to achieve the bond.
Flemish bonds have better appearance but are weaker than English bonds for load bearing
wall construction. Thus, if the pointing has to be done for brick masonry walls, then Flemish
bond may be used for better aesthetic view. If the walls have to be plastered, then it is better
to use English bond.
 Fig: Flemish Bond Front Appearance

Fig: Isometric view of Single Flemish Bond.

Stone Masonry
Stone masonry is a type of building masonry construction that uses stones and
mortar. This construction technique is used for building foundations, floors,
retaining walls, arches, walls and columns. The stones used for masonry
construction are natural rocks. These natural rocks are cut and dressed into
proper shape in order to use it in masonry construction. Stones are one of the most
durable and strong building materials.
The two main classifications of Stone Masonry are:
Rubble Masonry
Ashlar Masonry
1. Rubble Masonry
This is the stone masonry type where stones employed are either undressed or roughly
dressed. These masonry constructions do not have a uniform thickness. The strength of the
rubble masonry is dependent on the:

• Quality of Mortar Used

• Use of Long through stones
• Proper filling of mortar between the stone spaces and joints

Rubble masonry can be again classified into

a. Coursed Rubble Masonry
b. Uncoursed Rubble Masonry
c. Dry Rubble Masonry
d. Polygonal Masonry

2. Ashlar Masonry
Ashlar masonry is constructed using accurately dressed stones that possess uniform and fine
joints. The thickness of the joints ranges about 3mm which is arranged in various patterns.
The size of the stone blocks must be in proportion with the thickness of the walls.
The various types of ashlar masonry are:

• Ashlar Fine Masonry

• Ashlar Block in Course
• Ashlar Chamfered Masonry
• Ashlar Rough Tooled Masonry
• Rock or Quarry Faced Masonry
Cement and its Properties.
Manufacture of Cement
Different minerals need to be mined in order to make cement. Limestone (containing the
mineral calcite), clay, and gypsum make up most of it. There are more than twenty types of
cement used to make various specialty concrete, however the most common is Portland
cement.
Cement manufacturing is a complex process that begins with mining and then grinding raw
materials that include limestone and clay, to a fine powder, called raw meal, which is then
heated to a sintering temperature as high as 1450 °C in a cement kiln. In this process, the
chemical bonds of the raw materials are broken down and then they are recombined into
new compounds. The result is called clinker, which are rounded nodules between 1mm and
25mm across. The clinker is ground to a fine powder in a cement mill and mixed with gypsum
to create cement. The powdered cement is then mixed with water and aggregates to form
concrete that is used in construction.

Physical Properties of Cement

Why are the physical properties of cement important?
When these physical properties of cement lie in a certain range, one can be sure that cement
will perform satisfactorily in most cases. Also, we can compare the qualities of different
cement using these properties.
The important physical properties of cement are as follows:

Fineness of Cement
The fineness of cement is the measure of the particle size of cement. The finer the cement,
greater is the rate of a chemical reaction. This results in a greater rate of strength
development.
Very fine cement is also undesirable. It generates greater heat which results in cracks in
mortar or concrete. It can also lead to a premature setting.
How to determine the fineness of cement?
The fineness of cement can be determined from particle size distribution or one of the air
permeability methods such as Blain’s air permeability method.

Soundness of Cement
The phenomenon of cement to undergo undesirable expansion is termed as unsoundness.
When the cement does not undergo a large change in volume, it will be called sound cement.
The unsound cement will disintegrate due to volumetric changes caused by the presence of
free lime and magnesia in cement. Unsound cement contains some free lime even after the
final grinding. This free lime hydrates very slowly. The free lime covered by a thin film of
cement. This prevents direct contact between lime and water.
After the paste has set, moisture penetrates the free lime, and hydration starts. The slaked
lime occupies a large volume. Hence expansion takes place. Thus the mortar and concrete
made from unsound cement may develop cracks after some time.
How to determine the Soundness of Cement?
Unsoundness is determined by the Le-Chatelier method and Autoclave test.
The unsoundness may be reduced by
(i) Limiting the MgO contents to less than 0.5%.
(ii) Fine grinding
(iii) Aerating the cement for several days
(iv) Through mixing.

Consistency of Cement
The physical state of cement paste is called consistency. The purpose of the consistency test
is to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of normal consistency.
It is measured by the Vicat apparatus Test. If the water content in the cement paste is such
that the Vicat’s plunger penetrates up to 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the mould, the cement
paste is called to be of normal consistency.

Setting time of Cement

The setting time of cement is divided into two parts:
initial setting and final setting time.
The time at which the cement paste loses its plasticity after the addition of water is
understood as the initial setting time. The time corresponding to the paste becoming a hard
mass is known as the final setting time.
The initial setting time is essential for mixing, transporting, and placing of the concrete. At the
time of the initial setting, the temperature rises rapidly and at the final set, the temperature
reaches a peak value.
How to determine the setting time of cement?
The setting time of cement is determined by Vicat’s Apparatus.

Compressive strength of Cement

The compressive strength test is the final check on the quality of cement and it is the most
important test as compared to other cement properties. The grading of cement 33/43/53 is
based on compressive strength. The number is the strength of cube 50 cm2 face area in
N/mm2

The heat of hydration of Cement

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat
generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of
hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement ratio,
fineness and curing temperature.

The quantity of heat, in calories per gram of hydrated cement, generated during the process
of hydration is known as the heat of hydration.
How to determine the heat of hydration of cement?
The test is carried out over a few days by vacuum flask methods, or over a longer period in an
adiabatic calorimeter.
Specific Gravity of Cement
The specific gravity of cement is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations.
Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15. It may vary depending upon the raw materials
used in the manufacturing of cement.
For example, Portland-pozzolana cement has a specific gravity of about 2.90.

Various tests on cement

Basically, two types of tests are undertaken for assessing the quality of cement. These are
either field tests or lab tests. The current section describes these tests in details lets know
more about ‘Various Tests on Cement ‘.

Field test of cement

There are four field tests that may be carried out to ascertain roughly the quality of cement.
There are four types of field tests to access the colour, physical property, and strength of
the cement as described below.
Colour
The colour of cement should be uniform.
It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.

Physical properties
Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers. If the hand is inserted in a bag or
heap of cement, it should feel cool.
Presence of lumps
Cement should be free from lumps. For moisture content of about 5 to 8%, this increase of
volume may be much as 20 to 40 %, depending upon the grading of sand.

Laboratory tests:
Six laboratory tests are conducted mainly for assessing the quality of cement. These are:
Fineness,
Compressive Strength
Consistency
Setting Time
Soundness
Fineness Test
This test is carried out to check the proper grinding of cement. The fineness of cement
particles may be determined either by the sieve test or permeability apparatus test.
In the sieve test, the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for 15
minutes through standard BIS sieve no. 9. The residue is then weighed and this weight should
not be more than 10% of the original weight.
In the permeability apparatus test, a specific area of cement particles is calculated. This test
is better than the sieve test. The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of
particles of average size.
Compressive Strength Test
This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.

The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio of 1:3. Water is added to mortar in water-
cement ratio 0.4.

The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of cubes and the moulds
are of metals. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, the cement required is 185gm and 235 gm
respectively.

Then the mortar is compacted in a vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds are placed
in a damp cabin for 24 hours. The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are
submerged in clean water for curing. The cubes are then tested in a compression testing
machine at the end of 3days and 7 days. Thus, compressive strength was found out.

Consistency Test
The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for preparing
cement pastes for other tests.
Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 per cent by weight or 90 gm of water to it. Mix water and
cement thoroughly. Fill the mould of the Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75
to 4.25 minutes. Vicat apparatus consists of a needle is attached to a movable rod with an
indicator attached to it.
There are three attachments: square needle, plunger, and needle with annular collar.
The plunger is attached to the movable rod. The plunger is gently lowered on the paste in the
mould. The settlement of the plunger is noted. If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm
from the bottom of the mould, the water added is correct. If not, the process is repeated with
different percentages of water till the desired penetration is obtained.

Fig. Vicat’s Apparatus

Setting time
This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage. The test is performed
to find out the initial setting time and final setting time.
Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould. The square needle is
attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In the
beginning, the needle penetrates completely. The procedure is repeated at regular intervals
until the needle does not penetrate completely. (up to 5mm from bottom)
Initial setting time =<30min for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low heat cement.
The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
The needle with the annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression on the test
block and the collar fails to do so is noted.
Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to cement
and time as recorded in the previous step, and it is =<10 hours.

Soundness Test
The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in the cement.

The cement paste is prepared. The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.

It is covered at the top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at the top and the
whole assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.

The distance between the points of the indicator is noted. The mould is again placed in water
and heat is applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached in about 30 minutes.
The boiling of water is continued for one hour.

The mould is removed from the water and it is allowed to cool down.

The distance between the points of the indicator is again measured. The difference between
the two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed 10 mm.

Le Chatelier Apparatus
Specific Gravity Test
1. Clean the Le Chatlier flask before use. It should be free from moisture.
2. Now, Take weight of empty flask as W1.
3. Take around 50 gm of cement and fill in flask.
4. Fix stopper on flask and weight flask with cement as W2.
5. Now fill kerosene in flask up to the neck of bottle.
6. Thoroughly mix cement and kerosene in flask taking care no air bubble left in it.
Record this weight as W3.
7. Empty flask and clean it. Now fill kerosene in it up to neck of bottle and record the
weight as W4.

Observations and Calculations

The specific gravity of cement formula as follows,
= (W2 – W1) / ((W2 – W1) – (W3 – W4) X 0.79)
Where, W1 = Weight of Empty Flask.
W2 = Weight of Flask + Cement.
W3 = Weight of Flask + Cement + Kerosene.
W4 = Weight of Flask + Kerosene.
Here, the specific gravity of kerosene is 0.79g/cc
Result
The specific gravity of a sample of cement = 3.15

Why Kerosene used for Specific Gravity Test of Cement

If we use water instead of kerosene, water will mix with cement and make paste. As we know
that cement mixed with water, cement start it heat of hydration process. So, water can’t be
used for cement specific gravity test.
Kerosene is very well-known polar liquid so it will not react with cement while doing the test.
The specific gravity of kerosene is 0.79g/cc.
Heat of Hydration Test
The heat of hydration test is conducted at a standard room temperature of 27 degrees
celsius. The apparatus for this test is
Calorimeter
Mortar and pestle
Glass/Plastic vials
Stopwatch or timer
Sieve
Muffle furnace
Weighing balance

The calorimeter determines the heat of the paste. Glass vial has a dimension of 80×20 mm.
Muffle furnace maintains the temperature. Before performing the test, the calorimeter
temperature is to be made uniform. The heat of hydration should be determined at the 7th
and 28 days.
Procedure for heat of hydration test
To find the heat of hydration, firstly we have to measure the heat released from the
unhydrated cement using a calorimeter.
Then we have to measure the heat of hydration from hydrated cement
For that take 60 grams of cement and add 24 ml of water.
Then fill this mixture in three glasses and seal them with wax to avoid the entry of air.
The standard temperature should be 27 degrees Celsius.
Then measure the heat of the solution using a calorimeter.
Heat of hydration = Heat released from hydrated cement – Heat released from unhydrated
cement
For low heat cement, The heat of hydration for 7 days should not be greater than 66 cal/g
and for 28 days should not be greater than 75 cal/gm.
 Fig. Calorimeter

Concrete is the oldest and most used man-made material on earth. It common construction material
extensively used for buildings, bridges, roads, and dams. Its uses range from structural applications to
sidewalk ways, curbs, pipes, and drains.

Ingredients of Concrete

Concrete Materials

1. Cement
Cement is the main binder material used to bind other building concrete materials together.
It is used for making mortar and concrete during the construction process.
2. Coarse Aggregate
Coarse Aggregate forms the major body of concrete. The aggregates contribute to the overall
strength of the concrete by increasing density.
3. Fine Aggregate (Sand)
fine aggregate such as sand used to fill in the spaces left between the large coarse aggregate
and to “lock” the larger pieces together. Sand helps in reducing the quantity of cement paste
required and decreases the amount of shrinkage that could occur.
4. Admixture
Admixtures are added to enhance or to modify the properties of fresh & hardened concrete.
(Plasticizers, retarders)
5. Water
It is the key ingredient, which when mixed with cement, forms a paste that binds the
aggregate together. The water contributes to the hardening of concrete through a process
called hydration. Its role is major in concrete because the strength of concrete extensively
depends on water to cement ratio and it is the critical factor in the production of
“perfect” concrete.
6. Fly Ash
Fly ash use in concrete improves the workability of plastic concrete and the strength and
durability of hardened concrete. Fly ash use is also cost-effective. Fly ash added to concrete
to reduce the amount of cement required for concrete, which contributes to considerable
saving of cement and cost of concrete making.

Properties of Fresh Concrete

When concrete is its plastic state it is known as fresh concrete. Fresh concrete can be easily
moulded to a durable structural member. Following are the properties of fresh concrete.
Workability
Segregation
Bleeding
Plastic shrinkage
Setting
Temperature
Water Cement Ratio

Workability
The term workability indicates the ease or difficulty with which the concrete is handled,
transported and placed. The amount of water present in concrete should be in the proper
ratio.
Generally, a higher water-cement ratio is required for good workability. In the actual function
of water is to lubricate the concrete. The concrete which is easy for handling and placing is a
workable concrete.
There are various test to measure the workability of the concrete mixture. The test such
as flow test, compacting test and slump cone test is done to determine the workability of the
concrete mixture.
Segregation
Segregation is the separation of the constituents’ materials of concrete. Segregation is of
three types, firstly the coarse aggregates separating out from concrete.

Secondly, the paste of cement is separating out from coarse aggregates and thirdly, water is
separating out from the rest of the material. This type of concrete is weak due to lack of
homogeneity and having a deduction of desirable properties.
Dropping of concrete from heights as well as discharging of concrete from badly designed
mixer shows a tendency for segregation.due to excessive vibration of concrete coarse
aggregates try to settle down called as segregation.
Bleeding
Bleeding is a particular form of segregation, in which some of the water from the concrete
comes out to the surface of the concrete.

The water rising to the surface carries with it particles of sand and cement which on hardening
form a scum layer popularly known as laitance. Bleeding takes place in a highly wet mix, badly
proportioned and insufficient mixed concrete.
Plastic shrinkage
After the fresh concrete has been placed in forms, concrete undergoes a volumetric
contraction while it is in a plastic state (before the concrete set). This is known as plastic
Shrinkage.
Plastic shrinkage is so-called because of the form while the concrete is still plastic, i.e. has not
set. Rapid drying of the surface of the plastic concrete cause it to shrink and crack. They rarely
occur near the edges of a slab as those locations the concrete is usually free to move.
It can start after 30 minutes of concrete pouring or during finishing.
Setting
When concrete changes its state from plastic to hardened state, this process is called setting.
And the duration which concrete takes to change its state is called setting time.
Setting time depends on the type of cement and it can be increase or decrease by adding
admixture in concrete.
Temperature
Concrete is not recommended to be placed at a temperature above 40°C without proper
precautions as laid down in IS:7861(part -1).
Special problems are encountered in the preparation, placement and curing of concrete in
hot weather. High-temperature results in rapid hydration of cement, increased evaporation
of mixing water, greater mixing water demand, and large volume changes resulting in cracks.
Water Cement Ratio
The ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement by weight is termed the water-
cement ratio. The strength and quality of concrete depend on this ratio.
The quantity of water is usually expressed in litre per bag of cement. if water required for one
bag of cement is 30 litres, the water-cement ratio is equal to 30/50 = 0.6.

Reinforced Cement Concrete

Reinforced concrete (RC) is a versatile composite and one of the most widely used materials
in modern construction. Concrete is a relatively brittle material that is strong
under compression but less so in tension. Plain, unreinforced concrete is unsuitable for
many structures as it is relatively poor at withstanding stresses induced by vibrations, wind
loading, and so on.
Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000 psi
(28 MPa)); however, any appreciable tension (e.g., due to bending) will break the microscopic
rigid lattice, resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-
reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of tension.
If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the
composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and
other direct tensile actions. A composite section where the concrete resists compression and
reinforcement "rebar" resists tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the
construction industry.
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

1. Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building

materials.
2. Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good
amount tensile stress.
3. Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
4. The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building
system.
5. Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be economically
molded into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
6. The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
7. In the structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most
economical construction material.
8. It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
9. As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in
precast structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent
deflection.
10. Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled
labor for the erection of the structure.
Curing of Concrete
Curing of Concrete is a method by which the concrete is protected against loss of moisture
required for hydration and kept within the recommended temperature range. Curing
will increase the strength and decrease the permeability of hardened concrete. Curing is
also helps in mitigating thermal and plastic cracks, which can severely impact durability of
structures.

Spray curing concrete slab

A curing practice involves keeping the concrete damp or moist until the hydration of concrete
is complete and strength is attained. Curing of concrete should begin soon after initial setting
time of concrete or formwork/shuttering is removed and must continue for a reasonable
period of time as per the specified standards, for the concrete to achieve its desired strength
and durability.
It is important to make sure an uninterrupted hydration of PCC & RC after concrete is placed
and finished in its position. Uniform temperature ought to be maintained throughout the
concrete-section depth to avoid thermal shrinkage cracks.

Membrane concrete curing

Protecting measures are also required to control water loss from the concrete surface to
prevent plastic shrinkage cracks. In a nut shell, curing concrete is a process designed primarily
to retain the concrete moist till the end of hydration by monitoring loss of moisture and water
from the body of concrete, during the given period in which it gains strength.
Why Curing of Concrete is Necessary?
• Enhance Hydration of Concrete to achieve desired Strength
• Improved durability of concrete by reducing cracks
• Higher serviceability performance by increasing abrasion resistance
• Improved microstructure by developing better hydrate gels and solid mass.

Methods to Cure Concrete

Depending upon the site constraints, type of structure and other material parameters, different
methods of curing are adopted at site. Methods of curing concrete fall into the following
categories:

Curing by passing water through tubes

Water curing
Water curing prevents the water loss from the concrete surface by uninterrupted wetting of
the exposed surface of concrete. It’s done by spraying or sprinkling water or curing agents
over the concrete surface to ensure that the concrete surface is continuously moist. Moisture
from the body of concrete is retained from evaporating and contributes to the strength-gain
of concrete.
Water curing methods are:
• Ponding
• Sprinkling, fogging & mist curing
• Wet coverings

Curing the concrete roof slab

Membrane Curing
Membrane curing lessens moisture loss from the concrete surface by wrapping it with an
impermeable membrane. Curing compounds are wax, acrylic and water-based liquids. These are
sprayed over fresh concreting to create an impermeable membrane this will reduces the loss of
wetness from the concrete.
Membrane curing methods are:
• Plastic sheeting
• Formwork

Steam Curing
Steam curing keeps the surface moist and raises the temperature of concrete to quicken the rate
of strength achievement. It is a process done to speed up the early hardening of concrete and
mortars by subjecting it to steam and humidity. This method is most commonly used for precast
concrete plants where products are mass-produced and the turnaround or striking time of the
formwork is very quick.

Steam curing in precast plant – Curing of Concrete

It is witnessed that at construction sites, curing of concrete is left to the decision and comfort of
the unskilled manual worker. Site engineers and supervisors should put additional effort to
guarantee that curing is not overlooked at site. They should arrange for the essential resources
to retain satisfactory levels of curing, by using best techniques available.