❖Building construction

❖ Classification of building According National Building code of India,

2005

• Group A: Residential building :-

Ex: Apartments, Flats, Bungalows, Dormitories, private houses

• Group B: Educational building :-

Ex: schools, colleges, universities, training institutes etc

• Group C: Institutional building: - These buildings normally provide

sleeping accommodation for the occupants.

• Group D: Assembly building :- Ex. theatres, cinema

Halls, museums, gymnasiums, restaurants, places of worship, dance halls,
club rooms, passenger stations, public transportation services, open air
theatres, swimming pools etc

• Group E: Business Building: - Ex. Dispensaries and clinics, banks, city

halls, court halls, libraries etc.

• Group F: Mercantile building

• Group G: Industrial Building: - EX. laboratories, assembly plants,

laundries, gas plants, power plants, refineries, diaries etc.

• Group H: Storage Building: - Ex. warehouses, cold storages, freight

depots, store houses, transit sheds, truck terminals, garages etc.

• Group J: Hazardous building

Note: There is no Group I in the classification of building

 ❖Foundations
• Lowest parts of the structure which are in direct contact with the ground and
which transmit the loads of the structure to the ground are known as
Foundation.

• Types of foundation

A. Shallow foundation

▪ The depth of foundations is generally equal to or less than its width is called
shallow foundation.

▪ Types of shallow foundation

1. Wall Footing: These footings can be either simple or stepped.

2. Isolated Footings: These are used to support individual columns.

3. Combined Footing: A combined footing supports two or more columns in

a row. A Combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal constructed
with reinforced concrete.

4. Inverted Arch Footing: This type of construction is used on soft soils to

reduce the depth of foundation loads above an opening are transmitted from
supporting walls through inverted arches to the soil.

5. Strap or cantilever footing: Strap footing consists of two or more

individual footings connected by a beam called strap or cantilever footing or
pump handle foundation.

6. Grillage footing: This type of footing is used to transmit heavy loads from
steel columns to foundation soils having low bearing capacity

7. Raft Foundation: A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire
area beneath a structure and supports all the columns.
B. Deep foundation

• Pile foundation may be defined as a column support type of a foundation,

which may be cast in-situ or Pre-cast.

• Classification of pile based on the function

1. Bearing piles - Penetrate through soft soil and their bottom rest on a hard
stratum.

2. Friction piles - The frictional resistance is equal to load coming on the piles

3. Screw piles -Used for gravely ground sand, mixed gravel ground

4. Uplift piles - when the structure subjected to uplift Pressure.

5. Batter pile – To resist large horizontal or inclined forces

6. Sheet pile -used as bulk heads or a impervious cutoff

• Classification of pile based on materials and composition

I. Cement concrete piles: Posses excellent compressive strength.

▪ Precast
▪ Cast-in-site
▪ Under reamed piles

II. Timber piles - Small bearing capacity, not suitable for hard soil and
economical

III. Steel piles - With stand impact stresses and resist lateral forces

• Sand piles - Not suitable for loose or wet soils or where is a danger of scour.
Easy to construct and irrespective of water table.

• Composite piles - combination of two different materials are used to form

composite file and suitable where the upper part of pile to project above the
water table.
 ❖Masonry
• Masonry can be classified into the following categories.

1. Stone masonry

2. Brick masonry

3. Hallow block concrete masonry

4. Reinforced masonry

5. Composite masonry

• Definitions of terms

1. Course: A course is a horizontal layer of bricks stones

2. Bed: the surface of a stone perpendicular to the line of pressure of (lower

surface of bricks or stones in each course)

3. Back: The inner surface of wall not exposed is called back. The material
forming back is known as backing

4. Face: The exterior of the wall exposed to weather is known as face. The
material used in the facing of wall is known as facing

5. Hearting: It is the interior portion of a wall between facing and backing

6. Header: It is a brick or stone, which lies with its greatest length at right
angles to the face of the work.

7. Stretcher: It is a brick or a stone which lies with it’s congest side parallel to
the face of the work

8. Bond: The method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied
together

9. Spalls: The chips of stones used for filling the interstices in stone masonry
10.Quoins: The stones used for the corners of walls of structure

11.Bat: It is a portion of a brick cut across the width.

12.Closer: It is the portion of a brick cut in such a manner that its one long face
remains uncut

13.Queen closer: it is the portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick length-

wise into two portions

14.King closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting off the triangular
piece between the centre of one end and the centre of one side.

15.Bevelled closer: It is the portion of a brick in which the whole length of the
brick is bevelled for maintaining half width at one end and full width at the
other

16.Frog: It is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made with

the object of forming a key for the mortar.

17.Sill: It is a horizontal stone, concrete or wood, employed for the purpose of

shedding off rain water from the face of wall immediately below the window
opening

18.Corbel: It is the extension of one or more course of stone or brick from the
face of a wall to serve as a support for wall plates

19.Templates: Pieces of stones placed under the end of a beam to distribute

load over a greater area.

20.Coping: It is the course placed upon the exposed top of an external wall to
prevent the seepage of water.

21.Buttress: It is a sloping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall

intended to strengthen the wall against the thrust of a roof
❖ Stone masonry

• The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is termed as stone

masonry

• Different types of stones used for different purposes

▪ Heavy engineering works: Granite, gneiss

▪ Buildings situated in industrial towns: Granite and compact sandstone

▪ Pavements, railway ballast, doorsits and steps: Granite slabs and slate

▪ Electrical switch board: Marble slabs and slate

▪ Fire resistance works: Compact sandstone

▪ Carving and ornamental works: Marble and laterite

▪ Face work and architectural purposes: Marble, granite closer gained

sand stone
• Tools for Stone Masonry

1. Trowel: This is used to lift and spread mortar

2. Square: This is made of flat steel having each arm about 0.5m long

3. Plumb rule and bob: This is used to check the vertically of walls

4. Spirit level: this is used to chick the horizontality of walls

5. Line and pin: This is used to maintain the alignment of the work in
progress

6. Bevel: The instrument used to set right angles

7. Pick axe: This is employed for dressing of rough stone and split the
stones in the quarry

8. Crowbar: This is used to make stones in query

9. Chisels: They are used to dress stones

10.Spall hammer: This is heavy hammer used for rough Dressing of stones

11.Mallet: The wooden hammer used for driving of wooded headed chisels

12.Iron hammer: This is used for carving of stones

13.Scabbling hammer: This is used to break small projections of stones

14.Pitching tool: This is used to make the stones of required size

15.Gauge: this is employed to dress stones for spring course, cornice,

coping etc

16.Claw tool: This is employed for dressing the surface of stones

17.Nicker: This is employed to draw fine chisel lines on the stone surface

18.Jumper: They are used for boring holes

19.Wedge and feathers: They are employed for cutting the stones after
they have been bored with jumper.

20.Gad: A small steel wedge used for splitting of stones

21.Drag: This is employed to level a stone surface

22.Punch: This is employed to dress roughly the stones

23.Handsaw: This is used to cut soft stones

24.Cross-cut saw: This is used to cut hard stones

25.Frame saw: This is used to cut large blocks of stones.

• Types of Stone Masonry

▪ Rubble masonry

➢ In this category, the stones used are either undressed or roughly dressed
having wider joints.

➢ Types of rubble masonry

1. Uncoursed rubble masonry

2. Coursed squared rubble

3. Dry rubble masonry

4. Polygonal rubble masonry

5. Ashlar Masonry

▪ This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones with uniform
and fine joints of about 3mm thickness by arranging the stone blocks in
various patterns

▪ Types of ashlar masonry

I. Ashlar fine

II. Ashlar rough

III. Ashlar rock or quarry faced

IV. Ashlar facing

V. Ashlar chamfered

VI. Ashlar block in course

❖ Brick masonry

• Brick masonry is a unified mass obtained by systematic arrangement of

laying bricks and bonding together with mortar.

• Types of brick bonds

1. Stretcher bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their lengths
in the direction of the wall.

2. Header bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their ends
towards the face of the wall.

3. English bond: In this type of bond alternate course of headers and stretchers
are laid

4. Double Flemish bond: In this type, alternate heads and stretchers are laid
in each course

5. Single Flemish bond: This type of bond is comprised of double Flemish

bond facing and English bond backing in each course.

6. Garden wall bond: This type of bond is employed for the construction of
garden walls, compound walls, boundary walls etc.

7. Facing bond: In this type of bond bricks of different thickness are used in
the facing and backing of the wall.

8. Dutch bond: This is the modified form of English bond. The corners of the
wall provided with dutch bond are quite strong.

9. Raking bond: In this type of bond alternate courses are placed in different
directions to get maximum strength in the wall.

10.English cross bond: In this bond every alternate stretcher course has a
header placed next to the quolin stretcher and rest of the details are similar to
English bond
 ❖Stairs
▪ A stair is set of steps leading from one floor to the other
▪ The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stair is located, is known
as staircase
▪ The opening occupied by the stair is known as stairway

• Technical Terms

1. Step: It is a portion of stair which permits ascent or descent. It is comprised

of a tread and a riser. A stair is composed of a set of steps.

2. Tread: It is the upper horizontal portion of a step upon which the foot is
placed while ascending or descending.

3. Riser: It is the vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread.

4. Flight: This is defined as an unbroken series of steps between landings.

5. Landing: It is the level platform at the top or bottom of a flight between the
floors. A landing facilitates change of direction and provides an opportunity
for taking rest during the use of the stair.

6. Rise: It is the vertical distance between two successive tread faces.

7. Going: It is the horizontal distance between two successive riser faces.

8. Nosing: It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser. It is
usually rounded off from architectural considerations.

9. Scotia: It is a moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation

of the step, and to provide strength to nosing.

10.Soffit: It is the underside of a stair.

11.Line of nosings: It is an imaginary line parallel to the strings and tangential

to the nosings.
12.Pitch or slope: It is the angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes
with the horizontal.

13.Strings or stringers: These are the sloping members which supports the
steps in a stair. They run along the slope of the stair.

14.Newel post: Newel post is a vertical member which is placed at the end of
flights to connect the ends of strings and hand rail.

15.Baluster: It is vertical member of wood or metal, supporting the handrail.

16.Balustrade: It consists of a row of balusters surmounted by a handrail to

provide protection for the users of the stair.

17.Hand Rail: It is a rounded or moulded member of wood or metal following

generally the contour of the nosing line, and fixed on the top of balusters

18.Head Room: It is the minimum clear vertical distance between and

overhead structure (i.e., ceiling etc.).

19.Run: It is the total length of stairs in a horizontal plane, including landing

20.Header: It is the horizontal structural member supporting stair stringers or

landings.

• Requirement of Good stair

• Width of stair

➢ In domestic building a 90cm wide stair is sufficient.

➢ In public building 1.5m to 1.8m width may be required.

• Length of flight

➢ The numbers of steps are not more than 12 and not less than 3

• Pitch of stair

➢ Pitch should be limited to 30° to 45°

• Head room

➢ It should not be less than 2.1 to 2.3m

• Step dimensions

➢ Going: - The going should not be less than 25cm. 30cm going is quite
comfortable

➢ Rise: - Rise should be between 10cm to 15cm

➢ Width of landing should not be less than the width of stair.

➢ The following thumb rules are followed ( all dimensions are in cm )

1) (2 × Rise) + Going = 60

2) Rise + Going = 40 to 60

3) Rise × Going = 400 to 450

4) Adopt Rise = 14cm and Going = 30cm as standard

• Classification of stairs

1. Straight stair

2. Turning stair

a) Quarter turn stair

b) Half turn stair (Dog legged and open well stairs )

c) Three quarter turn stair

d) Bifurcated stair
3. Continuous stairs

a) Circular stair

b) Spiral stair

c) Helical stair

❖Roof
• A roof may be defined as the uppermost part of a building, provided as a
structural covering to protect the building from weather.
• Types of roof

1. Pitched or sloping roof: Pitched roof is the one which slope of roof more
than 10°

2. Flat roofs or terraced roofs: Flat roof is the one which is either horizontal
or practically horizontal with slope less than 10°
3. Curved roofs

1. Pitched Roof

▪ Forms of pitched roof

a) Lean to roof: This type of roof which slope in one direction

b) Gable roof: This type of roof which slope in Two direction

c) Hip roof: This type of roof which slope in four direction

d) Gambrel roof: This type of roof which slope in two direction but there is
break in each slope

e) Mansard roof: This type of roof which slope in four direction but each
slope has break

f) Deck roof: This type of roof which slope in four direction but plane surface
is formed at top.
• Elements of pitched roof

1. Span: It is the clear distance between the supports of an arch, beam or

roof truss.

2. Rise: It is the vertical distance between the top of the ridge and the wall
plate

3. Pitch: It is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the horizontal plane.

4. Ridge: It is defined as the apex line of the sloping roof.

5. Eaves: The lower edge of the inclined surfaces is called eaves. From
eaves, the rain water from the roof surface drops down

6. Hip: It is the ridge formed by the intersection of two sloping surfaces,

where exterior angle is greater than 180°

7. Valley: It is a reverse of a hip. It is formed by the intersection of two roof

Surfaces, making an external angle less than 180°.

8. Hipped end: It is the sloped triangular surface formed at the end of a

roof.

9. Verge: The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge, is
known as a verge.

10.Ridge piece or ridge beam or ridge board: It is the horizontal wooden

member, in the form of a beam or board, which is provided at the apex of
a roof truss. It supports the common rafters fixed to it.

11.Common rafters or Spars: These are inclined wooden members

running from the ridge to the eaves. Depending upon the roof covering
material, the rafters are Spaced 30 to 45 cm centre to centre.

12.Purlins: These are horizontal wooden or steel members, used to support

common rafters of a roof when span is large. Purlins are supported on
trusses or walls.
 13.Hip rafters: These are the sloping rafters which form the hip of a sloped
roof

14.Battens: These are thin strips of wood, called scantling, which are nailed
to the rafters for lying roof materials above.

15.Boardings: They act Similar to battens and are nailed to common rafter
to support roofing material.

16.Template: This Is a square or rectangular block of stone or concrete

placed under a beam or truss, to spread the load over a larger area of the
wall.

17.Cleats: These are short sections of wood or steel (angle iron), which are
fixed on the principal rafters of trusses to support the purlins.

18.Truss: A roof truss is a frame work, usually of triangles, designed to

support the roof covering or ceiling over rooms.

• Types of pitched roof & suitable span

1. Single roof

➢ Lean to roof: upto 2.40 m

➢ Couple roof: upto 3.6 m

➢ Couple close roof: upto 4.2 m

➢ Collar beam roof: upto 4.2 m

2. Double roof: upto 4.8 m

3. Trussed roof

➢ King post truss: 5-8 m

➢ Queen post truss: 8-12 m

➢ Steel trusses: for span >12 m

 ❖Doors
• A door may be defined as an openable barrier secured in a wall opening.

• Technical Terms

1. Frame: It is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members, forming an

enclosure, to which the shutters are fixed.

2. Shutters: These are the openable parts of a door or window. It is an

assembly of styles, panels and rails.

3. Head: This is the top or uppermost horizontal part of a frame.

4. Sill: This is the lowermost or bottom horizontal part of a window frame.

Sills are normally not provided in door frames.
5. Horn: These are the horizontal projections of the head and sill of a frame
to facilitate the fixing of the frame on the wall opening. The length of
horns is kept about 10 to 15 cm
6. Style: Style is the vertical outside member of the shutter of a door or
window.

7. Top rail: This is the top most horizontal member of a shutter.

8. Lock rail: This is the middle horizontal member of a door shutter, to

which locking arrangement is fixed.

9. Bottom rail: This is the lowermost horizontal member of a shutter.

10.Intermediate or cross-rail: These are additional horizontal rails, fixed

between be top and bottom rails of a shutter. A rail fixed between the top
rail and lock rail is called frieze rail.

11.Panel: This is the area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails.

12.Mullion: This is a vertical member of a frame, which is employed to sub-

divide a Window or a door vertically.
 13.Transom: This is a horizontal member of a frame, which is employed to
sub divide a window opening horizontally.

14.Hold fasts: These are mild steel flats (section 30 mm x 6 mm), generally
bent into Z-shape, to fix or hold the frame to the opening. The horizontal
length of hold fast is kept about 20 cm, and is embedded in the masonry.

15.Jamb: This is the vertical wall face of an opening which supports the
frame.

16.Reveal: It is the external jamb of a door or window opening at right

angles to the wall face.

17.Rebate: It is depression or recess made inside the door frame, to receive

the door shutter.

• Size of doors

➢ Common width height relation used in India

▪ Width: 0.4 to 0.6 heights
▪ Height: (width + 1.2 ) meter

Designation of door

▪ 8DS20 means width (800mm), Height (2000mm), D (Door) & S

(Single shutter)

▪ 10DT21 means width (1000mm), Height (2100mm), D (Door) & T

(Double shutter)
 ❖Window
• Window is vented barrier secured in wall opening

• Following thumb rule used for window

➢ Width of window :- (width of room + height of room)/8

➢ The total area of window opening - 10% to 20% of floor area of the room

➢ The area of window opening should be at least one square metre for
every 30 to 40 cubic metre of inside content of the room.

➢ In public building, Minimum area of windows - 20% of floor area

➢ For sufficient natural light, the area of glazed panels should at least be 8
to 10% of the floor area

• Bay window: Bay window projected outside the external wall of the room.

• Clere storey window: These windows are provided in a room which has
greater ceiling height than the surrounding rooms or when a lean to roof of
low height is there adjacent to the room.

• Dormer window: A dormer window is a vertical window provided on the

sloping roof
 ❖Formwork
• Formwork is a temporary ancillary construction used as a mould for the
structure, in which concrete is placed and in which it hardens and matures.

• The cost of formwork may be up to 20℅ to 25℅ of the cost of structure

• The operation removing the formwork is commonly known as stripping

• Stripping time for different components

A. Walls, columns and vertical sides of beam: 24 to 48hr

B. Slab soffits (Props left under): 3 days

C. Beam soffits (props left under): 7 days

D. Removal of props to slab:

➢ Spanning upto 4.5m: 7days

➢ Spanning over 4.5m: 14days

E. Removal of props to beam and arches :

➢ Spanning upto 6m: 14days

➢ Spanning over 6m: 21days

 ❖Plastering
• Plastering is the process of covering rough surface of walls, column, ceiling
and other building components with thin coat mortars to form a smooth
durable surface.

• Plastering on external exposed surfaces is known as rendering

• Types of mortars for plastering

1. Lime mortar

➢ Mix proportion for fat lime : 1:3 to 1:4

➢ Mix proportion hydraulic or kankar lime : 1:2

2. Cement mortar

➢ Mix proportion (cement : sand) : 1:4 to 1:6

3. Lime cement mortar (Cement:Lime:Sand) : 1:1:6, 1:1:8 or 1:2:8

• Terminology used in plastering work

1. Back ground: It is the surface to which the first coat of plaster is

applied.

2. Blistering: This is the development of local swellings on the finished

plastered surface, due to residual unslaked lime nodules.

3. Cracking: This is the development of one or more fissures in the plaster

due to movements in the back ground or surrounding structure.

4. Crazing: This is the development of hair cracks, usually in an irregular

pattern, over the finished surface.

5. Dado: This is lower part of plastered wall, where special treatment is

given to make it better resistance.
6. Dots: These are small projections of plaster, laid on background for
fixing of screeds etc. The size of dots may be 15cm x 15 cm.

7. Dubbing coat: This is the process of filling up hollow spaces in the solid
background, before applying the main body of the plaster.

8. Finishing coat: It is the final coat of plaster. Such a coat is also known as
setting coat or skimming coat.

9. Flaking: It is the process of scaling away patches of plaster of previous

coat, due to lack of adhesion with the under-coat.

10.Gauging: It is the process of mixing various constituents of plaster.

11.Grinning: It is the reflection or appearance on the surface of plaster, of

the Pattern of joints or similar patterns in the background.

12.Grounds: These are the wooden strips fixed to the back-ground to which
primary finishing may be secured.

13.Hacking: This is the process of roughening the back-ground to provide

suitable bond or key for plastering.

14.Keys: These are openings or indentations or corrugations on the

background or surface of under-coat, to which plaster will form
mechanical bond.

15.Laitance: When freshly laid concrete or mortar is subjected to excessive

trowelling a screen consisting of thin layer of fine cement Particles is
formed. This layer is known as laitance.

16.Peeling: This is the term applied to the dislodgment of Plaster Work from
the background.

17.Under-coats: These are the coats of plaster applied under the Finishing
coat
• Number of coat of plaster

a) Brick work or hollow clay tiles: 3, 2 or 1

b) Building blocks: 3, 2 or 1

c) Wood or metal lath: 3

d) Stone work: 3 to 2

e) Wood wool slabs: 3 to 2

f) Concrete cast in situ: 2 or 1

g) Fibre building boar: 2 to 1

h) Cork slab: 2 or 1

• Defects in plastering

1. Blistering of plastered surface: This is the formation of small patches

of plaster swelling out beyond the plastered surface, arising out of late
slaking of lime particles in the plaster.

2. Cracking

3. Crazing: It is the formation of a series of hair cracks on plastered

surface.

4. Efflorescence: It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears on

the surface due to presence of salts in plaster-making materials as well as
building materials like bricks, Sand, cement etc. and even water.

5. Flaking: It is the formation of very loose mass of plastered surface, due

to poor bond between successive coats.

6. Peeling: It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered

surface, resulting in the formation of a patch. This also results from
imperfect bond.
 7. Popping: It is the formation of conical hole in the plastered surface due
to presence of some particles which expand on setting.

8. Rust stains: These are sometimes formed when plaster is applied on

metal laths.

9. Uneven surface: This is obtained purely due to poor workmanship.

❖Pointing
• The term pointing is applied to the finishing of mortar joint in masonry.

• Pointing consists of racking the joints to a depth of 10 to 20mm and filling it

with the better quality mortar in desired shape.

• Mortar used for pointing

➢ Lime mortar: 1:2

➢ Cement mirror: 1:3

 ❖Thermal insulation
• Thermal insulation is used to indicate the construction or provisions by way
of which transmission of heat from or in the room is retarded.

• Heat transfer

1. Conduction: It is direct transmission of heat through a material.

2. Convection: Heat is transmitted by convection in fluids and gases as a

result of circulation.

3. Radiation: Heat transferred by radiation through space in the form of

radiant energy.

• Technical terms

1. Thermal conductivity (k): The thermal conductivity of a material is the

amount of heat that will flow through an unit area of material, of unit
thickness in one hour, when the Difference of two temperatures is
maintained at 1°C.

2. Thermal resistivity (l/k): This is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity

and is denoted by 1/ k.

3. Thermal conductance (c): It is the thermal transmission of a single layer

structure per unit areadivided by temperature difference between the hot
and cold faces.

4. Thermal resistance (R): It is the reciprocal of thermal conductance.

▪ {R = L/k}
Where, L is thickness

5. Surface coefficient (f): It is the thermal transmission by convection,

conduction or radiation from unit area of the surface, for unit temperature
difference between surface and surrounding medium.

6. Surface resistance (1/f): It is the reciprocal of surface coefficient.

 7. Total thermal resistance (RT): The total thermal resistance is the sum
of the surface resistances and the thermal resistance of the building unit
itself.

8. Thermal transmittance (U): Thermal transmittance is the thermal

transmission through unit area of the given building divided by the
temperature difference between the air or other fluid on either side of the
building unit in steady state condition.

9. Thermal damping (D: It is dependent on thermal resistance.

▪ {D = 100*(To – Ti)/To}
Where, To is outside temperature
Ti is inside temperature

10.Thermal time constant (T): It is the ratio of heat stored to thermal

transmittance of the structure. {T = Q/U}

❖Acoustics
• It is science of sound which deals with origin, propagation and auditory
sensention of sound and also with design and construction of different
building unit is set optimum conditions for producing and listening speech,
music etc.

• Characteristics of audible sound

➢ The velocity of sound in atmospheric air at 200C is 343 m/sec

➢ The velocity of sound in pure water is 1450 m/sec

➢ The velocity of sound in bricks is 4300 m/sec

➢ The velocity of sound in concrete is 4000 m/sec

• Intensity of sound: It is defined as the amount or flow of wave energy

crossing per unit time through a unit area taken perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.
• Webler & Fechners law: It states that the magnitude of any sensation is
proportional to the logarithm of the physical stimulus that produces it.
➢ {L ∞ logI}
➢ So, L = klog(I/Io)

• Frequency or pitch: It is defined as the number of cycles which sounding

body makes in each unit of time.

• Defects due to reflected sound

1. Echoes: An echo is produced when the reflected sound wave reaches the
ear just when the original sound from the same source has been already
heard.

2. Reverberation: It has been generally noticed that in public halls and

auditorium the sound persists even after the source of sound has ceased.
This persistence of sound is called reverberation.

▪ Reverberation time and acoustical quality

A. 0.5 to 1.50 sec – Excellent

B. 1.5 to 2 sec – Good

C. 2 to 3 sec - Fairly good

D. 3 to 5 sec – Bad

E. Above 5 sec - Very bad

▪ Optimum reverberation time

A. Cinema theatres: 1.3

B. Churches: 1.8 to 3

C. Law courts, committee room, conference hall: 1 to 1.5

 D. Large hall: 2 to 3

E. Music concert hall: 1.6 to 2

F. Parliament house, Assembly hall, Council chamber: 1 to 1.5

G. Public lecture hall: 1.5 to 2

❖Plumbing services
• The services like water supply, drainage, sanitation etc. are sometimes
known as plumbing services.

• Pipes

1. Soil pipe: A soil pipe is a pipe through which human excreta flows

2. Waste pipe: It is a pipe which carries only the liquid waste. It does not carry
human excreta.

3. Vent pipe: It is pipe which is provided for the purpose of the ventilation of
the system. It facilitate exit of foul gases

4. Rain water pipe: It is pipe which carries only rain water.

5. Anti siphonage pipe: It is pipe which is installed in the house drainage to

preserve the water seal of traps.

• The following sizes of pipe are commonly used in house drainage

➢ Soil pipe: 100mm

➢ Waste pipe (Horizontal): 30 to 50 mm

➢ Waste pipe (Vertical): 75 mm

➢ Rain water pipe: 75 mm

➢ Vent pipe: 50 mm

➢ Anti siphonage pipe

▪ Connected with soil pipe: 50mm

▪ Connecting waste pipe : 40mm

• Traps

▪ A traps is a depressed or bent fitting which, when provided in a drainage

system always remains full of water, thus maintaining q water seal

▪ The depth of water seal varies from 25 to 75 mm

▪ Classification of traps

A. According to shape

1) P trap

2) Q trap or half s trap

3) S trap

B. According to use

1) Floor trap or nahni trap: It is used to collect wash water from floors,
kitchen and rooms.

2) Gully trap: It is used to disconnect sullage drain from main drainage

system

3) Intercepting traps: It is provided at the junction of house drain with the

public sewer or septic tank.
• systems of plumbing

A. Single stack system

▪ This is the simplest in which the waste matter from baths, sinks as well as
foul matter from WC. are discharged in one single pipe is called Soil &
waste pipe (SWP)

B. One pipe system

▪ In this system a separate vent pipe is provided.

▪ The system is costlier than the single stack system

C. Single stack system partially ventilated

▪ This is modified from of the single stack system and one pipe system.

▪ In this system the waste from WC, sinks etc. is discharged into one
common SWP

D. Two pipe system

▪ In this system separate soil pipe and waste pipe are provided
 ❖ Principles of building planning

1. Aspect: It is defined as the positioning of windows and doors in the external

walls to take maximum advantage of natural gifts such as sunlight and wind
or breeze.

2. Prospect: Prospect means taking advantage of desirable views available

from Windows, doors and balconies of features outside the building auch as
gardens, lake, sea, river etc.

3. Orientation: Orientation means the placement of rooms with reference to

the north direction.

4. Privacy

5. Circulation: Circulation refers to movement from one place to other inside

the building

6. Grouping: This means planning room with same or similar functions

together as a group.

7. Roominess: A psychological feeling about bigness or smallness of space of

a room is called roominess.

8. Furniture requirements

9. Sanitation: Sanitation is concerned with light & ventilation. It includes

proper planning for drainage arrangements.

10.Elegance: It refers to the elevation of the building. The front elevation of

the building must be aesthetically pleasing & elegant.

11.Economy: Planning of building should be economical

12.Access: The principle of access stresses the need for ease in moving from
room to room.

13.Architectural composition: This principle deals with the aesthetics or the

beauty of the building. Architectural concepts such as unity, contrast, scale,
proportion, mass composition are taken into account.
14.Climate and it's affect: The climate of a place also affect the planning of a
building

• Plinth area: It is built up covered area measured at the floor level of a

building.

• Floor area:

➢ Floor area = Plinth area - walls

➢ It includes door and other opening, internal pillars & supports, plaster
along the wall exceeding 300 m2

• Built up area:

➢ It is the area covered by all floor of a building

➢ It includes area occupied by balcony, staircase is excluded from built up

area

• Carpet area

➢ It is defined as actual area of usable at any floor level.

➢ It does not include sanitary accommodation, verandahs, corridors and

passage, staircase and shafts for lifts, garages, air condition ducts and
plant room.

• Floor space index (FSI) or Floor area ratio (FAR):

➢ It is the ratio of total built up area to plot area