UNIT VIII.

ENGINE TESTING AND PERFORMANCE

At a design and development stage an engineer would design an engine with certain aims in his mind. The aims may
include the variables like indicated power, brake power, brake specific fuel consumption, exhaust emissions, cooling of
engine, maintenance free operation etc. The other task of the development engineer is to reduce the cost and improve
power output and reliability of an engine. In trying to achieve these goals he has to try various design concepts. After the
design the parts of the engine are manufactured for the dimensions and surface finish and may be with certain tolerances.
In order verify the designed and developed engine one has to go for testing and performance evaluation of the engines.
Thus, in general, a development engineer will have to conduct a wide variety of engine tests starting from simple fuel and
air-flow measurements to taking of complicated injector needle lift diagrams, swirl patterns and photographs of the burning
process in the combustion chamber. The nature and the type of the tests to be conducted depend upon various factors,
some of which are: the degree of development of the particular design, the accuracy required, the funds available, the
nature of the manufacturing company, and its design strategy.

 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its assigned task, i.e. the conversion of
the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical work. The performance of an engine is evaluated on
the basis of the following :
(a) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure.
(c) Specific Power Output.
(d) Specific Weight.
(e) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
The particular application of the engine decides the relative importance of these performance parameters. For Example :
For an aircraft engine specific weight is more important whereas for an industrial engine specific fuel consumption is more
important. For the evaluation of an engine performance few more parameters are chosen and the effect of various operating
conditions, design concepts and modifications on these parameters are studied. The basic performance parameters are the
following :
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output.
(d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio.
(f) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
(h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
(i) Specific Weight.
Power and Mechanical Efficiency
The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and linear velocity or the product of
torque and angular velocity.
 Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well as speed. The force or
torque is measured with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer. The power developed by an
engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake power (BP) and is given by,

( ⁄ )

where, T is torque in N-m and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute. The total power developed by combustion
of fuel in the combustion chamber is, however, more than the BP and is called indicated power (IP). Of the power developed
by the engine, i.e. ip, some power is consumed in overcoming the friction between moving parts, some in the process of
inducting the air and removing the products of combustion from the engine combustion chamber. Indicated Power It is the
power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of combustion efficiency or the heat release in the
cylinder.

( ⁄ )
where:
 Pim = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston or cylinder (bore), m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and
n = Number of cylinders.
Thus, we see that for a given engine the power output can be measured in terms of mean effective pressure.
The difference between the ip and bp is the indication of the power lost in the mechanical components of the engine (due to
friction) and forms the basis of mechanical efficiency (ⴄm) which is defined as follows :

The difference between IP and BP is called friction power (FP).

Mean Effective Pressure and Torque

Mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical/average pressure which is assumed to be acting on the piston
throughout the power stroke. Therefore,

( ⁄ )

If the mean effective pressure is based on BP it is called the brake mean effective pressure:

( ⁄ )

Similarly, the friction mean effective pressure (Fmp) can be defined as:

The torque is related to mean effective pressure by the relation:

Thus, the torque and the mean effective pressure are related by the engine size. A large engine produces more torque for
the same mean effective pressure. For this reason, torque is not the measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its
displacement for producing power from fuel. It is the mean effective pressure which gives an indication of engine
displacement utilization for this conversion. Higher the mean effective pressure, higher will be the power developed by the
engine for a given displacement.
Again we see that the power of an engine is dependent on its size and speed. Therefore, it is not possible to compare
engines on the basis of either power or torque. Mean effective pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of
different engines.
Specific Output
Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake power (output) per unit of piston displacement and is given by:
• The specific output consists of two elements – the Pbm (force) available to work and the speed with which it is working.
• Therefore, for the same piston displacement and Pbm an engine operating at higher speed will give more output.
• It is clear that the output of an engine can be increased by increasing either speed or Pbm. Increasing speed involves
increase in the mechanical stress of various engine parts whereas increasing Pbm requires better heat release and more
load on engine cylinder.
Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree to which the engine fills its swept volume. It
is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of the air
corresponding to the swept volume of the engine at atmospheric pressure and temperature. Alternatively, it can be defined
as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during suction stroke measured at intake conditions to the swept volume of the
piston.

The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric efficiency of an engine and hence puts a limit on
the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned and the power output.
For supercharged engine the volumetric efficiency has no meaning as it comes out to be more than unity.

Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A) IC Engine Testing

Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture. Air-fuel ratio (A/F) is reciprocal of
fuel-air ratio. Fuel-air ratio of the mixture affects the combustion phenomenon in that it determines the flame propagation
velocity, the heat release in the combustion chamber, the maximum temperature and the completeness of combustion.

Relative fuel-air ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to that of the stoichiometric fuel-air ratio required to
burn the fuel supplied. Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is the ratio of fuel to air is one in which case fuel is completely burned due
to minimum quantity of air supplied.
( ⁄ )

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed for each unit of brake power developed per hour. It is
a clear indication of the efficiency with which the engine develops power from fuel.

This parameter is widely used to compare the performance of different engines.

Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance

Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output to that of the chemical energy input in the form of fuel
supply. It may be based on brake or indicated output. It is the true indication of the efficiency with which the chemical energy
of fuel (input) is converted into mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also accounts for combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact
that whole of the chemical energy of the fuel is not converted into heat energy during combustion.

( )
where:
Cv = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and
Mf = Mass of fuel supplied, kg/sec.
• The energy input to the engine goes out in various forms – a part is in the form of brake output, a part into exhaust, and
the rest is taken by cooling water and the lubricating oil.
• The break-up of the total energy input into these different parts is called the heat balance.
• The main components in a heat balance are brake output, coolant losses, heat going to exhaust, radiation and other
losses.
• Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about the amount of energy wasted in various parts and allows us to
think of methods to reduce the losses so incurred.

Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions

Smoke and other exhaust emissions such as oxides of nitrogen, unburned hydrocarbons, etc. are nuisance for the public
environment. With increasing emphasis on air pollution control all efforts are being made to keep them as minimum as it
could be.
Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion. It limits the output of an engine if air pollution control is the consideration.
Exhaust emissions have of late become a matter of grave concern and with the enforcement of legislation on air pollution in
many countries; it has become necessary to view them as performance parameters.

Specific Weight
Specific weight is defined as the weight of the engine in kilogram for each brake power developed and is an indication of the
engine bulk. Specific weight plays an important role in applications such as power plants for aircrafts.

 BASIC MEASUREMENTS
The basic measurements to be undertaken to evaluate the performance of an engine on almost all tests are the following :
(a) Speed
(b) Fuel consumption
(c) Air consumption
(d) Smoke density
(e) Brake horse-power
(f) Indicated horse power and friction horse power
(g) Heat going to cooling water
(h) Heat going to exhaust
(i) Exhaust gas analysis.
In addition to above a large number of other measurements may be necessary depending upon the aim of the test.

Measurement of Speed
One of the basic measurements is that of speed. A wide variety of speed measuring devices are available in the market.
They range from a mechanical tachometer to digital and triggered electrical tachometers.
The best method of measuring speed is to count the number of revolutions in a given time. This gives an accurate
measurement of speed. Many engines are fitted with such revolution counters.
A mechanical tachometer or an electrical tachometer can also be used for measuring the speed.
The electrical tachometer has a three-phase permanent-magnet alternator to which a voltmeter is attached. The output of
the alternator is a linear function of the speed and is directly indicated on the voltmeter dial.
Both electrical and mechanical types of tachometers are affected by the temperature variations and are not very accurate.
For accurate and continuous measurement of speed a magnetic pick-up placed near a toothed wheel coupled to the engine
shaft can be used.
The magnetic pick-up will produce a pulse for every revolution and a pulse counter will accurately measure the speed.

Fuel Consumption Measurement

Fuel consumption is measured in two ways :
(a) The fuel consumption of an engine is measured by determining the volume flow in a given time interval and multiplying it
by the specific gravity of the fuel which should be measured occasionally to get an accurate value.
(b) Another method is to measure the time required for consumption of a given mass of fuel.
Accurate measurement of fuel consumption is very important in engine testing work.
As already mentioned two basic types of fuel measurement methods are:
• Volumetric type
• Gravimetric type.
Volumetric type flowmeter includes Burette method, Automatic Burrette flowmeter and Turbine flowmeter.

Gravimetric Fuel Flow Measurement

The efficiency of an engine is related to the kilograms of fuel which are consumed and not the number of litres. The method
of measuring volume flow and then correcting it for specific gravity variations is quite inconvenient and inherently limited in
accuracy. Instead if the weight of the fuel consumed is directly measured a great improvement in accuracy and cost can be
obtained.
There are three types of gravimetric type systems which are commercially available include Actual weighing of fuel
consumed, Four Orifice Flowmeter, etc.

Measurement of Air Consumption

One can say the mixture of air and fuel is the food for an engine. For finding out the performance of the engine accurate
measurement of both is essential.
In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite difficult because the flow is pulsating, due to the
cyclic nature of the engine and because the air a compressible fluid. Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice in the
induction pipe is not satisfactory since the reading will be pulsating and unreliable.
All kinetic flow-inferring systems such as nozzles, orifices and venturies have a square law relationship between flow rate
and differential pressure which gives rise to severe errors on unsteady flow. Pulsation produced errors are roughly inversely
proportional to the pressure across the orifice for a given set of flow conditions. The various methods and meters used for
air flow measurement include
(a) Air box method, and
(b) Viscous-flow air meter.

Measurement of Exhaust Smoke

All the three widely used smokemeters, namely, Bosch, Hartridge, and PHS are basically soot density (g/m3) measuring
devices, that is, the meter readings are a function of the mass of carbon in a given volume of exhaust gas.
Hartridge smokemeter works on the light extinction principle.
The basic principles of the Bosch smokemeter is one in which a fixed quantity of exhaust gas is passed through a fixed filter
paper and the density of the smoke stains on the paper are evaluated optically. In a recent modification of this type of
smokemeter units are used for the measurement of the intensity of smoke stain on filter paper.
In Von Brand smokemeter which can give a continuous reading a filter tape is continuously moved at a uniform rate to which
the exhaust from the engine is fed. The smoke stains developed on the filter paper are sensed by a recording head. The
single obtained from the recording head is calibrated to give smoke density.

 MEASUREMENT OF EXHAUST EMISSION

Substances which are emitted to the atmosphere from any opening of the exhaust port of the engine are termed as exhaust
emissions. If combustion is complete and the mixture is
Applied Thermal Engineering
stoichiometric the products of combustion would consist of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour only.
However, there is no complete combustion of fuel and hence the exhaust gas consists of variety of components, the most
important of them are carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (UBHC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Some oxygen
and other inert gases would also be present in the exhaust gas.
Over the decade numerous devices have been developed for measuring these various exhaust components. A brief
discussion of some of the more commonly used instruments is given below.
Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
The schematic diagram of a flame ionization detector burner is shown in the Figures (a) and (b) shows burner.

The working principle of this burner is as follows: A hydrogen-air flame contains a negligible amount of ions. However, if ven
trace amounts of an organic compound such as HC are introduced into the flame, a large number of ions are roduced. If a
polarized voltage is applied across the burner jet and an adjacent collector, an ion migration will produce a current
proportional to the number of ions and thus to the HC concentration present in the flame.
The output of the FID depends on the number of carbon atoms passing through the flame in a unit time. Doubling the flow
velocity would also double the output. Hexane (C6H14) would give double the output of propane (C3H8). Therefore, FID
output is usually referred to a standard hydrocarbon, usually as ppm of normal hexane.
Presences of CO, CO2, NOx, water and nitrogen in the exhaust have to effect on the FID reading. Oxygen slightly affects the
reading of FID.
FID analyzer is a rapid, continuous and accurate method of measuring HC in the exhaust gas. Concentration as low as 1
ppb can be measured.

Spectroscopic Analyzers
• A spectrum shows the light absorbed as a function of wavelength (or frequency).
• Each compound shows a different spectrum for the light absorbed.
• All the spectroscopic analyzers work on the principle that the quantity of energy absorbed by a compound in a
sample cell is proportional to the concentration of the compound in the cell. There are two types of spectroscopic
analyzers.
Dispersive Analyzers IC Engine Testing
These analyzers use only a narrow dispersed frequency of light spectrum to analyze a compound. These are usually not
use for exhaust emission measurements.

Non-Dispersive Infra-red (NDIR) Analyzers

In the NDIR analyzer the exhaust gas species being measuring is used to detect itself. This is done by selective absorption.
The infrared energy of a particular wavelength or frequency is peculiar to a certain gas in that the gas will absorb the
infracted energy of this wavelength and transmit and infrared energy of other wavelengths. For example, the absorption
band for carbon monoxide is between 4.5 and 5 microns. So the energy absorbed at this wavelength is an indication of the
concentration of CO in the exhaust gas.

The NDIR analyzer as shown in Figure 7.2 consists of two infrared sources, interrupted simultaneously by an optical
chopper. Radiation from these sources passes in parallel paths through a reference cell and a sample cell to opposite side
of a common detector. The sample cell contains the compounds to be analyzed, whereas this compound is not present in
the reference cell. The latter is usually filled with an inert gas, usually nitrogen, which does not absorb the infrared energy
for the wavelength corresponding to the compound being measured. A closed container filled with only the compound to be
measured works as a detector.
The detector is divided into two equal volumes by a thin metallic diaphragm. When the chopper blocks the radiation, the
pressure in both parts of the detector is same and the diagram remains in the neutral position. As the chopper blocks and
unblocks the radiation, the radiant energy from one source passes through the reference cell unchanged whereas the
sample cell absorbs the infrared energy at the wavelength of the compound in cell. The absorption is proportional to the
concentration of the compound to be measured in the sample cell. Thus unequal amounts of energy are transmitted to the
two volumes of the detector and the pressure differential so generated causes movement of the diaphragm and a fixed
probe, thereby generating an a.c., displayed on a meter. The signal is a function of the concentration of the compound to be
measured.
The NDIR can accurately measure CO, CO2 and those hydrocarbons which have clear infrared absorption peaks. However,
usually the exhaust sample to be analyzed contains other species which also absorb infrared energy at the same frequency.
For example, an NDIR analyzer sensitized to n-hexane for detection of HC responds equally well to other paraffin HC but
not to olefins, acetylenes or aromatics. Therefore, the reading given by such analyzer is multiplied by 1.8 to correct it to the
total UBHC as measured by an FID analyzer in the same exhaust stream.

Gas Chromatography
Gas chromatography is first a method of separating the individual constituents of a mixture and then a method of assured
their concentration. After separation, each compound can be separately analyzed for concentration. This is the only method
by which each component existing in an exhaust sample can be identified and analyzed.
However, it is very time consuming and the samples can be taken only in batches. Gas chromatograph is primarily a
laboratory tool.
In addition to the above methods such as mass spectroscopy, chemiluminescent analyzers, and electrochemical analyzer
are also used for measuring exhaust emissions.

 MEASUREMENT OF BRAKE POWER

The brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft.
The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer.
Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two main types, power absorption dynamometers and transmission
dynamometer.
Figure below shows the basic principle of a dynamometer. A rotor driven by the engine under test is electrically,
hydraulically or magnetically coupled to a stator. For every revolution of the shaft, the rotor periphery moves through a
distance 2pr against the coupling force F. Hence, the work done per revolution is:
The external moment or torque is equal to S × L where, S is the scale reading and L is the arm. This moment balances the
turning moment R × F, i.e.

For a number of revolutions:

Absorption Dynamometers
These dynamometers measure and absorb the power output of the engine to which they are coupled. The power absorbed
is usually dissipated as heat by some means. Example of such dynamometers is prony brake, rope brake, hydraulic
dynamometer, etc.
Transmission Dynamometers
In transmission dynamometers, the power is transmitted to the load coupled to the engine after it is indicated on some type
of scale. These are also called torque-meters.

 Absorption Dynamometers
These include Prony brake type, Rope brake type, and Hydraulic type.
Prony Brake
One of the simplest methods of measuring brake power (output) is to attempt to stop the engine by means of a brake on the
flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the brake will support, as it tries to rotate with the flywheel. This
system is known as the prony brake and forms its use; the expression brake power has come.
The Prony brake shown in the figure works on the principle of converting power into heat by dry friction.

It consists of wooden block mounted on a flexible rope or band the wooden block when pressed into contact with the
rotating drum takes the engine torque and the power is dissipated in frictional resistance. Spring-loaded bolts are provided
to tighten the wooden block and hence increase the friction. The whole of the power absorbed is converted into heat and
hence this type of dynamometer must the cooled. The brake horsepower is given by:

Rope Brake
The rope brake as shown in the figure is another simple device for measuring BP of an engine. It consists of a number of
turns of rope wound around the rotating drum attached to the output shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a spring
balance and the other to a loading device. The power is absorbed in friction between the rope and the drum. The drum
therefore requires cooling.
Rope brake is cheap and easily constructed but not a very accurate method because of changes in the friction coefficient of
the rope with temperature. The BP is given by:

where,
D = is the brake drum diameter,
W = is the weight in Newton and
S = is the spring scale reading.

Hydraulic Dynamometer
Hydraulic dynamometer shown in the figure works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction rather than in dry
friction.
• In principle its construction is similar to that of a fluid flywheel.
• It consists of an inner rotating member or impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine.
• This impeller rotates in a casing filled with fluid.
• This outer casing, due to the centrifugal force developed, tends to revolve with the impeller, but is resisted by a
torque arm supporting the balance weight.
• The frictional forces between the impeller and the fluid are measured by the spring-balance fitted on the casing.
• The heat developed due to dissipation of power is carried away by a continuous supply of the working fluid,
usually water.
• The output can be controlled by regulating the sluice gates which can be moved in and out to partially or wholly
obstruct the flow of water between impeller, and the casing.

Eddy Current Dynamometer

The working principle of eddy current dynamometer is shown in Figure 7.7. It consists of a stator on which are fitted a
number of electromagnets and a rotor disc made of copper or steel and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the
rotor rotates eddy currents are produced in the stator due to magnetic flux set up by the passage of field current in the
electromagnets. These eddy currents are dissipated in producing heat so that this type of dynamometer also requires some
cooling arrangement. The torque is measured exactly as in other types ofabsorption dynamometers, i.e. with the help of a
moment arm. The load is controlled by regulating the current in the electromagnets.
The following are the main advantages of eddy current dynamometers :
(a) High brake power per unit weight of dynamometer.
(b) They offer the highest ratio of constant power speed range (up to 5 : 1).
(c) Level of field excitation is below 1% of total power being handled by dynamometer, thus, easy to control and programme.
(d) Development of eddy current is smooth hence the torque is also smooth and continuous under all conditions.
(e) Relatively higher torque under low speed conditions.
(f) It has no intricate rotating parts except shaft bearing.
(g) No natural limit to size-either small or large.

Swinging Field d.c. Dynamometer

Basically, a swinging field d.c. dynamometer is a d.c. shunt motor so supported on trunnion bearings to measure there
action torque that the outer case and filed coils tend to rotate with the magnetic drag. Hence, the name swinging field. The
torque is measured with an arm and weighing equipment in the usual manner.
Many dynamometers are provided with suitable electric connections to run as motor also. Then the dynamometer is
reversible, i.e. works as motoring as well as power absorbing device.
• When used as an absorption dynamometer it works as a d.c. generator and converts mechanical energy into electric
energy which is dissipated in an external resistor or fed back to the mains.
• When used as a motoring device an external source of d.c. voltage is needed to drive the motor.
The load is controlled by changing the field current.
 Fan Dynamometer
It is also an absorption type of dynamometer in that when driven by the engine it absorbs the engine power. Such
dynamometers are useful mainly for rough testing and running in. The accuracy of the fan dynamometer is very poor. The
power absorbed is determined by using previous calibration of the fan brake.
 Transmission Dynamometers
Transmission dynamometers, also called torque meters, mostly consist of a set of strain-gauges fixed on the rotating shaft
and the torque is measured by the angular deformation of the shaft which is indicated as strain of the strain gauge. Usually,
a four arm bridge is used to reduce the effect of temperature to minimum and the gauges are arranged in pairs such that the
effect of axial or transverse load on the strain gauges is avoided.

The figure above shows a transmission dynamometer which employs beams and strain-gauges for a sensing torque.
Transmission dynamometers are very accurate and are used where continuous transmission of load is necessary. These
are used mainly in automatic units.

 MEASUREMENT OF FRICTION HORSE POWER

• The difference between indicated power and the brake power output of an engine is the friction power.
• Almost invariably, the difference between a good engine and a bad engine is due to difference between their frictional
losses.
• The frictional losses are ultimately dissipated to the cooling system (and exhaust) as they appear in the form of frictional
heat and this influences the cooling capacity required. Moreover, lower friction means availability of more brake power;
hence brake specific fuel consumption is lower.
• The bsfc rises with an increase in speed and at some speed it renders the sue of engine prohibitive. Thus, the level of
friction decides the maximum output of the engine which can be obtained economically.
In the design and testing of an engine; measurement of friction power is important forgetting an insight into the methods by
which the output of an engine can be increased. In the evaluation of IP and mechanical efficiency measured friction power is
also used. The friction force power of an engine is determined by the following methods:
(a) Willan’s line method.
(b) Morse test.
(c) Motoring test.
(d) Difference between IP and BP.
Willan's Line Method or Fuel Rate Extrapolation
In this method, gross fuel consumption vs. BP at a constant speed is plotted and the graph is extrapolated back to zero fuel
consumption as illustrated in Figure 7.9. The point where this graph cuts the BP axis is an indication of the friction power of
the engine at that speed. This negative work represents the combined loss due to mechanical friction, pumping and blowby.
The test is applicable only to compression ignition engines.

The main drawback of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from data measured between 5 and 40% load
towards the zero line of fuel in put.
• The directional margin of error is rather wide because of the graph which may not be a straight line many times.
• The changing slope along the curve indicates part efficiencies of increments of fuel. The pronounced change in the slope
of this line near full load reflects the limiting influence of the air-fuel ratio and of the quality of combustion.
• Similarly, there is a slight curvature at light loads. This is perhaps due to difficulty in injecting accurately and consistently
very small quantities of fuel per cycle.
• Therefore, it is essential that great care should be taken at light loads to establish the true nature of the curve.
• The Willan’s line for a swirl-chamber CI engine is straighter than that for a direct injection type engine.
• The accuracy obtained in this method is good and compares favorably with other methods if extrapolation is carefully
done.

Morse Test
The Morse test is applicable only to multicylinder engines.
• In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the output is measured.
• Then, one cylinder is cut out by short circuiting the spark plug or by disconnecting the injector as the case may be.
• Under this condition all other cylinders ‘motor’ this cut-out cylinder. The output is measured by keeping the speed constant
at its original value.
• The difference in the outputs is a measure of the indicated horse power of the cut-out cylinder.
• Thus, for each cylinder the IP is obtained and is added together to find the total IP of the engine.

The IP of n cylinder is given by

The IP of (n-1) cylinders is given by

Since, the engine is running at the same speed it is quite reasonable to assume that FP remains constant.

This method though gives reasonably accurate results and is liable to errors due to changes in mixture distribution and other
conditions by cutting-out one cylinder. In gasoline engines, where there is a common manifold for two or more cylinders the
mixture distribution as well as the volumetric efficiency both change. Again, almost all engines have a common exhaust
manifold for all cylinders and cutting out of one cylinder may greatly affect the pulsations in exhaust system which may
significantly change the engine performance by imposing different back pressures.

Motoring Test
• In the motoring test, the engine is first run up to the desired speed by its own power and allowed to remain at the given
speed and load conditions for some time so that oil, water, and engine component temperatures reach stable conditions.
• The power of the engine during this period is absorbed by a swinging field type electric dynamometer, which is most
suitable for this test.
• The fuel supply is then cut-off and by suitable electric-switching devices the dynamometer is converted to run as a motor
to drive for ‘motor’ the engine at the same speed at which it was previously running.
• The power supply to the motor is measured which is a measure of the fhp of the engine. During the motoring test the water
supply is also cut-off so that the actual operating temperatures are maintained.
• This method, though determines the fp at temperature conditions very near to the actual operating temperatures at the test
speed and load, does, not give the true losses occurring under firing conditions due to the following reasons.
(a) The temperatures in the motored engine are different from those in a firing engine because even if water circulation is
stopped the incoming air cools the cylinder. This reduces the lubricating oil temperature and increases friction increasing the
oil viscosity. This problem is much more sever in air-cooled engines.
(b) The pressure on the bearings and piston rings is lower than the firing pressure. Load on main and connecting road
bearings are lower.
(c) The clearance between piston and cylinder wall is more (due to cooling). This reduces the piston friction.
(d) The air is drawn at a temperature less than when the engine is firing because it does not get heat from the cylinder
(rather loses heat to the cylinder). This makes the expansion line to be lower than the compression line on the p-v diagram.
This loss is however counted in the indicator diagram.
(e) During exhaust the back pressure is more because under motoring conditions sufficient pressure difference is not
available to impart gases the kinetic energy is necessary to expel them from exhaust.

Motoring method, however, gives reasonably good results and is very suitable for finding the losses due to various engine
components. This insight into the losses caused by various components and other parameters is obtained by progressive
stripping-off of the under progressive dismantling conditions keeping water and oil circulation intact. Then the cylinder head
can be removed to evaluate, by difference, the compression loss. In this manner piston ring, piston etc. can be removed and
evaluated for their effect on overall friction.
Difference between ip and bp
(a) The method of finding the FP by computing the difference between IP, as obtained from an indicator diagram, and BP,
as obtained by a dynamometer, is the ideal method. However, due to difficulties.
(b) In obtaining accurate indicator diagrams, especially at high engine speeds, this method is usually only used in research
laboratories. Its use at commercial level is very limited.
Comments on Methods of Measuring FP
• The Willan’ line method and Morse tests are very cheap and easy to conduct.
• However, both these tests give only an overall idea of the losses whereas motoring test gives a very good insight into the
various causes of losses and is a much more powerful tool.
• As far as accuracy is concerned the IP – BP method is the most accurate if carefully done.
• Motoring method usually gives a higher value for FP as compared to that given by the Willian’s line method.

 BLOWBY LOSS
Blowby is the escape of unburned air-fuel mixture and burned gases from the combustion chamber, past the piston rings,
and into the crank-case. High blowby is quite harmful in that it results in higher ring temperatures and contamination of
lubricating oil.
 PERFORMANCE OF SI ENGINES
The performance of an engine is usually studied by heat balance-sheet. The main components of the heat balance are:
• Heat equivalent to the effective (brake) work of the engine,
• Heat rejected to the cooling medium,
• Heat carried away from the engine with the exhaust gases, and
• Unaccounted losses.
The unaccounted losses include the radiation losses from the various parts of the engine and heat lost due to incomplete
combustion. The friction loss is not shown as a separate item to the heat balance-sheet as the friction loss ultimately
reappears as heat in cooling water, exhaust and radiation.
Referring to the Figure 7.10 through Figure 7.13 the following conclusions can be drawn :
(a) At full throttle the brake thermal efficiency at various speeds varies from 20 to 27 percent, maximum efficiency being at
the middle speed range.
(b) The percentage heat rejected to coolant is more at lower speed (» 35 percent) and reduces at higher speeds (» 25
percent). Considerably more heat is carried by exhaust at higher speeds.
(c) Torque and mean effective pressure do not strongly depend on the speed of the engine, but depend on the volumetric
efficiency and friction losses. Maximum torque position corresponds with the maximum air charge or minimum volumetric
efficiency position.
Torque and mep curves peak at about half that of the brake-power.
Note : If size (displacement) of the engine were to be doubled, torque would also double, but mean effective pressure (mep)
is a ‘specific’ torque, a variable independent of the size of the engine.
(d) High power arises from the high speed. In the speed range before the maximum power is obtained, doubling the speed
doubles the power.
(e) At low engine speed the friction power is relatively low and bhp is nearly as large as ip (Figure 7.13). As engine speed
increases, however, fp increases at continuously greater rate and therefore bp reaches a peak and starts reducing even
though ip is rising. At engine speeds above the usual operating range, fp increases very rapidly. Also, at these higher
speeds ip will reach a maximum and then fall off. At some point, ip and fp will be equal, and bp will then drop to zero.

Performance of SI Engine at Constant Speed and Variable Load

The performance of SI engine at constant speed and variable loads is different from the performance at full throttle and
variable speed. Figure 7.10 shows the heat balance of SI engine at constant speed and Figure 7.13 variable load. The load
is varied by altering the throttle and the speed is kept constant by resetting the dynamometer.
Closing the throttle reduces the pressure inside the cylinders but the temperature is affected very little because the air/fuel
ratio is substantially constant, and the gas temperatures throughout the cycle are high. This results in high loss to coolant at
low engine load. This is reason of poor part load thermal efficiency of the SI engine compared with the CI engine.
• At low loads the efficiency is about 10 percent, rising to about 25 percent at full load.
• The loss to coolant is about 60 percent at low loads and 30 percent at full load.
• The exhaust temperature rises very slowly with load and as mass flow rate of exhaust gas is reduced because the mass
flow rate of fuel into the engine is reduced, the percentage loss to exhaust remains nearly constant (about 21% at low loads
to 24% at full load).
• Percentage loss to radiation increases from about 7% at loads or 20% at full load.

 PERFORMANCE OF CI ENGINES
The performance of a CI engine at constant speed variable load is shown in Figure 7.15.
• As the efficiency of eth CI engine is more than the SI engine the total losses are less. The coolant loss is more at low
loads and radiation, etc. losses are more at high loads.
• The Pbm, BP and torque directly increase with load, as shown in Figure 7.16. Unlike the SI engine BP and Pbm are
continuously raising curves and are limited only by the load. The lowest brake specific fuel consumption and hence the
maximum efficiency occurs at about 80 percent of the full load.
Figure 7.17 shows the performance curves of variable speed GM 7850 cc. four cycle V-6 Toro-flow diesel engine. The
maximum torque value is at about 70 percent of maximum speed compared to about 50 percent in the SI engine. Also, the
bsfc is low through most of the speed range for the diesel engine and is better than the SI engine .
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE PERFORMANCE

(a) Piston Displacement, PD

( ⁄ )

( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )

(b) Volume of air entering the cylinder, Va

(c) Volumetric Efficiency,

(d) Heat Generated by the fuel, Q

(e) Air-Fuel Ratio, ⁄

⁄
(f) Piston Speed, S

(g) Indicated Power, IP

( )

(h) Brake Power, BP

(i) Friction Power, FP

(j) Mechanical Efficiency,

(k) Thermal Efficiency,

(1) Indicated Thermal Efficiency,

( )
(2) Brake Thermal Efficiency,

( )

(3) Combined or Over-all Thermal Efficiency,

( )
(4) Generator Output,

(l) Fuel Rate (Specific Fuel Consumption),

(1) Indicated Fuel Rate,

( )

(2) Brake Fuel Rate,

( )

(3) Combined Fuel Rate,

( )

(m) Heat rate

(1) Brake Heat Rate, BHR

(2) Combined Heat rate, CHR