RESEARCH APPROACHES AND DESIGNS

Presented by:

Ms. Sweta K. Gaude

SDM INSTITUTE OF NURSING SCIENCES

INTRODUCTION:
• Research approach and research design are two terms that are frequently used
interchangeably; However research design is a broader plan to conduct a study, and
research approach is an important element of the research design, which governs it.
• A research design is the framework or guide used for the planning, implementation, and
analysis of a study.
• It is a systematic plan of what is to be done, how it will be done, and how the data will be
analysed.

• Research design basically provides an outline of how the research will be carried out and
the methods that will be used.
• It includes the descriptions of the research approaches, dependent and independent
variables, sampling design, and a planned format for data collection, analysis, and
presentation.
• It also helps in answering research questions or hypotheses that may arise.

DEFINITION

 The research design is the master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the needed information in a research study.
• Research design can be defined as a blue print to conduct a research study, which
involves the description of research approach, study setting, sampling size, sampling
technique, tools and method of data collection and analysis to answer a specific research
question or for testing research hypotheses.
• Research design is a plan of how, when and where data are to be collected and analyzed.
 • Research design is the researcher’s overall plan for answering the research questions or
testing the research hypotheses.

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:-

THE APPROACH

INTRODUCTION

 The approach helps to decide about the presence or absence as well as manipulation and
control over variables.
 In addition, it helps to identify the presence or absence of and comparison between
groups.

DEFINITION:

 It is a systematic investigative process employed to increase, revise current knowledge by

discovering new facts.

OR
 • It involves the description of the plan to investigate the phenomenon under study in a
structured (Quantitative), unstructured (Qualitative) or a combination of the two methods
(Qualitative and Quantitative).

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH APPROACH

 Population, Sample, and Sampling Technique.

• The Time, Place, and Sources of data collection.
• Tools and methods of data collection.
• Methods of the data analysis.

1)Population, Sample and Sampling Technique

Researcher design also provides the researcher with directions about,

a) Population: Is the set of people or entities to which the results of a researcher are to be
generalized.

 For example: A researcher needs to study the problems faced by postgraduate nurses
of India; in this the ‘population will be all the postgraduate nurses who are Indian
citizens.
b) Sample: Sample may be defined as representative unit of a target population, which is to
be worked upon by researchers during their study.
c) Sampling Technique: Means technique i.e Probability and Non-probability sampling
technique which can be used in research study.
Example:
In an ethnographic qualitative research design, a researcher gets the directive (authorative
instruction) that the population will be a specific cultural group and the study will include
a small sample selected through a nonprobability sampling technique.

2) The time, Place, and Sources of data collection:

 Time: (Specifying days, months and years of study).

  Place: (location(Study settings)).
 Sources: (i.e personal experience, Practical experience, critical appraisal of literature,
previous research, etc).

Are the other important constituents essential to ensure effective planning to conduct a research
study.

3) Tools and methods of data collection:

• This element of research design involves the description of different tools and methods of
data collection.
• Example:

Questionnaires, interviews, direct observation or any other methods suit the particular
approach of the research as well as nature of the phenomenon under study.

4) Methods of the data analysis:

 A researcher design must also include the description of the methods of data analysis –
either quantitative or qualitative data analysis techniques- that helps the researcher to
collect the relevant data which later can be analysed as per the research design plan.
 Without a formal plan of data analysis a researcher may collect irrelevant data, which can
later become difficult to analyse.

SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

• The selection of a research design is depends on the nature of the research problem, the
research available, accessible of subjects and research ethics.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

 Nature of the research problem.

 Purpose of the study.
  Researcher’s knowledge and experience
 Researcher’s interest and motivation
 Research ethics and principles
 Subjects/ Participants.
 Resources
 Time
 Possible control on extraneous variables.
 Users of the study findings

1)Nature of the research problem:

• It helps the researcher to decide about the selection of a research design.

• Based on the nature of research problem or phenomenon, researchers decide whether it
should be investigated through an experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimental
approach.

2) Purpose of the study:

• Study may be conducted for the purpose of prediction, description, exploration or
correlation of the research variables.
• Therefore, the purpose of the research study helps the researcher to choose a suitable
research design.
3) Researcher’s knowledge and experience

 Selection of research design is largely influenced by the researcher’s knowledge and

experience, because they avoid using those designs wherein they lack confidence,
relevant knowledge, or experience.
• Hence the awareness of and expertise in existing research designs are important factors
pertaining to the researchers.
4) Researcher’s interest and motivation:

• Interest and motivation levels help researchers decide about the particular research
design(s).
 • Motivated researchers always analyse most aspects of research design before selecting
one or a combination, while casual and callous researchers may choose research design(s)
that may lead to failure.
5) Research ethics and principles

• The incorporation and application of ethical and legal principles in the research design
are essential.
• This includes moral obligations such as respect for participants and their rights, informed
consent, and protection from harm, including any adverse effects to educational progress,
health, and well-being.
• Selection of a research design is significantly influenced by the ethics of the researcher
study.
• Example: a researcher may be willing to conduct a research study through a certain
experimental approach, but problems of ethical approval may stop the researcher to do so
and he or she may have to settle for another available possible research design.

6) Subjects/Participants:

• The number of study subjects may influence the selection of research design. If only few
subjects are involved, an in-depth qualitative research design study may be chosen
method, but in case of a large sample, the researcher may be option for a quantitative
research design.

7) Resources:

 None of the researches can be conduct without resources such as money, equipment,
facilities, and support from colleagues.
 However, some of the studies require more amounts of resources as compared to others.
 Therefore, the selection of a research design may be affected by the availability of
resources for the research study.
8) Time:

 Time is also a major deciding factor for the selection of research design.
  For example, a researcher needs more time to conduct longitudinal studies, while cross-
sectional studies may be conducted in shoter time.
 Therefore, time is also a significant contributing factor in selection of a research design.

9) Possible control on extraneous variables:

 An efficient design can maximize results, decrease errors, and control pre-existing or
impaired conditions that may affect the outcome of the study.
 The maximized efforts of the researcher should maximize control.
 Therefore, possible control over the extraneous variables may affect the selection of a
research design.
 For example: a researcher wants to conduct a study through true-experimental design
but because of inability to control selected extraneous variables, other similar design
has to be optained for, such as quasi-experimental or pre-experimental research
design.

10) Users of the study:

 A researcher design also involves various methods of data collection and data analysis.
 Therefore, while choosing a research design, researcher must ensure that research design
is an appropriate for the users of the study findings as possible, so that maximum
advantage of the result can be obtained.

VALIDITY OF RESEARCH APPROACH

There are two important criteria for evaluating the credibility and dependability of the research
results:

 INTERNAL VALIDITY
 EXTERNAL VALIDITY
INTERNAL VALIDITY

CAMPBELL AND STANLEY (1963):

Used the term internal validity to refer to the extent to which it is possible to
make an inference that the independent variable is truly influencing the dependent variable.

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

 History
 Maturation of subjects
 Testing
 Instrumentation change
 Mortality
 Selection bias

EXTERNAL VALIDITY

External validity explores the generalization beyond specific experiments to check if the result
and finding come out to be same with other setting or with other subjects population, but related
variables.

FACTORS AFFECTING EXTERNAL VALIDITY

 Hawthorne
Effect

Experimental
Time effect

External
validity
Reactive
Place effect of
pretest

Novelty
People effect

1)Hawthorne Effect:

Subjects may behave in a particular manner because they are aware that they are being
observed and this is called Hawthorne Effect. Subjects have the knowledge that they are
involved in research study, thus affecting the result.
2)Experimental effect:

 Experimental effect is a threat to study results when researcher’s characteristics,

mannerisms, or behaviour may influence subject behaviour.
 Example: of research’s characteristics or behaviour are facial expressions, clothes, age,
gender, body build, etc.
 Thus, the way researcher dresses up or his or her gender can influence the way in which
respondents answer research questions.
3) Novelty effect:

 When a treatment is new, subjects and researcher might behave in different ways.
 They may be enthusiastic about new methods of doing things.
 Once treatment is more familiar and as the novelty wears off, results might different.
4) People:

 For example: people of a specific race such as whites have high prevalence of coronary
artery disease compared to the blacks.
 Therefore, a generalization made for whites will not be applicable for blacks. Hence, this
is threat to external validity.
5) Place:

 For example: the people living in high altitudes have high haemoglobin (Hb) levels
because at higher altitudes the requirements of oxygen is more, due to which there is
more production of red blood cells, (RBCs).
 However, the Hb level of the people living on the plains is lower in comparison, so a
generalization for people of hilly areas is not applicable for people living on plains.

6)Time:

 If a research was carried out on a community in 1990 and then again in 2000, the results
of these two researches would be different.
 Therefore, older results cannot be generalized over periods of time as societies and
circumstances constantly change.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

 Quantitative research design

 Qualitative research design

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Quantitative research is an inquiry into a identified problem based on testing a theory composed
of variables, measured with numbers and analyzed by using statistical technique.

 EXAMPLE: Conducting a quantitative study is a key variable was depression, we need to

measure how depressed study participants were. We might ask thinking about past life,
how depressed you have been on scale 0-10 where ‘0’ means- NOT AT ALL and 10
means MOST.
 The numeric value for all subject in study comprise the data on depression.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

1)Quantitative research design is quantifying the relationship between variables.

2) The research knows in advance what he/she is looking for.

GOAL :

3) Prediction, Control, Confirm, Test hypothesis.

4) All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are collected.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

 Experimental research designs

 Non-experimental research designs
 Other additional research design

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

• It is defined as ‘observation under controlled conditions’.

• It is concerned with examination of the effect of independent variable on the dependent
variable, where the independent variable is manipulated through treatment or intervention
(s), and the effect of these interventions is observed on the dependent variable.
• EXAMPLE : A study was conducted to test the effect of an breast massage intervention
for breast engorgement. Some women took it for 5 days and others did not took.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1) True experimental design (6)

 Post-test-only control design
 Pre-test-post-test control group design
 Solomon four-group design
 Factorial design
 Randomized block design
 Crossover design

2) Quasi-experimental design (2)

 Non- randomized control group design
 Time-series design

3) Pre-experimental design (2)

 One-shot case design
 One-group pre-test-post-test design

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

True experimental research designs are those where researchers have complete control over the
extraneous variables and can predict confidently that the observed effect on the dependable
variable is only due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

CHARACTERISTICS

MANIPULATION
CONTROL
 RANDOMIZATION

MANIPULATION

 Manipulation refers to conscious control of the independent variable by the researcher

through treatment or intervention(s) to observe its effect on dependent variable.
 In other words, it is a conscious act by the researcher, where he or she varies the
independent variable and observe the effect that manipulation has on the dependent
variable of interest.
 FOR EXAMPLE: A researcher is conducting a study on the efficacy of chlorhexidine
mouthwash on the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) among patients
admitted in ICUs.
 In this example chlorhexidine mouthwash is the independent variable, which is
manipulated by the researcher, and is used as an intervention for the experimental group,
while the control group is kept deprived of it to observe its effect on the incidence of
VAP.
 In another e.g, suppose we hypothesize that gentle massage is effective as a pain relief
measure for elderly nursing home residents. Providing gentle massage to elderly in
experimental group, and withholding for others in control group is considered
manipulation of independent variables, where the effect of this manipulation is observed
 on the pain level in both the groups.

Gental Massage
Independent (As manipulation which can be given to
Variable some patients and withholding it from
others in control group).
Dependent
Pain Level
Variable
CONTROL

 Control is another essential elements of true experimental design.

 Control refers to the use of control group and controlling the effect of extraneous
variables on the dependent variable in which researcher is interested.
 The subjects in the control and experimental groups are similar in number and
characteristics, but the subjects in the control group receive no experimental treatment or
any intervention at all.
 The experimental group receives the planned treatment or intervention, and a comparison
is made with the control group to observe the effect of this treatment or intervention.

MEASURE TO CONTROL EXTRANEOUS VARABLE

1. Matching
2. Counterbalancing
3. Homogeneity by statistical test
A. Matching:
 A conscious ‘matching’ of the subject characteristics in both the groups.
 It is a weak but common method of control over extraneous variables.
 In, matching, the researcher identifies one or more extraneous variables to be
controlled, which are supposed to have effect on dependent variable.
 As soon as subjects are recruited for one of the treatment groups, the researcher
tries to find subjects are recruited for one of the treatment groups, the researcher
tries to find subjects for the other group, similar to the subjects of the first group
based on the specific matching variables.
 For example, if the age and gender are the matching variables of interest in a two-
group study, and a 65-years-old woman is recruited for the first group, the
researcher would try to find another 65-years-old woman to be included in the
second group.
 However, matching is not always feasible because of several reasons, such as not
being able to find subjects with similar characteristics in the population under
study may affect dependent variable(s), and the need to match more than three or
four characteristics simultaneously may further make it even more difficult.
A. Counterbalancing:
 The use of ‘counterbalancing’ is another way to exert active control over
extraneous variables.
 Counterbalancing is used in studies in which the researcher is concerned that the
orders in which treatments or interventions are administered influence the study
results.
 With counterbalancing all the subjects receive all the treatment, but the order of
administration of treatment is varied.
 For Example: counterbalancing can be used to study the effect of several different
relaxation techniques by varying the order in which they are administered to
subjects.

B. Homogeneity by statistical test:

  The researcher may also exert control by conducting a statistical test to find no
significant difference in the basic characteristics of subjects that may affect the
dependent variables among different group under study.
 For example, to ensure the homogeneity of the demographical characteristics
among two groups under study, a chi-square test may be applied on the frequency
distribution of selected characteristics in two group, and there should not be a
significant statistical difference in demographical characteristics of two groups to
establish the adequate control as depicted.
 However, finding such statistical difference is not easy because a researcher needs
to have prior knowledge about the characteristics of subjects which may affect the
dependent variables and must collect relevant information for statistical
comparison before starting the experiment.

3) Randomization

 Randomization means that every subject has an equal chance of being assigned to
experimental or control group.
 This is also known as random assignment of subjects, which involves the placement
of study subjects on a random basis.
 Through random assignment of subjects under experimental or control group,
chances of systemic bias is eliminated.
 Randomization is used in true experimental research designs to minimize the threat of
internal validity of the study and to eliminate the effect of extraneous variable on
dependent variables.
 Through randomization, on an average the characteristics of the subjects in
experimental and control group are similar; thus influence of extraneous variables on
dependent variable is eliminated by dispersing the variability of the subject
characteristics equally in both the groups.
METHOD OF RANDOMIZATION

 Random assignment of subjects may done with simple flip of a coin for each subject; if
coin lands on its ‘head’, subject are assigned to first group and with ‘tail’ subjects are
assigned to second group.
 Another possible method is to write the names of the subjects on slips of paper and put
the slips into a bowl and then draw lots. The first designated numbers of subjects are
placed in one group, and rest are assigned under another group.
 Thirdly a random table may used to facilitate the randomization process. In this method,
blind-folded subjects choose a number from a table of number from a table of numbers
horizontally (row) or vertically (columns), till a requisite number is reached for both
experimental and control groups. Computer-assisted random sequences also may be used
for the random assignment of the subjects.
Using the random assignments, in a study of 16 subjects and two groups, the first
person to enter the study would be assigned to Group I, second would be assigned to
Group II and so on. This method ensures that the sample sizes for both the groups being
compared are equal.

TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

 Six types of true experimental design

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Post-test Crossover
only

Randomized
Pretest post-
block
test only

Solomon 4
groups Factorial
 POST-TEST-ONLY CONTROL DESIGN

Experimental group Treatment Post-test

Random assignment

Control group Post-test

 Composed of two randomly assigned groups, i.e. experimental and control, but neither of
which is pretested before the implementation of treatment on the experimental group.
 In addition, while treatment is implemented on the experimental group only, post-test
observation is carried out on both the groups to assess the effect of manipulation.
 This design can be helpful in situations where it is not possible to pretest the subjects.
 For EXAMPLE: to study the effect of an educational intervention related to urinary
incontinence on the subsequent help-seeking behaviour of older adults.

PRETEST- POST-TEST-ONLY DESIGN

Experimental Pretest Treatment Post-test

group
Random Assignment

Control group Pretest Post-test

 In this research design, subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the
control group.
  The effect of the dependent variable on both the groups is seen before the treatment
(pretest).
 Later, the treatment is carried out on experimental group only, and after –treatment
observation of dependent variable is made on both the groups to examine the effect of
the manipulation of independent variable on the dependent variable.
 For EXAMPLE: such a design could be used for ‘an experimental study to assess the
effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy interventions for patients with breast
cancer.’

SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN

Experimental
Pretest Treatment Post-test
Group 1

Control Group 1 Pretest Post-test

Random
Assignment

Experimental Treatment Post-test

Group 2

Control Group 2 Post-test

 There are two experimental groups (experimental group 1and experimental group 2)
and two control groups (control group 1 and control group 2).
 Initially, the investigator randomly assigns subjects to the four groups.
 Out of the four groups, only experimental group 1 and control group 1 receives the
pretest, followed by the treatment to the experimental group 1 and experimental group
2.
  Finally, all the four groups receive post-test, where the effect of the dependent variables
of the study are observed and comparison is made of the four groups to assess the
effect of independent variable (experimental treatment) on the dependent variable.
 In this, experimental group 2 was observed at one occasion, and that score should be
similar to averaged scores of those in experimental and control groups.
 To estimate the amount of change in experimental and control group 2, the average test
scores of experimental and control group 1 are used as baseline.
 The Solomon four-group design is believed to be most prestigious experimental
research design, because it minimizes the threat to internal and external validity.
 This design not only controls all of the threats to internal validity, but also the reactive
effects of the pretest.
 Any differences between the experimental and the control groups can be more
confidently attributed to the experimental treatment.
 Unfortunately this research design require a large sample and statistical analysis, and
therefore it is not commonly used by nursing and other health care researchers.

FACTORIAL DESIGN

 In factorial design, researcher manipulates two or more independent variables

simultaneously to observe their effects on the dependent variables.
 This design is useful when there are more than two independent variables, called factors
to be tested.
 For example, a researcher wants to observe the effects of two different protocols of
mouth care on prevention of VAP when performed at different frequencies in a day.
 This design also facilitates the testing of several hypotheses at a single time.
 Typical factorial design incorporates 2x2 or 2x3 factorial, but it can be in any
combination.
 The first number (α) refers to the independent variables or the types of experimental
treatments, and the second number (β) refers to the level or frequency of the treatment.
Frequency of mouth care Protocols of the mouth care
Chlorhexidine (α1) Saline (α2)
4 hourly (β1) α1....β1 α2...β1
5 hourly (β2) α1...β2 α2...β2
8 hourly (β3) α1...β3
α2…β3
RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN

 Control of inherent differences between experimental subjects and differences in

experimental conditions is one of the difficult problems faced by researchers in biological
sciences.
 When there are a large number of experimental comparison groups, the randomized
block design is used to bring homogeneity among selected different groups.
 This is simple method to reduce the variability among the treatment groups by a more
homogeneous combination of the subjects through randomized block design.
 For example: a researcher wants to examine the effects of three different antihypertensive
drugs on patients with hypertension.
 In this example, to ensure the homogeneity among the subjects under treatment,
researcher randomly places the subjects in homogeneous groups (blocks) like patients
with primary hypertension, diabetic patients with hypertension, and renal patients with
hypertension.
 This design looks similar to a factorial design in structure, but out of two factors, one
factor is not experimentally manipulated, like in the given example there are two factors:
type of antihypertensive drugs and type of patients with hypertension, where only the
type of drug is manipulated and type of patients with hypertension are simply grouped in
different blocks with similar characteristics to ensure homogeneity.
 TYPES OF BLOCKS
ANTIHYPERTENSIVE
DRUGS
PATIENTS WITH DIABETIC RENAL
PRIMARY PATIENTS WITH PATIENTS WITH
HYPERTENSION HYPERTENSION HYPERTENSION
(I) (II) (III)
A A,I A,II A,III
B B,I B,II B,II
C C,I C,II C,III

CROSSOVER DESIGN

 In this design, subjects are exposed to more than one treatment, where subjects are
randomly assigned to different orders of treatment.
 It is also known as ‘repeat measure design’.
 This design is more efficient in establishing the highest possible similarity among
subjects exposed to different conditions, where groups compared obviously have equal
distribution of characteristics.
 Though crossover design is considered as an extremely powerful research design,
sometimes of the second condition may be influenced by their experience in the first
condition.
 For Example: When we are comparing the effectiveness of the chlorhexidine and saline
mouth care protocol, first we administer the chlorhexidine mouth care protocol on group I
and saline mouth care protocol on the subjects of group.
 Later, the treatment is swapped, where group I receives the saline mouth care and group
II receives chlorhexidine.
 In such studies subjects serve as their own control.
GROUPS PROTOCOLS OF THE
MOUTH CARE
GROUP I Chlorhexidine (α1) Saline (α2)
GROUP II Saline (α2) Chlorohexidine (α1)

ADVANTAGES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Experimental research designs are considered the most powerful designs to establish the
casual relationship between independent variables.
 Where the purpose of research is explanation, casual relationship may be established
among the variables by experimentation, especially in studies involving physical objects,
where the variables are more easily controlled than in human studies.
 In these studies, the controlled environment in which the study is conducted can yield a
greater degree of purity in observation.
 Conditions not found in a natural setting can be created in an experimental setting, where
the independent variable is manipulated by investigator.
 In the experimental approach, we can often create conditions in a short period of time that
may take years to occur naturally. For example, in genetic studies we can breed strains in
very small time, which would take a long time in nature to occur.
 When the experiment is conducted in a laboratory, experimental unit, or other specialized
research setting, it is removed from the pressure and problems of real-life situations and
the research setting, it is removed from the pressure and problems of real-life situations
and the researcher can pursue his or her studies in a more leisurely, careful, and
concentrated way.

DISADVANTAGES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Most of the times, the results of experimental research designs cannot be replicated in
studies conducted on human beings due to ethical problems.
  For certain research problems, because of the danger to physical and psychological
health on the human subjects, it is not possible to conduct experimental on human
beings.
 Many of the human variable neither have valid measurable criteria nor instruments to
measure them. For e.g, patients welfare or level of wellness cannot be measurd on any
scale or by any instrument. In these situations, if a refined experimental design is used,
there may be a mismatch of research design and the variable-measuring instruments.
 In experimental studies conducted in natural settings like hospitals or community, it is
not possible to impose control over extraneous.
 Another disadvantage of the experimental research design is that it is very difficult to get
cooperation from the study participants, because it may involve medical or surgical
treatment or intervention.

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

DEFINITION

Quasi-experimental research design involves the manipulation of independent variable to

observe the effect on dependent variable, but lacks at least one of the two characteristics of the
true experimental design: randomization or a control group.

 In other words, quasi-experimental designs have an element of manipulation but lack at

least one of the other two properties that characterize true experiments: randomization or
a control group.
 Quasi-experimental designs are generally used to establish the causality (effect of
independent variable on dependent variable) in situations where researchers are not able
to randomly assign the subjects to groups or for various reasons no control group is
available for an experimental study.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

 Manipulation of the independent variables to observe the effects on the dependent

variables.
 Lack of at least one of the two other essential characteristics of the true experiment, i.e.
random assignment of subject or a control group.
 Quasi-independent variables are used instead of true independent variables. Where
independent variable is not manipulates in complete controller situations.

TYPES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL

NONRANDOMIZE
TIME-SERIES
D CONTROL
GROUP DESIGN DESIGN

NONRANDOMIZED CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

 It is also known as the ‘nonequivalent control groupdesign’.

 This design identical to the pretest-posttest control group design, except there is no
random assignment of subjects in experimental and control groups.
 In this design, experimental and control groups are selected without randomization, and
dependent variables are observed in experimental as well as control groups before the
intervention.
 Later, the experimental group receives treatment and after that posttest observation of
dependent variable is carried out for both the groups to assess the effect of treatment on
experiment group.

EXPERIMENTAL
PRETEST TREATMENT POST-TEST
GROUP

CONTROL GROUP PRETEST POST-TEST

 For EXAMPLE, this method was used to study ‘the effects of integrated care on quality
of work in nursing homes: a quasi-experimental’.
 The purpose of this study was to examine he implementation of integrated care in the
nursing home sector, and its effect on the quality of work of the caregivers.
 A nonequivalent pretest-posttest control group design was used in this study.
 Data was collected by through a questionnaire.
 The result showed that the intervention appeared to be one successful on the somatic
wards.
 The caregivers of these wards were more successful in creating a home-like environment
for their residents.
 Regarding the effect of the intervention on the quality of work factors, the result included
an increase of social support by supervision.
 The intervention on the psychosomatic wards was unsuccessful, though the introduction
of integrated care on the somatic wards was fairly successful.
 TIME-SERIES DESIGN

EXPERIMENTAL O2 O1
O1 O3 TREATMENT O2
GROUP

O3

 This design is useful when the experimental wants to measure the effects of a treatment
over a long period of time.
 The experimenter would continue to administer the treatment and measure the effects a
number of times during the course of the experiment.
 Generally it is a single-subject research, in which the researcher carries out an experiment
on an individual or on a small number of individuals, by alternating between
administering and then withdrawing the treatment to determine the effectiveness of the
intervention.
 For example, a researcher might assess pain levels of a group of patients with low-back
pain. After 3 week of pain assessment, subject are taught special exercises to reduce that
pain. During the next 3 weeks, pain levels would again be measured.
 Measuring a child’s school performance on a weekly basis, and then introducing a new
teaching technique. Then again measuring on a weekly basis.

ADVANTAGES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Quasi-experimental design are more frequently used because they are more practical and
feasible to conduct research studies in nursing, where in the absence of a large sample,
size, randomization and/or availability of control groups are not always possible.
 This design is more suitable for real-world natural setting than true experimental research
designs.
 It allows researchers to evaluate the impact of quasi-independent variable under naturally
occurring conditions.
  It may be able to establish causal relationship, wherein some of the hypotheses are
practically answered through this design only.

DISADVANTAGES OF QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 There is no control group or a lack of control over the setting makes the results of this
design less reliable and weak for the establishment of casual relationship between
independent and dependent variables.

PRE-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

This research design is considered very weak, because the researcher has very little control over
the experiment.

TYPES OF PRE-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

ONE SHOT CASE ONE GROUP

DESIGN PRETEST-POSTTEST
DESIGN
 ONE-SHOT CASE DESIGN

 In this research design, a single experimental group is exposed to a treatment and

observations are made after the implementation of that treatment.
 There is no random assignment of subjects to the experimental group and no control
group at all.

EXPERIMENTAL
TREATMENT POST-TEST
GROUP

ONE-GROUP PRETEST-POSTTEST DESIGN

 It is the simplest type of pre-experimental design, where only the experimental group is
selected as the study subjects.
 A pretest observation of the dependent variables is made before implementation of the
selected group, the treatment is administered, and finally a posttest observation of
dependent variables is carried out to assess the effect of treatment on the group.
 Some researcher also argue this design as sub type of quasi-experimental research design.
 However in absence of both randomization and control group.
 This design ethically cannot be placed under the classification of quasi-experimental
research design.
 This design measures the effect on the experimental group, based on their state before the
beginning of the experiment (pretest) and the difference achieved at the end of the
experiment (posttest). There is no control group in this design.

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP PRETEST TREATMENT POST-TEST

  For example, ‘a study on the effect of interventions on the stress-coping resources of
associate degree nursing students’.
 In this study, a pretest and posttest design was used to examine three
groups in nursing programmes. Each group completed the instrument,
Coping Resources Inventory for Stress (CRIS), at the beginning and at the
end of the first-year nursing course.
 The modified-curriculum group received interventions for the
development of stress-coping resources in their initial nursing course.
 The second group experienced self-directed interventions, and the third
group received no intervention. This study concluded that curriculum
intervention for first-year degree nursing students resulted in a measured
increase of stress monitoring and tension-control coping resources.

ADVANTAGES OF PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Very simple and convenient to conduct these studies in natural settings, especially
in nursing.
 Most suitable design for the beginners in the field of experimental research.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Considered a very weak experimental design to establish casual relationship between

independent and dependent variables, because it controls no threat to internal validity.
 It has very little control over the research.
 It has a higher threat to internal validity of research, and may have a selection bias, which
can be very serious threats for in using this particular design.
NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

It is one of the broad categories of research designs, in which the research observes the
phenomena as they occur naturally, and external variables are introduced.
NEEDS OF NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 The independent variables cannot be manipulated.

 It is unethical to manipulate the independent variable.
 The research situations where it is not practically possible to conduct experiments.
 Descriptive type studies that do not require any experimental approaches.

TYPES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

 DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
 Univariant descriptive design
 Exploratory descriptive design
 Comparative descriptive design
 CORRELATIONAL/EX-POST FACTO DESIGN
 Prospective design
 Retrospective design
 DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
 Cross-sectional design
 Longitudinal design
 EPIDERMIOLOGICAL DESIGNS
 Case-control studies
 Cohort studies
 SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

It is used to observe, describe, and document aspect of a situation as it naturally occurs, and
sometimes to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development.

MAIN FEATURES

 Used to observe, document, and describe a phenomenon occurring in natural setting.

  To gain more information about characteristics within a particular field of inquiry.
 Used to develop theories, identify problems with practices, make judgments, or determine
other practices in similar situations.
 It provide an impression of situation as it occurs in natural setting.

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

 Univariant descriptive design

 Exploratory descriptive design
 Comparative descriptive design

UNIVARIANT DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN

 Univariant descriptive designs are undertaken to describe the frequency of a

phenomenon.
 This design does not focus on the study of a single variable; there may be one or more
variables involved in the study.
 For Example, a researcher is interested in assessing the experiences of patient suffering
from rheumatoid arthritis.
 In this study, the researcher may describe the frequency of different symptoms
experienced by the patients and the type of treatment they received during the
course of disease, etc.
 There are multiple variables in the research study.

EXPLORATORY DESIGN

It is used to identify, explore, and describe existing phenomenon and its related factors.

 For example, an exploratory study to assess the multifactorial dimensions of falls and
home safety measures for elderly people living in selected communities in the city
Ludhiana.
COMPARATIVE DESIGN

It involves comparing and contrasting two or more sample of study subject on one or variables
often at a single point of time.

 For example, ‘A comparative study on health problems among rural and urban older
people in district Bikaner, Rajasthan’.
CORRLATIONAL/EX-POST FACTO RESEARCHE DESIGN

This is a nonexperimental design, where researcher examines the relationship between two or
more variables in a natural setting without manipulation or control.

 For example, this design was used for ‘A correlation study on the effect of smoking on
lung cancer among people in New Delhi’.

MAIN FEATURES

 The researcher find the strength of relationship between the variables.

 Generally it has independent and dependent variables effect of independent variable is
observe without manipulating the dependent variable.
 Sometimes identification of dependent and independent variable.
 It finded by using correlation and coefficient.

TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 Prospective research design

 Retrospective research design

PROSPECTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Here the researcher relates the present to the future is a prospective research design.
  For example, a researcher conducting ‘a prospective correlational study on effect of
maternal infection during pregnancy on foetal development and pregnancy outcome’.
 In this study, the researcher starts by collecting data from pregnant women
regarding any history of infection among women during their current pregnancies,
next observes foetal development and pregnancy outcome, and finally analyses
the relationship of maternal infection during pregnancy and foetal development
and pregnancy outcome.

RETROSPECTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Here the researcher studies the current phenomenon by seeking information from past.

 For example, this design was used in ‘a retrospective correlational study on substance-
abuse-related high-risk factors among traumatic head injury patients admitted in
neurosurgery ICU of Dayanand Medical College and Hospital (DMCH), Ludhiana’.
 In this study, the researcher first approached head injury patients, and then tried to
identify the number of head injuries that occurred under the influence of
substance abuse.

DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

It examines the phenomenon with reference to time

TYPES OF DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 Cross-sectional design
 Longitudinal design
CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN

In which researcher collect data at particular time (one period of data collection) it is more
convenient.

 For example, a researcher is interested in assessing the awareness on swine flu among
people of an area. Here the researcher interacts only once to collect awareness-related
data respondents.

LONGITUDINAL DESIGN

Here the data collect at long time (long time study).

 IT HAS THREE TYPES;

 Trend studies
 Panel studies
 Follow-up studies
1) Trend studies: These helps to investigate a sample from a general population over a time
with respect to some phenomenon. Trend studies permit researchers to examine pattern
and rate of changes and to some phenomenon.
2) Panel studies: A panel In research is referred to the sample of people involved in a study.
3) Follow-up studies: These are undertaken to determine the subsequent states of subjects
(s) with a specified condition or those who have received a specified intervention.

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

 It involves investigate the distribution and causes of the diseases in population.

 Therefore, epidemiological studies are generally conducted to investigate causes of
different diseases in either prospective approaches (causes to effect) or retrospective
approaches (effect to cause)
 However, in epidemiology different terminology is used for prospective and retrospective
designs.
  The prospective studies are known as cohort study and retrospective studies are called
case-control studies.

TYPES

1) COHORT STUDIES

2) CASE-CONTROL
STUDIES

1) COHORT STUDIES
 Here the longitudinal approach is used to investigate the diseases and causes.
 For example, a researcher longitudinally observes the smokers for development of lung
cancer.

2) CASE-CONTROL
 In this design, causes of a disease are investigated after the occurrence of a disease.
 For example, a researcher investigates the history of smoking in patients diagnosed with
lung cancer.

SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN

 A survey is a research design which is used to collect information from doifferent

subjects within a given population having some characteristics of interest.
 If the survey is conducted on a sample population, it is called sample survey.
  If the entire population is involved, it is called a population survey such as censuses, etc,.
 In a survey, information is collected regarding prevalence, distribution, and
interrelationship of variables within a population.
 A survey helps to collect wide range of data from a given population such as actions,
attitudes, opinions, perceptions, behaviours, awareness, practices, etc.
 Survey could be descriptive, exploratory, comparative, or correlational depending on the
nature of phenomenon under study.

MAIN FEATURES

 Survey research is the process of gathering current required data from the subjects so that
new information can be obtained.
 Information is collected from a ix of subjects who represent the total population in the
characteristics being studies.
 It Is a mode of enquiry that relies heavily upon the validity of verbal reports.
 Survey can be collected in number of ways. The most common method is questioning.
The information is obtained directly from the respondents by self-reporting questioning;
however, face interview method also may be used.
 Personal interviews are regarded as the most useful method of collecting survey data.

TYPES OF THE SURVEY

1) DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF PHENOMENON UNDER STUDY

2) BASED ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1) DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF PHENOMENON UNDER STUDY:

Surveys are classified as descriptive, exploratory, comparative, and correlational surveys.
 Descriptive survey: It is undertaken to describe the frequency of a phenomenon
rather than to study relationships.
 Exploratory Survey: It is the survey of a phenomenon, and its related factors,
about which much is not known.
  Comparative Survey: Comparing and contrasting the existence of a certain
phenomenon in two or more groups is done by comparative surveys.
 Correlational Survey: It is a study of the relationship between two or more
variables in a natural setting without manipulation or control.

2) BASED ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Based on the method of data collection, survey researchers can be classified as written, oral,
and electronic surveys.

 Written Survey: In a written survey, data are collected with the help of written, structured
tools, such as questionnaires, opinionnaires, etc.
 Oral Survey: Data in an oral survey is collected by using face-to-face or telephonic
conversation or oral interview with respondents.
 Electronic Survey: When data is collected by using electronic means such as electronic-
mail messages (Emails), web forms, mobile short message services (SMS); etc., it is
know as electronic survey.

ADVANTAGES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 It is a convenient method.
 Suitable for nursing research.
 It is simple.
 Low cost compare to experiment.

DISADVANTAGES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 The relationship between variables finding is never clear.

 It has more error.
 Non randomized method will resulting in error.
OTHER ADDITIONAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

 There are some of the research designs, which cannot be categorized under either
experimental or nonexperimental research designs.

METHODOLOGICAL
STUDIES
OPERATIONAL METE-
RESEARCH ANALYSI
S

TYPES
EVALUATION SECONDARY
STUDIES DATA
ANALYSIS
OUTCOME
RESEARCH

METHODOLOGICAL STUDIES

Research conducted to develop, test, and evaluate the research instruments and methods.

STEPS OF METHODOLOGICAL STUDY

 Defining the behaviour.

 Formulating the items for tool.
 Developing instruments for users and respondents.
 Testing the reliability and validity of research tool.
  For example, a researcher may conduct ‘a methodological study to develop a pressure
sore risk assessment tool for patients admitted in orthopaedic wards’.

META-ANALYSIS

Quantitatively combining and integrating the findings of the multiple research studies on a
particular topic.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A META-ANALYSIS

There are 5 steps:

a) Define hypothesis: First, there must be a well-defined statement of the relationship

between the variables under investigation, so that researcher can carefully define the
inclusion and exclusion criteria when locating potential studies.
b) Locate the studies: A meta-analysis is only informative if it adequately summarize the
existing literature, so a thorough literature search is critical to retrieve every relevant
study, such as database searches, ancestry approaches, descendancy approaches, hand
searching, and the invisible college(i.e. network of researchers who know about
unpublished studies, conference proceedings, etc.)
c) Input data: Empirical findings are gathered from primary studies (e.g. p value and effect
size) and input into statistical database. Not every study provides sufficient statistical
information to calculate the effect size statistics.
d) Calculate effect sizes: The overall effect is calculated by converting all statistics to a
common metric, making adjustments as necessary to correct for issues like sample size or
bias, and then central tendency (e.g. mean effect size and confidence intervals around that
effect size) and variability (e.g. heterogeneity analysis) are calculated.
e) Analyse variables: If heterogeneity exists, you may want to analyse moderating variables
in the database and analysing either mean differences (for categorical variables) or
weighted regression (for continuous variable) to see if the variable accounts for the
difference in the effect size.
  For example, this design can be used for ‘a meta-analysis study on the coping behaviour
of the people with cancer diagnoses’. In this study, the researcher selects quantitative
studies with coping behaviour of the people with cancer, which are conducted on the
similar age groups, and later carry out a statistical analysis on the results of the selected
studies.

SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS

A research design in which the data collected in one research is reanalyzed by another
researcher, usually to test new hypotheses.

 It can be performed by using both quantitative and qualitative data.

 For example, (for quantitative); A researcher used data from a previous study of patients
with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to test an explanatory model of factors
affecting functional status in this disorder.
 (for qualitative); A researcher carried out a secondary analysis of data from a qualitative
study of clients with end-stage renal disease. The original study was designed to examine
how and by whom were the decisions about treatment modality made; the secondary
study examined factors that influenced those decisions.

OUTCOME RESEARCH

Outcome research involves the evaluation of care practices and systems in place. It is used in
nursing to develop evidence-based practice and improve nursing actions.

STRUCTURES (HAVING THE PROCESSES (Doing the right OUTCOMES (Having the right
RIGHT THINGS) things) results)

 For example, ‘An research on the effectiveness of Quality Assurance Programme (QAP)
 Implemented in Nehru Hospital, PGIME, Chandigarh and Safdarjung Hospital New
Delhi.’

EVALUATION STUDIES

It is research design which involves the judgement about success of a programmes, practices,
procedures, or policies.

 Evaluation research could be either formative evaluation or summative evaluation

research.
1) Formative evaluation research refers to the assessment of a programme as it is being
implemented; the focus is on evaluation process of a programme rather than the outcome.
2) Summative evaluation research refers to the assessment of the outcome that is conducted
after the completion of the programme.
 For example, ‘An evaluation study on the implementation of the National Rural Health
Mission programme in selected districts of Rajasthan’.

OPERATIONAL RESEARCH

Operational research involves the study of complex human organizations and services to
develop new knowledge about institutions, programmes, use of facilities, and personnel in
order to improve working efficiency of an organization.

 For example, An operational research study on patients’ comfort with, and perception of
single-and double-corridor ward design in selected hospitals at New Delhi’.
 Or ‘An operational research study on the patients, perception about different patient
assignment methods for providing nursing care in selected hospitals of Hyderabad.’

REFERENCE

 Dr. Suresh K. Suresh. Nursing Research And Statistics.1 st edition.1st volume. :A division
of reed Elsevier India private limited: P.93-125.
 Polit Beck. Nursing research. Ninth edition. New Delhi: Published by Wolters Kluwer
(India) private limited; 2011. P.48-49.

 Dr. T.V. Tulasi. Nursing Research And Statistics. First edition. Hyderabad; Published by
frontline publications: 2011. P.106-133.

 Introduction to Research approach design(Internet). 2013. (Updated on 2013 May 07;

cited on 2021 January 05).
Available from: URL
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/drjayeshpatidar/introduction-to-research-design.

 Research approach and design(Internet). 2018. (Updated on 2018 July 31; cited on 2021
January 07).
Available from: URL
https://www.slideshare .net/mobile/maheswarijaikumar/research-approach-design

 Research design(Internet). 2016. (Updated on 2016 June 28; cited on 2012 January 07).
Available from: URL
https://www.slideshare .net/mobile/jasmijohnson/resarch-design

 Quantitative approach, type, characteristics, advantages (Internet). 2018. (Updated on

2018 October 11; cited on 2021 January 07).
Available from: URL
https://www.slideshare .net/mobile/PrincyFrenciesM/quantitative-approach-type-
characteristics-advantages