Chapter 10 • Open Channel Flow

10.1 The formula for shallow-water wave propagation speed, Eq. (10.9) or (10.10), is
independent of the physical properties of the liquid, i.e., density, viscosity, or surface
tension. Does this mean that waves propagate at the same speed in water, mercury,
gasoline, and glycerin? Explain.

Solution: The shallow-water wave formula, c o = (gy), is valid for any fluid except
for viscosity and surface tension effects. If the wave is very small, or “capillary” in size,
its propagation may be influenced by surface tension and Weber number [Ref. 5−7]. If
the fluid is very viscous, its speed may be influenced by Reynolds number. The formula
is accurate for water, mercury, and gasoline but would be inaccurate for glycerin.

10.2 A shallow-water wave 12 cm high propagates into still water of depth 1.1 m.
Compute (a) the wave speed; and (b) the induced velocity δ V .

Solution: The wave is high enough to include the δ y terms in Eq. (10.9):
c = gy(1 + δ y/ y)(1 + δ y/2 y)
= 9.81(1.1)(1 + 0.12/1.1)[1 + 0.12/{2(1.1)}] = 3.55 m/s Ans. (a)
cδ y (3.55 m/s)(0.12 m)
δV = = = 0.35 m/s Ans. (b)
y +δy 1.1 + 0.12 m

10.3 Narragansett Bay is approximately 21 (statute) mi long and has an average depth
of 42 ft. Tidal charts for the area indicate a time delay of 30 min between high tide at the
mouth of the bay (Newport, Rhode Island) and its head (Providence, Rhode Island). Is
this delay correlated with the propagation of a shallow-water tidal-crest wave through the
bay? Explain.

Solution: If it is a simple shallow-water wave phenomenon, the time delay would be

∆L (21 mi)(5280 ft/mi)

∆t = = ≈ 3015 s ≈ 50 min Ans.???
co 32.2(42)
This doesn’t agree with the measured ∆t ≈ 30 min. In reality, tidal propagation in estuaries
is a dynamic process, dependent on estuary shape, bottom friction, and tidal period.
734 Solutions Manual • Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition

10.4 The water-channel flow in Fig. P10.4

has a free surface in three places. Does it
qualify as an open-channel flow? Explain.
What does the dashed line represent?

Solution: No, this is not an open-channel

Fig. P10.4
flow. The open tubes are merely piezometer
or pressure-measuring devices, there is no flow in them. The dashed line represents the
pressure distribution in the tube, or the “hydraulic grade line” (HGL).

10.5 Water flows rapidly in a channel

25 cm deep. Piercing the surface with a
pencil point creates a wedge-like wave of
included angle 38°, as shown. Estimate the
velocity V of the water flow.

Solution: This is a “supercritical” flow, Fig. P10.5

analogous to supersonic gas flow. The Froude number is analogous to Mach number here:
1 c gy (9.81 m/s2 )(0.25 m)
sin θ = sin(19°) = = = = ,
Fr V V V
m
Solve V = 4.81 Ans. (Fr = 3.1)
s

10.6 Pebbles dropped successively at the

same point, into a water-channel flow of
depth 42 cm, create two circular ripples,
as in Fig. P10.6. From this information,
estimate (a) the Froude number; and (b) the
stream velocity.
Fig. P10.6

Solution: The center of each circle moves at stream velocity V. For the small circle,
4V 9V
small circle: X = ; large circle: X + 4 + 6 + 9 = ;
co co
V
Solve Fr = = 3.8 Ans. (a)
co
m m
Compute c o = gh = 9.81(0.42) = 2.03 , Vcurrent = 3.8c o ≈ 7.7 Ans. (b)
s s
 Chapter 10 • Open Channel Flow 735

10.7 Pebbles dropped successively at the

same point, into a water-channel flow of
depth 65 cm, create two circular ripples,
as in Fig. P10.7. From this information,
estimate (a) the Froude number; and (b) the
stream velocity.
Fig. P10.7

Solution: If the pebble-drop-site is at distance X ahead of the small-circle center,

3V 9V V 2
small circle: X = ; large circle: X + 4 = ; solve Fr = = Ans. (a)
co co co 3
m 2 m
co = gh = 9.81(0.65) = 2.53 ; Vcurrent = co ≈ 1.68 Ans. (b)
s 3 s

10.8 An earthquake near the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, creates a single “tidal” wave
(called a ‘tsunami’) which propagates south across the Pacific Ocean. If the average
ocean depth is 4 km and seawater density is 1025 kg/m3, estimate the time of arrival of
this tsunami in Hilo, Hawaii.

Solution: Everyone get out your Atlases, how far is it from Kenai to Hilo? Well, it’s
about 2800 statute miles (4480 km), and seawater density has nothing to do with it:

∆x 4480E3 m
∆t travel = = ≈ 22600 s ≈ 6.3 hours Ans.
co 9.81(4000 m)

So, given warning of an earthquake in Alaska (by a seismograph), there is plenty of time
to warn the people of Hilo (which is very susceptible to tsunami damage) to take cover.

10.9 Equation (10.10) is for a single disturbance wave. For periodic small-amplitude
surface waves of wavelength λ and period T, inviscid theory [5 to 9] predicts a wave
propagation speed
gλ 2π y
c02 = tanh
2π λ
where y is the water depth and surface tension is neglected. (a) Determine if this
expression is affected by the Reynolds number, Froude number, or Weber number.
Derive the limiting values of this expression for (b) y = λ and (c) y ? λ . (d) Also for
what ratio y/λ is the wave speed within 1 percent of limit (c)?
736 Solutions Manual • Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition

Solution: (a) Obviously there is no effect in this theory for Reynolds number or Weber
number, because viscosity and surface tension are not present in the formula. There is a
Froude number effect, and we can rewrite it as Froude number versus dimensionless
depth:

co 1 æ 2π y ö æ yö
Frwave = = tanh ç ÷ = fcn ç ÷ Ans. (a)
gλ 2π è λ ø èλø

gλ 2π y
(b) y ≤≤ λ : tanhζ ≈ ζ if ζ = 1: c 2o,long waves ≈ ≈ gy (same as Eq. 10.10) Ans. (b)
2π λ
gλ
(c) y ? λ : tanhζ ≈ 1 if ζ ? 1: c 2o,short waves ≈ (periodic deep-water waves) Ans. (c)
2π
(d) co = 0.99co,deep if tanh(2πy/λ) ≈ 0.995 ≈ tanh(3), or y/λ ≈ 0.48. Ans. (d).

10.10 If surface tension U is included in the analysis of Prob. 10.9, the resulting wave
speed is [Refs. 5 to 9]:

æ gλ 2π Y ö 2π y
c02 = ç + ÷ tanh
è 2π ρλ ø λ
(a) Determine if this expression is affected by the Reynolds number, Froude number, or
Weber number. Derive the limiting values of this expression for (b) y = λ and (c) y ? λ .
(d) Finally determine the wavelength λcrit for a minimum value of c0, assuming that y ? λ .

Solution: (a) Obviously there is no effect in this theory for Reynolds number, because
viscosity is not present in the formula. There are Froude number and Weber number
effects, and we can rewrite it as Froude no. versus Weber no. and dimensionless depth:

co æ 1 2π Y ö æ 2π y ö æ yö ρgλ 2
Frwave = = ç + tanh çè = fcn We, , We = Ans. (a)
gλ è 2π ρ gλ 2 ÷ø λ ÷ø çè
λ ÷ø Y
æ 4π 2 Yy ö
(b) y = λ: tanh ζ ≈ ζ if ζ = 1: c 2o,long waves ≈ ç gy + ÷ Ans. (b)
è ρλ 2 ø

æ gλ 2π Y ö
(c) y ? λ : tanh ζ ≈ 1 if ζ ? 1: c 2o,short waves ≈ ç + Ans. (c)
è 2π ρλ ÷ø
 Chapter 10 • Open Channel Flow 737

For a deep-water wave, part (c) applies, and we can differentiate with respect to λ:
dc 2o g 2π Y Y
= − = 0 if λ crit = 2π (where c o = c o,min ) Ans. (d)
dλ 2π ρλ 2 ρg
For water at 20°C, we may compute that λcrit ≈ 0.018 m = 1.8 cm, as shown below.

10.11 A rectangular channel is 2 m wide

and contains water 3 m deep. If the slope
is 0.85° and the lining is corrugated metal,
estimate the discharge for uniform flow.

Solution: For corrugated metal, take

Manning’s n ≈ 0.022. Get the hydraulic
radius: Fig. P10.11

A 2(3) 1 1
Rh = = = 0.75 m; Q ≈ AR 2/3 1/2
h So = (6)(0.75)2/3 [tan(0.85°)]1/2
P 3+2+3 n 0.022
or: Q ≈ 27 m 3 /s Ans.

10.12 (a) For laminar draining of a wide thin sheet of water on pavement sloped at
angle θ, as in Fig. P4.36, show that the flow rate is given by
ρ gbh3 sinθ
Q=
3µ
738 Solutions Manual • Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition

where b is the sheet width and h its depth. (b) By (somewhat laborious) comparison with
Eq. (10.13), show that this expression is compatible with a friction factor f = 24/Re, where
Re = Vavh/ν.

Solution: The velocity and flow rate were worked out in detail in Prob. 4.36:
h
ρg sin θ ρ gbh 3 sin θ
x-Mom. yields u = y(2h − y), Q = ò ub dy = Ans. (a)
2µ 0
3µ

2 h 2 g sinθ
for 0 < y < h. Then Vavg = u max = and R h|wide channel ≈ h
3 3ν
Interpreting “sinθ ” as “So,” the channel slope, we compare Q above with Eq. 10.13:

gbh3So 8g 72ν 2 24ν 24

Q= = (bh)h1/2S1/2
o , solve for f = 3
= = Ans.
3ν f gh So Vavg h Re

10.13 The laminar-draining flow from Prob. 10.12 may undergo transition to turbulence
if Re > 500. If the pavement slope is 0.0045, what is the maximum sheet thickness, in
mm, for which laminar flow is ensured?

Solution: For water at 20°C, take ρ = 998 kg/m3 and µ = 0.001 kg/m⋅s. Define the
Reynolds number as in Prob. 10.12 above:
Vavg h gh 2So gh 3So
Re = , where Vavg = , thus Re < 500 if < 500,
ν 3ν 3ν 2
3(0.001/998)2 (500)
or: h3 < or: sheet depth h ≤ 0.0032 m Ans.
9.81(0.0045)

10.14 The Chézy formula (10.18) is independent of fluid density and viscosity. Does
this mean that water, mercury, alcohol, and SAE 30 oil will all flow down a given open
channel at the same rate? Explain.
2/3
Solution: The Chézy formula, V = (1.0/n)(R h ) So , appears to be independent of
fluid properties, with n only representing surface roughness, but in fact it requires that the
channel flow be “fully rough” and turbulent, i.e., at high Reynolds number ≥ 1E6 at least.
Even for low-viscosity fluids such as water, mercury, and alcohol, this requires reasonable
 Chapter 10 • Open Channel Flow 739

size for the channel, Rh of the order of 1 meter or more if the slope is small (So = 1).
SAE 30 oil is so viscous that it would need Rh > 10 m to approach the Chézy formula.

10.15 The finished-concrete channel of Fig.

P10.15 is designed for a flow rate of 6 m3/s
at a normal depth of 1 m. Determine (a) the
design slope of the channel and (b) the
percentage of reduction in flow if the
surface is asphalt.

Solution: For finished concrete, n ≈ 0.012. Fig. P10.15

Evaluate the hydraulic radius and then So:
A 3 m2 m3 1.0
Rh = = = 0.6 m, Chézy: Q = 6 = (3)(0.6)2/3 S1/2
o ,
P 5m s 0.012
So ≈ 0.00114 Ans. (a)
n1 æ 0.012 ö m3
(b) Asphalt: n ≈ 0.016, ∴ Q = 6 = 6ç ÷ ≈ 4.5 (25% less) Ans. (b)
n2 è 0.016 ø s

10.16 In Prob. 10.15, for finished concrete, determine the percentage reduction in flow
if the channel is divided in the center by the proposed barrier in Fig. P10.15 above. How
does your estimate change if all surfaces are clay tile?

Solution: For any given n, we are simply comparing one large to two small channels:
2/3 2/3
Q2 small 2(1/n)(1.5)(1.5/3.5)2/3 S1/2
o
é R h,small ù æ 3/7 ö
= = ê ú =ç ÷ ≈ 0.80 (20% less) Ans.
Q1 large (1/n)(3.0)(3/5)2/3 S1/2
o ëê R h,large ûú è 3/5 ø
Since n is the same for each, this result is independent of the surface—clay tile, etc.

10.17 The trapezoidal channel of Fig. P10.17

is made of brickwork and slopes at 1:500.
Determine the flow rate if the normal depth
is 80 cm.
Fig. P10.17

Solution: For brickwork, n ≈ 0.015. Evaluate the hydraulic radius with y = 0.8 m:

A = 2y + y 2 cot θ = 2(0.8) + (0.8)2 cot 30° = 2.71 m 2

740 Solutions Manual • Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition

P = 2 + 2(0.8) csc30° = 5.2 m, R h = A/P = 2.71/5.2 ≈ 0.521 m

1/2
1.0 1.0 æ 1 ö
Q= AR 2/3 1/2
h So = (2.71)(0.521)2/3 ç ÷ ≈ 5.23 m 3 /s Ans.
n 0.015 è 500 ø

10.18 Modify Prob. 10.17 as follows: Determine the normal depth for which the flow
rate will be 8 m3/s.

Solution: We must iterate to find the depth y for this flow rate. We know y > 0.8 m:
2/3
m 3 ? 1.0 é 2y + y 2 cot 30° ù æ 1 ö
1/2
Q=8 = (2y + y 2 cot 30°) ê ú ç ÷
s 0.015 ë 2 + 2y csc 30° û è 500 ø
Guess y = 1 m, Q = 8.11 m3/s, drop down, converge to y ≈ 0.993 m Ans.

10.19 Modify Prob. 10.17 as follows: Let the surface be clean earth, which erodes if V
exceeds 1.5 m/s. What is the maximum depth to avoid erosion?

Solution: For clean earth, n ≈ 0.022. Guess y and iterate to find V ≈ 1.5 m/s:
1/2
1.0 æ 1 ö
Guess y ≈ 0.8 m, A = 2.71 m2, Rh = 0.521 m, V = (0.521)2/3 ç ÷ ≈ 1.32 m/s
0.022 è 500 ø
Try y ≈ 1.0 m to get V ≈ 1/48 m/s, move up slightly to y < 1.025 m Ans.

10.20 A circular corrugated-metal storm

drain is flowing half-full over a slope of
4 ft/mile. Estimate the normal discharge if
the drain diameter is 8 ft.

Solution: For corrugated metal, n ≈ 0.022.

Evaluate the hydraulic radius, etc.: Fig. P10.20

A = (π /2)R 2 = 25.13 ft 2 ; P = π R = 12.56 ft, R h = A/P = R/2 = 2 ft

1/2
1.486 1.486 æ 4 ö ft 3
Q= AR 2/3 1/2
h So = (25.13)(2.0)2/3 ç ÷ ≈ 74 Ans.
n 0.022 è 5280 ø s
 Chapter 10 • Open Channel Flow 741

10.21 An engineer makes careful measurements with a weir (see Sect. 10.7 later) which
monitors a rectangular unfinished concrete channel laid on a slope of 1°. She finds,
perhaps with surprise, that when the water depth doubles from 2 ft 2 inches to 4 ft
4 inches, the normal flow rate more than doubles, from 200 to 500 ft3/s. (a) Is this
plausible? (b) If so, estimate the channel width.

Solution: (a) Yes, Q always more than doubles for this situation where the depth
doubles. Ans. (a)
(b) For unfinished concrete, take n = 0.014. Apply the normal-flow formula (10.19) to
this data:
2/3
1.486 1.486 æ bh ö ft 3
Q= ARh2/3 So1/2 = (bh ) ç sin1° = 200(or 500)
n 0.014 è b + 2h ÷ø s
if h = 2.17(or 4.33)ft
The two pieces of flow rate data give us two equations to solve for width b. It is un-
usual, but true, that both round-number flow rates converge to the same width
b = 5.72 ft. Ans. (b)

10.22 A trapezoidal aqueduct has b = 5 m

and θ = 40° and carries a normal flow of
60 m3/s when y = 3.2 m. For clay tile
surfaces, estimate the required elevation
drop in m/km.
Fig. P10.22

Solution: For clay tile, take n ≈ 0.014. The geometry leads to these values:

A = by + y 2 cot θ = 28.2 m 2 ; P = b + 2y csc θ = 14.96 m, R h = A/P = 1.886 m

1.0
Q = 60 m 3 /s = (28.2)(1.886)2/3 S1/2
o , solve for So = 0.00038 = 0.38 m/km Ans.
0.014

10.23 It is desired to excavate a clean-earth channel as a trapezoidal cross-section

with θ = 60° (see Fig. 10.7). The expected flow rate is 500 ft3/s, and the slope is 8 ft per
mile. The uniform flow depth is planned, for efficient performance, such that the flow
cross-section is half a hexagon. What is the appropriate bottom width of the channel?
742 Solutions Manual • Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition

Solution: For clean earth, take n = 0.022. For a half-hexagon, from Fig. 10.7 of the
text, depth y = sin(60°)b = 0.866b, and
A = by + y2 cot 60° = b(0.866b) + (0.866b)2 (0.577) = 1.299b 2 ; P = 3b
2/3
ft 3 1 2 æ 1.299b ö
2
2/3 1/2 1.486
Q = 500 = ARh So = (1.299b ) ç ÷ (8/5280)1/2 = 1.955b8/3
s n 0.022 è 3b ø
Solve for b = 8.0 ft Ans.

10.24 A riveted-steel channel slopes at 1:500 and has a Vee shape with an included
angle of 80°. Find the normal depth if the flow rate is 900 m3/h.

Solution: For riveted steel take n ≈ 0.015. From Ex. 10.5 (the same included angle),
2/3
1 2/3 1/2 900 m 3 1 æy ö
Q = AR h So = = (y 2 cot 50°) ç cos50° ÷ (1/500)1/2 ,
n 3600 s 0.015 è2 ø
Solve for y8/3 = 0.213, or: y n ≈ 0.56 m Ans.

10.25 The equilateral-triangle in Fig. P10.25

has constant slope and Manning factor n.
Find Qmax and Vmax. Then, by analogy with
Fig. 10.6b, plot the ratios Q/Qmax and
V/Vmax as a function of y/a for the range
0 < y/a < 0.866.

Solution: The geometry is really not too

hard, so we may compute V and Q as follows:
Fig. P10.25

a2 é y ö ù
2
1 A æ
V = R 2/3 1/2
h So , where R h = and A = ê 0.866 − ç 1 − ÷ ú,
n P 2 ëê è 0.866a ø ûú
æ y ö
P = a + 2a ç 1 − ÷ and, finally, Q = VA
è 0.866a ø
The maximum velocity and flow-rate values are
a 2/3 1/2 y a 8/3 1/2 y
Vmax ≈ 0.301 So at ≈ 0.54; Q max ≈ 0.123 So at ≈ 0.74 Ans.
n a n a
The desired plots are shown on the following page and resemble Fig. 10.6b in the text.