DIGESTIVE SYSTEM o esophagus

o stomach
I. FUNCTIONS o small intestine
 Ingestion o large intestine
 taking in food o anus
 Digestion  Anatomy of the Mouth
 breaking food into nutrient molecules o mouth
 Absorption
 oral cavity
 movement of nutrients into the
 mucous membrane-lined cavity
bloodstream
o lips
 Defecation
 labia
 excretes to rid the body of indigestible
 protect the anterior opening
waste
o cheeks
II. ANATOMY
 form the lateral walls
 Two main groups of organs
o hard palate
 Alimentary Canal
 forms anterior roof
o Gastrointestinal Tract (GI)
o soft palate
o ingest, digest, absorb, defecate
 forms posterior roof
 Accessory Digestive Organs
o uvula
o teeth, tongue, several large digestive
 fleshy projection of soft palate
organs
o vestibule
o assist digestion in various ways
 space between lips externally
and teeth and gums internally
o oral cavity proper
 area contained by the teeth
o tongue
 attached at hyoid bone and
styloid processes of the skull,
and by the lingual frenulum to
the floor of the mouth
o tonsils
 palatine – located at posterior
end of oral cavity
 lingual – located at the case of
tongue

 Organs of the Alimentary Canal

 Alimentary Canal
o continuous, coiled, hollow tube
o runs through the ventral cavity from
the mouth to anus (30 feet; 9
meters)
 organs
o mouth
o pharynx
 Functions of Mouth
o mastication (chewing) of food
o tongue
 mixes masticated food with
saliva
 initiates swallowing
 allow for taste through the taste
buds
 Tongue
o studded with different papillae
1. Filiform Papillae
- arranged in parallel rows (tall
and narrow)
- gives the tongue a roughness
- acts as an abrasive coating “papillae containing taste buds or taste receptors
(helps give the tongue a are found on the tongue surface – functions in
cleaning and rasping action) food-manipulating and allowing us to enjoy food”
- complemented by the  Pharynx
antibacterial action of some o serves as a passageway for foods,
of the components of saliva
fluids, and air
- most numerous
o food passes from the mouth
- found at central groove
posteriorly into the:
2. Fungiform Papillae
 Oropharynx – posterior to oral
- not abundant
cavity
- expanded tops like
 Laryngopharynx – below the
mushrooms
oropharynx and continuous with
- have narrow bases
the esophagus
- respond to sweet & sour
o food is propelled to the esophagus
tastes
by two skeletal muscle layers in the
- found at the tip & along sides
pharynx
3. Vallate Papillae
 longitudinal outer layer
- arranged in V-shaped line
 circular inner layer
- taste buds are found in
o alternating contractions of the
fungiform & vallate
muscle layers (peristalsis) propel the
- sensitive to bitter flavors
food
- lie near the back of the
palatine section of the
tongue
4. Foliate Papillae
- clustered into two groups
positioned on each side of
the tongue
- just in front of the V of the
vallate papillae
  surface epithelium –
mostly simple columnar
 Esophagus
epithelium (except for
o Anatomy
esophagus – stratified
 10 inches long
squamous epithelium)
 runs from pharynx to stomach
 small amount of
through the diaphragm
connective tissue (lamina
o Physiology
propria)
 conducts food by peristalsis
 scanty smooth muscle
(slow rhythmic squeezing) to the
layer
stomach
 lines the cavity (known as
 passageway for food only
the lumen)
(respiratory system branches off
2. Submucosa
after the pharynx)
- just beneath the mucosa
- soft connective tissue with
blood vessels, nerve endings,
mucosa-associated lymphoid
tissue, and lymphatic vessels
3. Muscularis externa
- smooth muscle
- inner circular layer
- outer longitudinal layer
4. Serosa
- outermost layer of the wall
- contains fluid-producing cells
- Visceral peritoneum
 innermost layer
 continuous with the
outermost layer
- Parietal peritoneum
 outermost layer that lines
the abdominopelvic
cavity by way of the
mesentery

 Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal

Organs
o 4 layers from innermost to
outermost, from esophagus to the
large intestine
1. Mucosa
- innermost, moist membrane
consisting of:
 o can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon) of
food when full
 rugae – internal folds of the
mucosa present when the
stomach is empty
 lesser omentum
- double layer of the
peritoneum
- extends from liver to the
 Stomach
lesser curvature of stomach
o C-shaped organ located on the left
 greater omentum
side of the abdominal cavity
- another extension of the
o food enters at the cardioesophageal
peritoneum
sphincter from the esophagus
- covers the abdominal organs
o food empties into the small intestine
- fat insulates, cushions, and
at the pyloric sphincter (valve)
protects abdominal organs
“valves of the digestive system (formed by o Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
sphincter muscles) control the flow of food and  simple columnar epithelium
digestive juices through the GI tract” composed almost entirely of
o Regions mucous cells
 cardial (cardia)  mucous cells produce
- near the heart bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus
- surrounds the  dotted by gastric pits leading to
cardioesophageal sphincter gastric glands that secrete
 fundus gastric juice, including:
- expanded portion lateral to - intrinsic factor – needed for
the cardiac region vitamin B12 absorption in
 body the small intestine
- midportion  chief cells
- greater curvature – convex - produce pepsinogen
lateral surface (precursor of protein-
- lesser curvature – concave digesting enzyme pepsin)
medial surface - produce hydrochloric acid &
 pylorus intrinsic factor
- funnel-shaped terminal end  parietal cells
- produce hydrochloric acid
that activates enzymes &
intrinsic factor
 mucous neck cells
- produce thin acidic mucus
(different from the mucus
produced by mucous cells of
the mucosa)
 enteroendocrine cells
 - produce regulatory the stomach into the
chemicals / local hormones duodenum
such as gastrin  results from the
mechanical and chemical
breakdown of a bolus
and consists of partially
 digested food, water,
HCl, and various digestive
enzymes
 Small Intestine
o body’s major digestive organ
o longest portion of the alimentary
tube
 2-4 meters / 7-13 feet
o site of nutrient absorption into the
blood
o muscular tube extending from the
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal
valve
o suspended from the posterior
abdominal wall by the mesentery

o Functions
 temporary storage tank for food
 site of food breakdown
 chemical breakdown of protein o Subdivisions
begins  Duodenum
 delivers chyme to the small  Jejunum
intestine  Ileum
- chyme o Chemical digestion begins in the
 semifluid mass of partly small intestine
digested food expelled by  enzymes produced by intestinal
cells and pancreas are carried to
 the duodenum by pancreatic  increase in number toward the
ducts end of the small intestine
 bile, formed by the liver, enters  more are needed there because
the duodenum via the bile duct remaining food residue contains
 hepatopancreatic ampulla is the much bacteria
location where the main
pancreatic duct and bile ducts
join

o Absorptive Cells
 with microvilli
o Structural Modifications
 produce digestive enzymes
 increase surface area for food  absorb digested food
absorption o Goblet Cells
 decrease in number toward the
 produce a protective mucus
end of the small intestine
o Granular Cells / Paneth’s Cells
- villi
 may help protect the intestinal
 finger-like projections
epithelium from bacteria
formed by the mucosa
 Large Intestine
 house a capillary bed and
o larger in diameter, but shorter in
lacteal
length at 1.5 m, than the small
- microvilli
intestine
 tiny projections of the
o extends from the ileocecal valve to
plasma membrane (brush
the anus
border enzymes)
o subdivisions
- circular folds (plicae
circulares)  cecum
 deep folds of mucosa and  appendix
submucosa  colon
o Peyer’s Patches  rectum
 anal canal
 collections of lymphatic tissue
- clusters of lymph nodules “Normally 18-24 hours is required for material to
- numerous in the ileum pass through the large intestine in contrast to the
- help protect the intestinal 3-5 hours required for movement of chyme through
tract from harmful the small intestine.”
microorganisms
 located in submucosa
o Cecum
 saclike first part of the large
intestine
- appendix (9 cm long)
 hangs from the cecum
about 2.5 cm below the
ileocecal valve
 accumulation of
lymphoid tissue that
sometimes becomes
inflamed (appendicitis)
 has no known
physiological function but
probably represents a
degenerated portion of o Colon (1.5 – 1.8 m long)
the cecum that, in  Ascending
ancestral forms, aided in - travels up right side of
cellulose digestion abdomen and makes a turn
 one of the functions of at the right colic (hepatic)
the appendix is storing flexure
and protection of the  Transverse
good bacteria that aids in - travels across the abdominal
the digestion of food cavity and turns at the left
colic (splenic) flexure
 Descending
- travels down the left side
 Sigmoid
- S-shaped region
- enters the pelvis
o Goblet cells
 produce alkaline mucus to
lubricate the passage of feces
o Muscularis externa layer
 reduced to three bands of
muscle – Teniae Coli
 these bands cause the wall to
pucker into haustra (pocket-like
sacs)
o Rectum
 straight muscular tube that
begins at the termination of the
 sigmoid colon and ends at the o reflex activity
anal canal  moves feces through the internal
o Anal Canal anal sphincter
 2-3 cm long o voluntary activity
 begins at the inferior end of the  regulates movement through the
rectum and ends at the anus external anal sphincter

o Anus  Feces
 opening of the large intestine o referred to as stool
 sphincters  came from the Anglo-Saxon
- normally closed except word stol which means seat
during defecation  originally used to describe the
- external anal sphincter seat one sat on to defecate
 formed by skeletal - euphemism – going to stool
muscle o meconium
 voluntary  newborn baby’s first feces
- internal anal sphincter o content
 formed by smooth  65-67% (75%) – water
muscle  5-9% – nitrogen
 involuntary  12-18% – fatty acids and lecithin
o Large Intestine – delivers  11-22% – ash (Ca, K, Fe, Mg, Hg,
indigestible food residues to the Bi)
body’s exterior  large amounts of mucus, bile
“Every 8-12 hours, large parts of the colon undergo pigments, large numbers of
several strong contractions called mass movements bacteria, undigested cellulose,
which propel the colon contents a considerable epithelial cells that have been
distance toward the anus.” sloughed off the mucosa of
intestine
o reference values for stool

 Formation of Feces
o absorption of water & salts,
secretion of mucus, extensive action
of microorganisms
 Defecation
o elimination of feces
  first published in the
Scandinavian Journal of
Gastroenterology (1997)
 form of stool depends on the
time it spent in the colon

Type 1 – separate hard lumps, like nuts (hard to

pass)
Type 2 – sausage-shaped, but lumpy
Type 3 – like a sausage but with cracks on its
surface
Type 4 – like a sausage or snake, smooth and soft
Type 5 – soft blobs with clear cut edges (passed
easily)
Type 6 – fluffy pieces with ragged edges, a mushy
stool
Type 7 – watery, no solid pieces (entirely liquid)

Type 1, 2 – constipation
Type 3, 4 – ideal stools, easiest to pass
Type 5-7 – further tending, towards diarrhea
 Accessory Digestive Organs
 Teeth
o masticate (chew) food into smaller
o Bristol Stool Scale or Chart fragments
 medical aid designed to classify o humans have two sets of teeth
feces form into 7 groups during a lifetime
 developed by Heaton and Lewis  deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
at the University of Bristol - baby has 20 teeth by age 2
- first teeth to appear are the
lower central incisors
  permanent teeth  found deep to the
- replace deciduous teeth enamel
between ages 6 and 12  forms the bulk of the
- full set is 32 teeth (with the tooth
wisdom teeth)  surrounds the pulp cavity
- pulp cavity – contains
connective tissue, blood
vessels, and nerve fibers
(pulp)
- root canal – where the pulp
cavity extends into the root
 root
- cement – cover outer surface
and attaches the tooth to the
periodontal membrane
(ligament)
- periodontal membrane –
holds tooth in place in the
bony jaw
 neck
- connector between the
crown and root
- region in contact with the
gum

o classified according to shape and

function
 incisors – cutting
 canines (eyeteeth) – tearing or
piercing
 premolars (bicuspids) – grinding
 molars – grinding
o 2 major regions of a tooth
 crown
- exposed part of tooth above
the gingiva (gum)
- enamel – covers the crown
- dentin
 o found posterior to the parietal
peritoneum
 mostly retroperitoneal
o extends across the abdomen from
spleen to duodenum
o produces a wide spectrum of
digestive enzymes that break down
all categories of food
o secretes enzymes into the
duodenum
 Salivary glands o alkaline fluid introduced with
o three pairs: enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme
 parotid coming from stomach
- largest o hormones produced by the pancreas
- serous glands  insulin
- found anterior to the ears  glucagon
 submandibular o two primary functions
- produce more serous than  exocrine function
mucous secretions - makes enzymes to digest
 sublingual proteins, fats, and carbs in
- smallest the intestines
- produce primarily mucous  endocrine function
secretions - produces the hormones
o saliva composition insulin and glucagon
 slightly acidic – pH of 6.3-6.8  Liver
 1,200 mL/24 hrs, 99% Water o weighs 1.36 kg
 salts (NaCl, NaHCO3) o largest gland in the body
 gases
o located on the right side of the body
 organic substances
(RUQ) under the diaphragm
- ptyalin / salivary amylase
o consists of four lobes suspended
(begin starch digestion)
from the diaphragm and abdominal
- lysozyme (antibacterial
wall by the falciform ligament
action)
 right and left lobes separated by
- albumin
falciform ligament
- globulin
o produces 770-800 mL bile/day,
- urea
stored in the gallbladder in
- mucin (oral lubricant)
concentrated form
o functions of saliva
o digestive role – produce bile
 prepare food for swallowing by
 bile leaves the liver through the
moistening & lubricating it
common hepatic duct and enters
 has a solvent action; foods must
duodenum through the bile duct
be dissolved before they can be
 bile is yellow-green, watery
tasted
solution containing
 with cleansing action; constant
- bile salts and bile pigments
flow of saliva removes food
(mostly bilirubin from the
particles that may act as culture
breakdown of hemoglobin)
media for bacteria
- cholesterol, phospholipids,
 Pancreas
and electrolytes
o soft, pink triangular gland
  bile emulsifies (breaks down)  when no digestion is occurring,
fats bile backs up the cystic duct for
storage in the gallbladder
 while in the gallbladder, bile is
concentrated by the removal of
water
 when fatty food enters the
duodenum, the gallbladder
spurts out stored bile

o bile secretion
 stimulated by secretin, released
from duodenum
 cholecystokinin stimulates the  Functions of the Digestive System
gallbladder to contract and  overview of gastrointestinal processes
release bile into the duodenum and controls
o functions of the liver o digestion
o absorption
 essential processes of the GI tract
o ingestion
 placing of food into mouth
o propulsion
 movement of foods from one
region of the digestive system to
another
 peristalsis
- alternating waves of
contraction and relaxation
that squeeze food along the
GI tract
 segmentation
- movement of materials back
and forth to foster mixing in
the small intestine

 Gallbladder
o green sac found in a shallow fossa in o food breakdown
the inferior surface of the liver  mechanical breakdown
- examples:
  mixing of food in the
mouth by the tongue
 churning of food in the
stomach
 segmentation in the small
intestine
- mechanical digestion
prepares food for further
degradation by enzymes
 digestion
- occurs when enzymes
chemically break down large
molecules into their building
blocks
- each major food group uses o absorption
different enzymes  end products of digestion are
 carbohydrates are broken absorbed in the blood or lymph
down to  food must enter mucosal cells
monosaccharides (simple and then move into blood or
sugars) lymph capillaries
 proteins are broken o defecation
down to amino acids  elimination of indigestible
 fats are broken down to substances from the GI tract in
fatty acids and glycerol the form of feces
“enzymatic reactions are hydrolysis reactions
because a water molecule is added to each bond to
be broken”
“water, necessary as a dissolving medium and
softening agent for digestion”
  Activities in the Stomach: Food breakdown
 Gastric juice is regulated by neural and
hormonal factors
o CNS – vagus nerve or 10th cranial
nerve
o presence of food or rising pH causes
 Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx,
the release of the hormone gastrin
and Esophagus
 gastrin causes stomach glands to
 Food ingestion and breakdown
produce:
o food is placed into the mouth
- protein-digesting enzymes
 physically broken down by  pepsin – active protein-
chewing digesting enzyme
 mixed with saliva, which is  rennin – works on
released in response to digesting milk protein in
mechanical pressure and psychic infants; not produced in
stimuli adults
 salivary amylase begins starch - mucus
digestion - HCl
o essentially, no food absorption  makes the stomach
occurs in the mouth contents very acidic
 Food propulsion – swallowing and  activates pepsinogen to
peristalsis pepsin for protein
o pharynx and esophagus digestion
 have no digestive function  provides a hostile
 serve as passageways to the environment for
stomach microorganisms
o pharynx functions in swallowing
(deglutition)
 two phases of swallowing
- buccal phase
- pharyngeal-esophageal
phase

*waves of peristalsis occur from the fundus to the

pylorus, forcing food past the pyloric sphincter
*pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine
(3 mL at a time)
*peristaltic waves close the pyloric sphincter,
forcing contents back into the stomach; the
stomach empties in 4–6 hours
 Activities of the Small Intestine: Chyme
breakdown and absorption
 intestinal enzymes from the brush
border function to:
 o break double sugars into simple
sugars
o complete some protein digestion
 intestinal enzymes and pancreatic
enzymes help to complete digestion of
all food groups
o pancreatic enzymes play the major
role in the digestion of fats, proteins,  Activities of the SI: Chyme propulsion
and carbohydrates  peristalsis – major means of moving
o alkaline content neutralizes acidic food
chyme and provides the proper  segmental movements
environment for the pancreatic o mix chyme with digestive juices
enzymes to operate o aid in propelling food
 Activities of the Large Intestine: Nutrient
 release of pancreatic juice from the breakdown and absorption
pancreas into the duodenum is  no digestive enzymes are produced
stimulated by:  resident bacteria digest remaining
o vagus nerves nutrients
o local hormones that travel via the o produce some vitamin K and some B
blood to influence the release of vitamins
pancreatic juice (and bile) o release gases
 secretin  water, vitamins, ions, and remaining
 cholecystokinin (CCK) water are absorbed
 hormones (secretin and CCK) also target  remaining materials are eliminated via
the liver and gallbladder to release bile feces
o bile o feces contains:
 acts as a fat emulsifier  undigested food residues
 needed for fat absorption and  mucus
absorption of fat-soluble  bacteria
vitamins (K, D, E, and A)  water
 Activities of the LI: Propulsion of food
residue and defecation
 sluggish peristalsis begins when food
residue arrives
 haustral contractions are the
movements occurring most frequently
 mass movements are slow, powerful
movements that occur three to four
times per day
 presence of feces in the rectum causes a
defecation reflex
o internal anal sphincter is relaxed
o defecation occurs with relaxation of
the voluntary (external) anal
sphincter