Vinee Gan. Rosas Mey cr 200% TECHNICAL STANDARDS FOR GATES AND PENSTOCKS HYDRAULIC GATE AND PENSTOCK ASSOCIATIONIt is sincerely hoped that the recently revised edition will serve the pur- pose of assisting those engineers who are engaged in construction and administration of hydraulic gates and penstocks overseas. Chairman of the Technical Committee Hydraulic Gate and Penstock AssociationINTRODUCTION As of 1986, Japan, with its hydraulic generating capacity of 35,700 MW in 1646 locations, ranked fourth in the world following the United States, the Soviet Union and Canada. The hydraulic power generation capacity occupies approximately 20% of the total power generating facilities of 173,800 MW which includes thermal power plants and nuclear power plants. Therefore, it plays an important role as a precious domestic ener- gy supply source. In addition, more power plant construction projects cen- tering around a large-capacity and high head pumped storage power plant have been making progress in recent years. Seventy eight power plants capable of generating a total power of 9,580 MW have been completed since 1976. In connection with the construction of these pumped storage power plants, a variety of new technologies have been introduced in the field of steel penstocks and gates in order to cope with the technical difficul- ties stemming from the large capacity and the high head. In order to publicize Japan’s technical standards for hydraulic gates and penstocks to the whole world, the Hydraulic Gate and Penstock As- sociation published “Technical Standards for Gates and Penstocks” (English version) in 1971. On the basis of the technical results as men- tioned above, the Technical Standards for Gates and Penstocks (Japanese version) was revised in 1981 and therefore “Technical Standards for Gates and Penstocks” (English version) has also been revised. The Hydraulic Gate and Penstock Association was established in 1949 as a foundational juridical person with the participation as regular members of the hydraulic gates and penstocks manufacturers and the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), the Construction Ministry, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, the Water Resources Development Corporation, nine major power companies, the Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. and a number of well respected experts as supporting members. Since its foundation, this association has been making contributions to advancements in the hydraulic gate and pen- stock industries with the mutual cooperation of the government agencies and the commercial enterprises. Therefore, the Technical Standards for Gates and Penstocks established by this association are extremely autho- ritative in Japan.Chapter 1 STEEL PENSTOCKS Section 1 General . Article Article 2. Definition Section 2. Design 1. General .... Article Article Article Article Article N Article Article Article 10. Article 11. Article 12, . Pressure Lining Part ... 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19, w Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article 1. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Material and Allowable Stress 8. 9. 20. 21. 22. 23. 4. Attachment Installations ... Table of Contents Applicat Design of Steel Penstock Design Internal Pressure Design External Pressure . Head Loss . Consideration for Water Quality .. Material of Steel Penstocks Material of Pressure Lining Part and Main Attachment Installations Directly Welded to Pressure Lining Part ... Material of Attachment Installations Material Test .... Allowable Stress . Loads to be Considered Combination of Loads .... Design Condition for Pressure Lining Part Stress to be Considered Corrosion Allowance Minimum Shell Thickness Coefficient of Friction between Pipe and Supports ... Effective Sectional Area of Pipe Shell Plate Bend Pipe Branch Reinforcement of Holes .Article 24. Article 25. Article 26. Article 27. Article 28. Article 29. Section 3. Manufacture Article 30. Article 31. Article 32. Article 33. Section 4 Installation .. Article 34. Article 35. Article 36. Article 37. Article 38. Article 39. Article 40. Article 41. Section 5 Maintenance Article 42. Article 43. Article 44. Article 45. Article 46. Article 47. Article 48. Expansion Joint 83 Manhole .... 86 Air Pipe and Air Valve 87 Anchor Bolt, Anchor Band, Thrust Collar 89 Movable Part of Support Ring Girder .... 101 102 103 104 Processing of Shell Plate .. Fabrication Tolerance for Circumferential Length Hydraulic Test . Handling Installation in General .. Consideration of Temperature during 107 108 Installation ... 110 Longitudinal Joint 112 Coating ..... 112 Protection of External Surface of Pipe Embedded Underground Name Plate Water Filling and Operation Test .. 116 118 119 119 Prevention of Leakage . Maintenance of Expansion Joint Maintenance of Air Pipe and Air Valve ... Maintenance of Movable Part of Support Prevention of Vibration Consideration to Water Quality after Completion of the Penstock Check of Pipe Inside 119 123 124 Article 49, Measurement of Shell Thickness 124 Article 50. Repair or Replacement . 125 Article 51. Recoating . 127 Section 6 Anchor Block and Support . 128 Article 52. Locations of Anchor Block ... . 128 Article 53, Foundation of Anchor Blocks . 128Article 54, Stability Conditions for Anchor Block Article 55. External Force to be Considered Article 56. Location of Support ... Article 57, Foundation of Support .. Article 58. Design of Support Article 59. Repair of Anchor Block and Support . Article 60. Observation of Shifting Anchor Block Article 61. Protection Work for Bed and Cutting Slopes . 136 Chapter 2) HYDRAULIC GATE .. Section 1 General .. Article 1. Application . Article 2. Definitions Article 3. Selection of Type and Shape Section 2 Outline of Design 1. General .. 137 137 137 148 152 152 152 Article Design Conditions .... 4. i Article 5. Selection of Type of Hoisting Device 153 j Article 6. Power Equipment for Gate Operating . 154 j Article 7. Operating Speed 155 Article 8. Lifting Height ... 155 2 Article 9. Auxiliary Power Equipment .. Article 10. Materials of Hydraulic Gate .. Article 11. Material Test .. ore Gate Leaf, Gate Guide and Anchorage Article 12. Allowable Stress .. Article 13. Increase in Allowable Stress during an Earthquake .. Article 14. Loads to be Considered Article 15. Combination of Loads ... Article 16, Shape of Gate Leaf, Gate Guide and Anchorage Article 17, Seal Part . Article 18. Hinged Support Article 19, Skin Plate Article 20. Corrosion Allowance v 168 169 176 177Article 21. Rigidity, Minimum Plate Thickness and Slenderness Ratio of Gate Leaf 184 Article 22. Deflection by Gate Leaf Article 23. Plate Girder Article 24. Web Plate Thickness of Members Subjected to to Compressive Force .. . . Gate Hoist .... Article 25. Safety Factor of Gate Hoist .. Article 26. Mechanical Efficiency & Coefficient of Friction of Each Part of the Gate Hoist . Article 27. Capacity and Time Rating of Prime Mover Article 28. Brake ... Article 29. Emergency Lowering Device . Article 30. Diameter of Wirerope, Drum and Sheave Article 31. Number of Spooled Wirerope Layers, Fleet Angle and Minimum Number of Wraps ........ 194 Article 32. Type and Capacity of Auxiliary Power Equipment ... Article 33. Capacity of an Oil Hydraulic Pump and » 191 192 193 193 a Prime Mover . 196 Article 34. Oil Hydraulic Cylinder 197 Article 35. Oil Hydraulic Pipe .. 198 Article 36. Hydraulic Operating Fluid ... Article 37. Safety Device and Auxiliary Facilities for Gate Hoist Section 3 Design Particulars 1, Fixed Wheel Gate Article 38. Shape of Fixed Wheel Gate Article 39. Main Girder Article 40. Auxiliary Girder Article 41. Side Girder . Article 42. Main Rollers Article 43. Guide Roller Article 44. Gate Guide . Article 45. Operating Load 2. Radial Gate .... Article 46. Shape and Structure of a Radial Gate ..s w a x Section 4 Manufacture . . Long Span Gate . . Bottom Hinge Flap Gate .... |. High Pressure Gates and Valves . Trash Rack ... 216 216 217 218 219 219 219 221 221 222 222 Article 47. Framework . Article 48. Gate Arm and Arm Bracing . Article 49. Fixing Point of Arm Bracing Article 50. Anchorage Article 51. Application .... Article 52. Shape of the Gate Leaf Article 53. Considerations for Gate Leaf Structure Article 54. Considerations for Gate Leaf Deformation Article 55. Considerations for Gate Leaf Operations . Article 56. Shape of the Bottom Hinge Flap Gate Article 57. Considerations for Sedimentary Sand and Drift ... Article 58. Structure of the Gate Leaf Article 59. Gate Leaf Support .. Article 60. Gate Operating Force and Operating Mechanisms ... 223 226 226 226 227 228 Article 61. Outline of Design Article 62. Shape of the High Pressure Gate. Article 63. High Pressure Valve Article 64, Shape of Passage Article 65. Conduit Pipe Article 66. Air Pipe . Selective Water Withdrawal Equipment and Surface Water Withdrawal Equipment ... .. 233 Article 67. General .... 233 Article 68. Structure of Gate Leaf 234 234 236 Article 69. Dynamic Pressure during an Earthquake Article 70. Safety Guard Equipment for Gate Leaf Article 71. Trash Rack .. Article 72. Processing of the Skin Plate . Article 73. Assembly .... 240 240Section 5 Installation .. Article Article Article Article Article Article le Article Article Article Section 6 Inspection .. Article 84. Inspection . Section 7 Maintenance ..... Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Chapter 3 STEEL STRUCTURE ... Section 1 General Article Article Section 2 Design . Article Article Article Article Article . 241 74. Handling during Transportation » 241 75. General Installation .. 241 76. Consideration of Floods during Installation ... 242 77. Installation of the Gate Guide and Anchorage » 242 78. Installation of the Seal Part 243 79. Coating Specifications .... . 243 80. Coating Work .. . 248 81. Metal Spraying . 250 82. Builder’s Name Plate ... . 250 83. Running Test . 251 85. 86. 87, 88. 89. 90. ot. 92. 93. 94. 95. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. . Maintenance, Inspection and Control + 253 . Leak Prevention « 253 . Freeze Prevention - 253 . Maintenance of Support . - 254 . Maintenance of Gate Hoist Maintenance of Auxiliary Power Equipment... Repair and Replacement . . 255 Maintenance Gate . . 256 Recoating . . 256 Hoist Room . . 257 Access Bridge and Access Facilities . 259 Application Definition . Material .... Allowable Stress of Materials Increase in Allowable Stress . Loads to be Considered . Combination of Loads viSection 3 Fabrication and Installation ............... Article Chapter 4 WELDING Section 1 General ..... Article Article 2. Welder ... Article Article Section 2 Welded Joint Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article 8. 3. 4. 5. 6. on 9. 10. dl. 12. 13. Section 3 Welding Procedure .. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Articles Applied .. Application Welding Material Graphical Symbols for Welding Joint Type .. Combined Use of Rivets or Bolts and Weld Arrangement of Welded Joints . Butt Joint .. Fillet Welded Joint . Drilling at Weld Zones .... Butt Welding of Steel Plates Having Different Thicknesses Lap Fillet Wel Welded Joint Efficiency Are Welding Machine Maintenance of Welding Machine Wiring ... Welding Equipment Storage of Welding Rod Butt Weld Groove .. Welding of Jig and Tack Welding Welding Sequence Preheating . Final Welding Weather Effects Back Welding Final Welding wi Machine Peening an Automatic WeldingArticle 28. Sizes and Tolerances of Weld Metal Section 4 Heat Treatment Article 29. Annealing Section 5 Test and Inspections .... Article 30. Welding Procedure Test Article 31. Weld Inspection Article 32, Non-Destructive Inspections Article 33. Repair Welding ..... Chapter 5 RIVETED, HIGH STRENGTH BOLTED AND BOLTED CONNECTIONS ... Section 1 General .. Article 1. Application .. 333 Article 2. Combined Use of Joints 334 Article 3. Connection of Members 334 Article 4. Arrangement of Rivets, High Strength Bolts and Bolts .... 340 Article Thickness of S 345 5. Article 6. Calculation for Effective Cross-sectional Area of Members . Article 7. Fabrication of Joint 348 Section 2 Riveted Joints .... 351 Article 8. Material of Rivets 351 351 351 352 352 Article 9. Shape of Rivets Article 10. Riveted Joint . Article 11. Riveting .. Article 12. Caulking ... Section 3 High Strength Bolt Joints Article 13. Application ... . Article 14. Bolts, Nuts and Washers for High Strength Bolt Friction Connections Article 15. High Strength Bolt Friction Joints Article 16. Performance of High Strength Bolt Friction Joints Article 17. High Strength Bolt Bearing Connection . 354 356 359 viii—— or —— Section 4 Bolted Connections Article 18. Application Article 19, Nuts, Bolts and Washers Article 20. Arrangement and Performance of Bolted Joints .... . 361 . 361 Chapter 6 SAFETY AND SANITATION Article 1. Safety and Sanitation ....Chapter 1 STEEL PENSTOCKS Section 1 General Article 1. Application This standard is applicable to steel penstocks to be used for all hydro- electric power stations. Description : This standard is applicable only to so-called steel penstocks defined in Article 2., and is not applicable to reinforced concrete pipes or wooden pipes, etc. Hydroelectric power stations have a wide variety of sizes and scales ranging from big ones having large capacities and high heads to small ones utilizing streams, but no matter how small-scaled a hydroelectric power station is, there is no difference in design whatsoever for steel penstocks, and thus this standard is applicable to all hydroelectric power stations. Article 2. Defi 1. Steel penstocks referred to in this standard mean structures installed to guide water directly from intakes, head tanks or surge-tanks to hydraulic turbines, i.e. steel penstocks consist of penstocks to be pres- sure lining parts and their attachment installations (excluding linings just for the purpose of preventing water leakage). 2. Pressure Lining Parts referred to in this standard mean pipe shells of steel penstocks. 3. Attachment installations referred to in this standard mean those listed below: (1) Expansion joint (2) Manhole 3) Air pipe and air valve (4) Guard valve and its by-pass pipe and by-pass valve (5) Drainage pipe and drainage valve (6) Supporting structure (7) Stiffener and others closely related to the pressure lining part4. A Longitudinal Joint referred to in this standard means an axial joint subjected to circumferential forces. 5. A Circumferential Joint referred to in this standard means a joint in a circular direction subjected to axial forces. Description: 1. ‘Guide water directly’ means a pipeline to guide water from an intake to a hydraulic turbine or a pipeline from a head tank or surge-tank to a hydraulic turbine, in a dam type power station or a dam and con- duit type power station where a surge-tank is omitted due to a short conduit, and such hydraulic pressure pipes as syphons etc., installed in a headrace between an intake and a head tank or a surge-tank are excluded from this standard. A pipeline which is provided only for the purpose of preventing water leakage installed in bedrocks between a head tank or a surge-tank and a hydraulic turbine is also excluded because such a pipeline’s design conditions are different from those in this Chapter. Terms of ‘steel lining’, ‘hydraulic pressure pipe’ etc., similar to ‘steel penstock’ in this standard are specified in Article 2., Chapter 3. Omitted 3. A guard valve is installed either halfway of the steel penstock or at the inlet of a hydraulic turbine, and the former is called a penstock valve and the latter an inlet or main valve in Japan. “Something closely related to a pressure lining part especially’ me- ans branch pipes, cooling pipes diverging from a steel penstock and a structure working together with a pressure lining part, and influenc- ing greatly on its strength. Supporting structures can systematically be expressed as follows: x| | | | | ( (Movable part) Steel plate bearing Concrete bearing Others Saddle support Support) ‘Concrete saddle Steel saddle Others Support (Movable part) support Rocker bearing supporting ; structure of sae eating exposed pipe ; i ing Ring support Pin bearing Supporting structure of (thrust collar/ steel penstock “Anchor anchor band/ (Support) anchor bolt Ring girder support inclusive) (including legs) supporting Beati in procure at —{ Tiling conerete ing suppo embedded Ground (embedded underground) pipe Steel plate Concrete saddle bearing Bearing support Example of saddle support Example of ring support Fig. 1.2-1_ Example of SupportSection 2 Design 1, General Article 3. Design of Steel Penstock A steel penstock shall be designed taking account of not only safety but also its economy and workability. Description : Steel penstocks, one of the most important structures in a hydroelec- tric power station, should be designed to be most economical, taking ac- count of their workability and maintainability based on the securing of safety of the installations. Penstocks, however, are positioned in the whole plan of a hydroelectric power station ranging from an intake to an outlet, and thus it is hard to evaluate steel penstocks from only their economic viewpoint. Therefore, steel penstocks should be generally reviewed and studied in terms of route, number of lines, diameter, etc., under various conditions derived from a hydroelectric power station plan. 1. Steel penstocks should be designed taking the following factors into consideration: (1) Type of power station Power stations in terms of generating system can be grouped into general hydroelectric power stations of either run-of-river type or reservoir type and pumped storage power stations. Dependent upon these power station types, annual operating hours greatly differ. In deciding on the scale of steel penstocks, an economical design is necessary taking these conditions into consideration and in plan- ning a pumped storage power station of large scale and fewer annual operating hours compared with a general hydroelectric power sta- tion, emphasis is placed on a decrease in construction cost. (2) Route It is desirable that steel penstocks be straight, taking account of conditions of topography, geology and environment. A longitudi- nal gradient should be selected so that the penstock is below the hydraulic gradient line even if the water level of the intake installa- tion, head tank or surge-tank is lowest, and should be selected so as not to produce negative pressures with fluctuating loads.(3) Type of steel penstock Type of steel penstocks can be classified as exposed and embed- ded pipes. In either type, the penstock should support all of the internal pressure basically, but part of the pressure can be shared with surrounding bedrocks in case of an embedded pipe, provided that there exists no problem in structure and material of pipes, and topography, geology and bedrock conditions be well-known. (4) Construction works of stee! penstock In a pumped storage power station having a high head and a large capacity, the construction work of steel penstocks may influence the progress of the entire construction schedule of a power station because embedded pipes are often used, thus requiring a design em- phasizing its construction work. (5) Number of pipelines and branch position As the construction cost of steel penstocks increases in propor- tion to the number of lines, it is thus desirable, if the lines are long, to decrease the number by installing branches at proper positions, taking the availability of material into consideration. Diameter Diameter of steel penstocks should be decided taking account of economy of the installations and workability, etc. (7) Materials Materials used for steel penstocks should be those specified in JIS in principle, and special attention should be paid to the weld- ability of 70 and 80 kg/mm? class high tensile steels, thick plates, forging steels, etc., not specified in JIS. (8) Repair and replacement of existing installations. In designing repair and replacement of existing steel penstocks, this standard should be applied in principle. But, in case that it is hard to apply this standard due to the conditions of the existing installations and the topography and so forth, the existing installa- tions can effectively be used after reviewing their safety. 6) . Economical diameter Economical diameters of steel penstocks can be determined taking account of their construction cost, and loss of electric power and energy. Approximate values of an economical penstock diameter can be de- termined as follows. This method and these calculation formulae have been used so far.An economical diameter is determined so that the sum of the con- struction cost and the decrease in power generating power due to loss of head in steel penstocks may become to be minimum. Friction head loss is calculated usually as the most influential fac- tor, but a joint, reducing, bend and branch portions should also be of structure with a minimum loss. There are several ways in determination, however, two methods are stated hereinafter; one based on the cost of steel penstock; the other based on the total cost of the penstock and the hydraulic turbine generator. (i) Formulae: Considering cost of the steel penstocks 1) Upper portion (where a thickness of steel penstock is determined by the minimum plate thickness, not by design pressures) 5x 78.4f Q? ten) ra WigCoutl +p) neQe (ory + @2727s) + |: 2) Any portion (where a thickness of steel penstock is determined by design pressures) 5x 78.4foo dweCpup(! +y) orton +e) + Tals NpQ3 where D: Diameter of steel penstock (m) Jf: Friction loss coefficient X: Ratio of the sum of operation and maintenance cost and interest of construction cost of power sta- tion over the total construction cost g: Acceleration of gravity (=9.8m/s?) C,: Unit cost of steel penstock construction (yen/tf) » t y : Specific gravity of steel penstock ( = 7.85) >’? : Thickness of steel penstock (m) : Ratio of weight increase by stiffeners, etc. of steel penstocks ( 10 — 0.25) n,: Combined efficiency of a hydraulic turbine and a generator during power generation Q,: Discharge used during power generation (m/s) Tagg,@,: Reduction ratio of transmission loss (kW) during power generation 02: Reduction ratio of transmission loss (kWh) during power generation ‘yt kW price (yen/kW) "2? kWh price (yen/kWh) : Annual power generating hours (h) Q,: Discharge during pumping-up (m*/s) T,: Annual pumping hours (h) ‘441 kWh cost for pumping-up (yen/kWh) ap: Combined efficiency of pump and motor during pumping-up 0): Reduction ratio of reception loss (kWh) during pumping-up g: Joint efficiency of steel penstock o: Allowable stress of steel penstock (kgf/cm?) p: Design pressure (kgf/cm?) (2) Formulae: Considering total cost of the steel penstock and hydraulic turbine generator In the previous formulae, the construction cost only for steel pen- stocks is taken into consideration but manufacturing cost for the hydraulic turbine and generator are excluded. But the fly-wheel ef- fect of a generator GD* and a steel penstock design may be changed depending upon how to determine the momentary speed variation An, the momentary pressure variation AP of the hydraulic turbine and the required closing time of the governor. Thus, the most economical penstock diameter can be determined by incorporating the above factors, as follows: 5x 78.4f90 3 OTs, hrigCyup( ty) nee (ary + Q272Te) + Te) I" (3)-1 a Lo m? +eQ+— Qn? +0045) GD*= wherewhere GD?: L: (GD), : Generator’s fly-wheel effect required for hydrau- lic turbine (tf-m?) Length of steel penstock (m) Normal GD given by a manufacturer without considering the requirement for a hydraulic turbine (tf/m?) : Construction cost per ton of a generator (yen/tf) : Generator weight usually given by output (tf) : Annual mean discharge (m*/s) e: Dead time of governor (s) Re ynz V.: Propagation velocity of water hammer (m/s) : Momentary pressure variation : Runaway speed increase ratio of hydraulic turbine = crunaway speed — Ny : Momentary speed variation of hydraulic turbine Limit of n is 45% for Francis turbine and 60% for Kaplan turbine from mechanical strength, but 40% should be the limit taking voltage regulation into consideration. : Revolutions of turbine (r.p.m.) + Coefficient (= 0.8~0.9) : Required closing time for turbine governor (s) : Average velocity of steel penstock (m/s) : Hydrostatic pressure (m)D should be obtained from formula (3)-1, and GD? from for- mula (3)-2 by assuming AP, and T should be gotten by substituting GD* for (3)-4. Then, if the value of AP substituted for (3)-5 is equal to the value of AP assumed in (3)-2, it is satisfactory. In case that GD* required for a turbine obtained from (3)-2 is larger than that of the generator itself (ie.(GD*)u), the GD? required for the turbine should be reduced so that GD becomes equal to (GD*)u, or (GD*)u of the generator itself should be increased. As the construction cost for a hydraulic turbine and a generator proportion to GD*, an increase in (GD*)u means an crease in the construction cost of a generator, whilst a decrease in GD? with a constant momentary speed variation of a turbine results in shortening the required closing time, enlarging the momen- tary pressure variation AP, and increasing the shell thickness of steel penstocks, and thus the construction cost of the penstocks increases. Consequently, which should be selected must be based on a com- parison of the economic factors. Contrary to the above, when the GD* required for a turbine is smaller than the (GD2)u of the gener- ator itself, an economical penstock diameter should be determined by increasing the momentary pressure variation to lessen the GD*, and by increasing the average velocity with a smaller diameter un- til requirement of the original design is matched with the construc- tion cost. Article 4. Design Internal Pressure The internal pressure to be used for designing shall be the maximum value foreseeable in consideration of the hydrostatic pressure and the pres- sure rise due to water hammering and surging. Description : Internal pressures working in steel penstocks are, in addition to the hydrostatic pressure, pressure variations caused by surging in a surge-tank and water hammering in penstocks generated by turbine load variation. Steel penstocks should be safe from the maximum internal pressure pos- sible to be generated. When summing up the pressure rises both by surging and by water ham- mering, the maximum value which can take place simultaneously should be taken. In case of a simple surge-tank, however, it is permissible to con- sider that the pressure rise by water hammering does not overlap on thepressure rise by surging. In such a case, it should be noted that “hydrostatic pressure + pressure rise by surging” may become larger than “hydrostatic pressure + pressure rise by water hammering” at the upper portion of a penstock. Pressure rise by water hammering Surge-tank Pressure rise by surging Hydrostatic pressure ‘Closing equipment of water turbine Fig. 1. 1 Example of Design Internal Pressure (Example of simple surge-tank) The hydrostatic pressure should be the difference of the heights from the center of the penstock or the hydraulic turbine (the tangent line of the runner in the case of a Pelton turbine) to the crest top of the head tank in the case of a run of river type power station, and to the maximum design water level of the reservoir or regulating reservoir in the case of a dam or dam and conduit type power station. ‘The maximum pressure rise due to surging should be the difference of the heights from the maximum overflow level to the crest top of a head tank for a run-of-river type and for types with a surge-tank the difference of heights from the maximum water level in the surge-tank to the maxi- mum design water level of the reservoir or regulating pondage at shut- ting-off in all loads under generating condition. The pressure rise due to water hammering depends on the efficiency of the surge-tank, closing equipment, pressure regulator, and pipeline con- stants, etc. But the maximum value takes place at the center of the clos- ing equipment. (The maximum value is produced in a guide vane for a Francis turbine and in a needle valve for a Pelton turbine, but the center -10-of the turbine should be assumed in computation.) It gradually reduces along a pipeline, and vanishes in a head tank or surge-tank. It is assumed that the reducing ratio of pressure rise by water hammering is propor- tional to the length of the pipeline. The places where the pressure rise by water hammering vanishes should be as follows: (a) Head tank, simple surge-tank : place where the water surface expands (b) Differential surge-tank : overflow top of a riser (c) Chamber surge-tank : place where the water surface expands if an upper chamber exists; for others at the shaft overflow top But, in case that a surge-tank is relatively slender or of the restricted orifice type, the pressure rise does not vanish at the surge-tank bottom, and thus the pressure rise should be determined by calculation. The pres- sure rise by water hammering at the center of a Pelton turbine should be taken as more than 10% of the hydrostatic pressure, despite less than 10% in computation. It should be noted that the pressure rise by water hammering may some- times be larger under partial loading than under maximum loading. For- mulae for the pressure rise due to the water hammering without pressure regulators are classified into the following (A) and (B) depending upon Allievi’s pipeline constant @: Notations avo ite oina =e Allievi’s pipeline constant eto pip’ oa Closing time constant of a 2Lo closing equipment n= @/8 where Ag: Pressure rise due to water hammering at a closing equip- ment (m) H,: Hydrostatic pressure after entirely shutting off a closing equipment at the turbine end (m) : Length of pipeline (m) : Average velocity (m/s)where J: Pipe length of velocity ui (m) v,;: Velocity of length fi (m/s) T: Closing time of a closing equipment (s) 8: Acceleration of gravity (m/s*) a: Propagation velocity of pressure wave (m/s) (A) In case of g > 1: when 7. =50% he when -#-< 50% fo when Ho 0% (B) In case of @ <1: fon Ho 1+n(@—1) Conditions of (A) and (B) are those similar to Schlag’s, formula (1) is Allievi’s and (2) is Sparre’s. Formulae (2) and (3) are called Calame- Gaden’s formulae too. For a Francis turbine, the following empirical formula applicable to both (A) and (B) conditions is proposed: hy 0.75 fe (aie* 1.23) “ Pressure rise by the water hammering with a pressure regulator may be calculated by formula (5) taking account of the effect of the pressure regulator if its actual function is clear (in case of replacing existing steel penstocks, thorough consideration should be given to reliability of the pres- sure regulator), but in this case, at least more than 0% of the value cal- culated on a no-pressure-regulators basis should be taken. --(4) -12-In this case, the formula for pressure rises due to the water hammering is as follows: hg Too © t: Difference in time between the start of a guide vane’s clos- ing and the start of a pressure regulator’s operation(s) But, in this case, the pressure rise does not decrease from the turbine to a place (L — % ). Examples of calculation of the pressure rises and actual measurements are listed in Table 1.4-1: Table 1.4-1 Examples of Calculation of Pressure Rises and Actual Measurements A. Pressure rises with pressure regulators inoperative Pe ; Calculated value % ‘Actual : | — measur station |E°24) | @ @ FFormula (aye | Formula [Formula Formula [Formula mens ee) Olea} o}]oi,a i ' yo Power |1,212/0.227] 7.10 1.61 | 25.4 | — | 25.6 | 25.0 | 19.1 | 29.3 | 278 station | 1/908 }0.239| 9.59! 2.29 | 26.9 | — | 27.1 | 26.3 | 15.7 | 306 | 32.0 TH! 12/220 |0.247 10.7 | 2.64 | 27.9 | — | 28.2 | 27.2 | 146 | 314 | 314 2,532] 0.225} 13.6 | 3.06 | 25.2 — | 25.4 | 24.8 | 11.7 | 28.4 | 26.4 Power | 1/4 1.5370. 5 | at [ is6 | — 1269 P39 Pat station | 2/4 2.23 241 | 28.8 | 243.1 — | 343 | 320 | 301 He | 34 [0.260) 2.43 0.632) 29.6 | 29:1 | 29°9 | — | 37.9 | 376 | 32.7B. Pressure rises with pressure regulators operating Power station Load eu on Actual measurement Power station H*? v4 6.4 67 274 60 92 3/4 63 93 Power station S 1,600 kW 28 22 3,000 26.9 240 3,000 13.1 16.1 3,000 21.6 244 4,500 14.3 18 4°00 199 3 6,000 316 295 10,000 3215 1 Dimensions of power stations Power station T | Power station H_ | Power station S Lom 110.8 600 27 Am 38.33 292 43 Q'm’/s 8.35 14 6 Dmm 1,900 2,500~ 1,300 3,600~ 2,700 Output kw 2,400 36,000 9,000 Differential surge-tank| Conduit type 1 With @ > 1, (1), @), (2), and (4) can be applied the values by (1), (2) and (2)' are similar, and those by (4) are somewhat larger and are close to the actual meas- urements. £2 With @ < 1, calculated values by (3) and (4) show good results. +3 Compared with *2, an effect of a pressure regulator is shown. 4 Values by Allievi’s’ sequential method. In some cases, actual measurements of the pressure rises by water ham- mering may differ 10 to 15% from the calculated values, under the in- fluence of turbine characteristics, and thus it is desirable to take about 20% allowance. The above formula (4) includes a 20% allowance. It is necessary to make either a graphical solution or sequential calcula- tion in the cases below: (1) For branches, when the furcate point is far away from the hydraulic turbine compared with the pipeline length. (2) When rising of water level by surging is rapid as in the case of a differential surge-tank. (In many cases formulae (1) to (5) are ap- plicable.) (3) In case of restricted orifice surge-tanks (Jaeger’s formula may be used also.) -14-(4) In case of pump turbines Reversible pump turbines are mostly employed as main machinery at a pumped storage power station in Japan. The characteristic of the water hammering in this case is that the pressure variation in transient operations is far greater than values calculated from AI. lievi’s formula. The main reason for this is that the non-linearit of Q/VH to the time is more remarkable in case of pump turbines compared with the case of ordinary turbines. Article 5. Design External Pressure As for design external pressures of steel penstocks, the maximum pres- sures which may take place during drainage, when a pipeline is empty, as well as under construction shall be taken into consideration. Description: Various pressures act on steel penstocks such as negative pressures during drainage, seepage pressures of bedrocks working on embedded portions, and concrete pressures and grout pressures during construction works. A steel penstock must be of a structure capable of withstanding maxi- mum external pressures possible to take place taking the above into con- sideration. In order to prevent collapse due to the negative pressure of a pipeline during drainage, air pipes or air valves are installed. Since they are designed to ensure to introduce the amount of air required with less than 0.2kg/cm? pressure difference between the inside and outside pipe, nor- mally 0.2kgf/cm? of pressure difference between the inside and outside pipe should be taken into consideration for exposed pipes. (See Article 26.) This is not necessary, however, when air comes in freely during drainage, i.e. negative pressures cannot take place. Seepage pressure of bedrocks should be external pressures due to under- ground water level expected, but its design pressure can be reduced when drainage installations are provided around the steel penstocks to reduce the external pressures. Deformation of penstocks due to the concrete pressures during construc- tion works should be prevented by means of jigs inside the penstocks, other supports, or stiffeners, etc. Structural calculations may be made for concrete pressures and grout pressures during construction works, together with including corrosion allowance. In this case, it is permissible to prevent the deformation by inside supports. ageArticle 6. Head Loss Pressure lining parts and attachment installations of steel penstocks shall be designed hydraulically to keep the head losses to a minimum as much as possible. Description : Head losses in steel penstocks have a large percentage of the total head losses of a power station. The number and diameter of a penstock should be decided economi- cally from the relationship of the electric power loss due to head losses and the construction cost as in Article 3. Head losses are influenced not only by friction losses of steel penstocks but also by branches, bend pipes, reducing pipes, inlet pipes, expansion joints, guard valves, etc., to some extent, and thus considerations should be given to the design of these struc- tures so as to minimize head losses as much as possible. It should be noted that the influence of the head loss is great for a power station having a low head and a big capacity. Important head losses for pipelines can be calculated as follows: 1, Friction Head Loss be MAL Rag" where : Friction head loss (m) : Kutter’s coefficient of roughness : Length of pipe (m) : Flow velocity (m/s) : Hydraulic depth of pipe (m) : Acceleration of gravity (m/s?) meme ba For circular pipes, taking D as the internal diameter of the pipe : SL = 124.5n? R DY As for the value of n, 0.010 to 0.014 is applicable to normal steel pipes. 2. Head losses of entrance, reducing, enlarging, and bending Head losses of entrance , reducing, enlarging, and bending should be in accordance with Table 1. -16-3. Other head losses Other head losses of diverging (joining) should be based on the description of Article 22., this Chapter. Table 1.6-1 Head Loss per Calculation formula Entrance . head loss hea See Square cornered OS intrance head loss cut comered tar) 625 1 Er \ counded (circular) : Je + Enirance loss Rounded (rectangular) 02 V : Flow velocity after | Bell mouth of 1/4 ellipse | 0.01~0.05 flowing-in “Reducing ~ head loss | : Flow velocity after | reducing | | Enlarging Wavy head loss ye = Sy Tie aes Enlarging head loss | fe + Enlagig loss ; 1 coefficient $ 0 4 V, : Flow velocity before cer 4 4 enlarging DA ¥, : Flow velocity after 7 enlargingType of Calculation formula head loss Remarks Bending head loss h= where: fu Su + Bending head loss + Ratio of the loss for . of 90° (See Fig. (b)) "The following em ve In Sa % Loss coefficient deter- mined by the ratio of bending radius @ to the pipe diameter D (@/D), in case that a angle of bend- ing is 90°. (See Fig. @) a center angle 8 to the loss for a center angle Flow velocity cal formula is fre- quently used for f,, and Sy: Jur = 0.131 + 0.1632 hy given by the above formula does not in- clude the friction head loss. moa 03 al — a Lf aa) p/D (a) Value of f,, (@ = 90°) 12 4 19 08} 0, Ser 04 02 oa a oo We Tn (©) Value of fan Head loss of a valve differs in hydraulic characteristics depending on each design, and so the loss coefficient should be decided appropri- ately to its characteristics. Slight head losses are generated around expansion joints, manholes, etc., and so it is desirable to add some allowances to the sum of head loss. — 18 =Article 7. Consideration for Water Quality When the pH value of water in a steel penstock is less than 4, some measures shall be taken to decrease the corrosion of the steel penstock. Description: In volcanic zones, there may exist rivers having corrosive water due to sulfurous acid gas, etc., produced there. Corrosion progress due to corrosive water is affected by hydrogen ion exponent (pH), specific conductivity, amount of chlorine ions, etc. Gener- ally, pH is used as the index for corrosion progress. Generally, steel corrosion due to acid water develops very rapidly with a pH value of less than 4.5 and develops especially significantly with a PH of less than 4.0, Steel corrosion progress is hardly affected by a pH value from 4.5 to 10. Corrosion due to acid water is greatly influenced by the flow velocity and inflow of soil and sand, and thus it should be noted that corrosion may develop when flow velocity and inflow of soil and sand are excessive even if the pH is more than 4, The value of the pH differs depending upon the flow rate of the river. When the flow rate is high in a wet season, the pH values become rela- tively high with the acid water diluted and thus the minimum pH values should be taken as a criteria throughout the year. Table 1.7-1_ Example of Actual Measurement in Agatsuma River pH (1965.4 ~ 1966.3) Power station | Test place |FlOW velocity in wipe] ag, in, value value Max. value iukawa intake | 2.77 ~ 3.15 62 45-78 Head tank 2.51 ~ 4.80 5.5 47-71 Afterbay I 1.40 ~ 3.85 3.7 5.0 ~ 7.6 Actual measurements made in Agatsuma River in Japan by Tokyo Elec- tric Power Co., Inc. are shown in Table 1.7-1. Asa result of the measure- ments, corrosion barely develops with more than 4.4 pH and with a little flow velocity and less inflow of soil and sand, but it becomes clear that corrosion is prompted widely and remarkably with less than 4.0 pH and 1 ~ 2m/s flow velocity. Some measures to prevent corrosion are available. One method is to _ 19 _paint an acid resisting material or make a lining to the pipe inside, and the other one is to produce a pipe itself using an acid resisting steel. Field tests have been conducted concerning rivers with acid water by Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry and various electric power companies in Japan. According to the above researches, chlorinated rubber paint and alkyd resin type paint show excellent properties. Tar-epoxy resin type as a paint using the excellent properties of the epoxy resin has been widely used in recent years. Stainless steels are superior as acid resisting steel and are used as clad steel from an economic viewpoint. Corrosion of steel penstocks by acid water develops very rapidly when steel penstocks are worn by flowing sands. In such a case, it is necessary to decrease the corrosion of penstocks by making a lining made of a coal tar enamel having much resistance to wear, or by attaching patches (made of acid resisting steel) to the bottom of pipes or portions subjected to much fluence of corrosion wear, as well as by preventing the sands from flow- ing in. 2. Material and Allowable Stress Article 8. Material of Steel Penstocks Materials used for steel penstocks shall be those listed in Table 1.8-1. Materials other than those in Table 1.8-1 may be used provided that a sufficient study be made. Table 1.8-1 Types of Materials 1. Rolled steel for general structure JIS G 3101 (1976) 2. Rolled steels for welded structure TIS G 3106 (1977) 3. Hot-rolled atmospheric corrosion resisting steels for welded structure MS G 3114 (1977) 4. Steel plates for pressure vessels for intermediate temperature service SIS G 3115 (1977) 5. Steel bars for rivet 3S G 3104 (1976) 6. Carbon steel castings TIS G 5101 (1978) 7. Steel castings for welded structures 3IS G S102 (1978) 8. Carbon steel forgings for general use TIS G 3201 (1977) 9. Gray iron castings JIS G 5501 (1976) Description : This standard is specified to use the material whose characteristics are sel stno~naney sone =r: za ys stannic Henbeanealsee aimee att dtaetlbtaaniaat tear tems ta: je piece nianioosasnrsil noghip~ peinclear, and it is necessary to confirm that the material meets the require- ments of the JIS standard by material tests before fabrication. But when the material characteristics concerned are clear enough with the material test records made by its steel manufacturer, the records can be a substi- tute for material tests. The material tests in this Article should include tests not only for strength but also for whether or not the dimension (thick- ness, etc.) is within the tolerance. Tolerances for plate thicknesses should be in accordance with the stan- dard specified in Article 9., this Chapter. It is a special case to use JIS materials other than those in Table 1.8-1 or materials other than JIS, and careful consideration should be given to this case. For instance, in case that such standard pipes as Carbon Steel Pipes for Pressure Service (JIS G 3454), Arc Welded Carbon Steel Pipes (JIS G 3457), etc., are employed as a steel penstock material in such locations as small-scaled hydraulic power stations, a careful study and review should be made to their material, manufacturing methods, inspection methods, ive. the adaptability to a steel penstock, and each paragraph of this stan- dard should be applied to their use. Article 9, Material of Pressure Lining Part and Main Attachment Installations Directly Welded to Pressure Lining Part 1, Materials used for pressure lining parts and main attachment installa- tions directly welded to the former shall be the kind listed hereunder or steel material having equivalent or superior characteristics. Rolled Stee! for General Use Class 2 (JIS G3101 SS41) Rolled Steels for Welded Structure (JIS G3106 SM41-SMS0-SMSOY-SM53‘SMS8) Hot-rolled Atmospheric Corrosion _ (SIS G3114 SMA41-SMASO-SMAS8) Resisting Steels for Welded Structure Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels for (JIS G3115 SPV24-SPV32SPV36SPV46) Intermediate Temperature Service n . Tolerances for the thickness of pipe shell plates used for pressure lin- ing parts in particular can be specified separately.vm = 7,232 Aft = 4 806F Description : : The pressure linig part is the most important portion in a steel pen- stock, and so the material used for this should be in accordance with this Article, and should be economical as well as safe. 4 “Main attachment installations directly welded to the pressure lining, part” include stiffeners, ting girders, manhole reinforcements, etc., and for these, steel material having equivalent or superior characteristics to the pressure lining part should be used because the above installations work structurally together with the pressure lining part. “Steel material having the equivalent or superior characteristics” may include high tensile steels other than those in JIS (See Article 11., this Chapter). ne HOS E0 te 30T With the saifie material, the notch toughness gets poorer as the thick- ness increas d the material is likely'to be brittle-fractured depending on the notch condition, temperatures, rate of loading, etc. Therefore, steels having a better notch toughness should be used as the thickness increases. In case of more than 12mm thick plates, it is preférred to use a plate hav- ing a shock-absorbing energy of more than 2.8kgf.m (0°C). For steel materials thicker than 25mm, it is necessary to use killed steel or semi-killed steel up to strength of SMSO, and killed steel for more than strength of SM 50Y. SM SOY is semi-killed steel added usually with nio- bium, on the other hand SMS53 and SMS8 are killed steel so SM53 should be used as a substitute for a plate thicker than 25mm. As for thickness tolerances for pipe shell plates used for the pressure lining part in particular, the minus side may be restricted. The minus side of the thickness tolerance is frequently restricted to —0.25mm in confor- mity with the steel plate standards used for boilers and pressure vessels, JIS G3103, and JIS G3115. Article 10. Material of Attachment Installations Steel material shall be used for attachment installations which are not } directly welded to the pressure lining part and which are closely related to the pressure lining part. Description : Attachment installations which are closely related to the pressure lin- ing part are expansion joints, manholes, air pipes, air valves, supporting structures, etc., and since these are directly concerned with the safety of i ; ‘ -2-the pressure lining part, steel material (steel casting inclusive), not iron casting, are required to be used for the portions subjected to loads even if these portions are not directly welded to the pressure lining part. Article 11. Material Test 1. Testing, inspection and marking of materials other than those in Table 1.8-1, Article 8. of this Chapter shall be in accordance with Gen- eral Rules for Inspection of Steel (JIS G0303), unless otherwise speci- fied in each standard for respective material. 2. When attempting to use particularly thick plates or special materials, weldability and other matters of the materials concerned shall be tested. Description: 1. When using materials other than those in Table 1.8-1 is necessary to make sure that the materials conform to the JIS standard if they are based on JIS, if the materials are not based on JIS it is necessary to make sure of the acceptable results required by inspection and test- ing in accordance with “General Rules for Inspection of Steel.” 2. When attempting to use especially thick plates or special materials, some problems in terms of manufacture such as workabilit others may arise, and thus it is specified that, in ad eral tests included in “General Rules for Inspection of Steel,” prob- lematic points should be tested. For each steel material, tests other than those specified in JIS are as follows: Parent material .... workability test, heat affecting test, heat treat- ment test, brittleness test Weld Zone ......... hardness test, crack test, joint strength test, brit- tleness test Weld material ..... useability There are anti-corrosive test, structure test and others provided for spe- cial materials. Testing example for steel penstocks is listed in Table 1.11-1.Table 1.11-1_ Example of Special Additional Test Power station Morozuka Okutatarag. Used steel plate thickness | HIT6O SM5EQG) (mm) 12 ~ 20 U~S4 Steel forging equivalent to SMS8Q@" Section 300 x 480 290 x 560 Workability Heat affection “*Hardness test (steel plate & steel forging) Parent! and heat raa'e | treatment Low temperature ‘Temp. gradient type ESSO test (steel plate) brittleness NRL drop weight test (steel plate) Hardness Toint hardness ‘Toint hardness (sel plate & steel forging) Crack ‘*Kommerell bead | Bead bend test (see pl.) bend test, Kinzel | #Y-groove cracking test (ste! pl.) Tee te “Deep notch test (stee! pl.) or we Diffusible hydrogen quantity & cracking wet ratio (steel pl.) Mechanical ‘ 2000 Reason Tor additional |70kgi/mm? class Bokgt enim class high tensile stel 10 high tensile steel to be used forthe first | with extreme thick- | be used for the first time for stel pen- | ness to be used for | ime for steel pen stocks the first time for | stocks steel penstocks |@Matetial to be in |G\Carbon equivalent | @Carbon equivalent Remarks conformity with |” 0.49 30.53 WES SH 66 Tensile strength | Tensile strength Tense siengn |S Tokgine’ 3 B0kgt/ me “TAkgt/mm? Yield point Yield point Yield point z63kgt/mm? 270kgt/mm G6kgt/mm? ies § 38°C | vB, ge 3.6kgf-m Elongation 25%} (parent material) } (parent matznal) }@co, + UM wits -0°C | ve, & 36kghm system (welded joint) (welded joint)Table 1.11-1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont'd) Power sation “Used steel thickness (mm) Okukiyotsu HT80 steel plate (= 34~50, 75 @ Stee! forging equivalent to HT80 section 260 x $25, 270 450 ® HT80 + SUS SO4L clad steel plate t= H4+3, 39+3@ Workability | Strain aging impact test (stee! plate) Heat Taper hardness text (steel pl.) affection ‘Max. hardness test (steel pl.) Parent | and heat | Strength and toughness test after SR (steel pl.) material | treatment | Tempering test (steel pl.) Low Deep notch test (steel pl.) temperature | Temp. gradient type ESSO test (steel pl.) brittleness NRL drop weight test (steel pl.) Hardness | Joint hardness (every max. thickness for all combinations of steel materials and welding processes) ‘Crack Y¥groove cracking test (Every max. thickness for all combinations of steel materials and welding processes) Window type restrain weld cracking test (every max. thickness for all combinations of steel materials and welding processes) Cracking test for fillet welded joint (¢ = 75 steel plate, covered arc Type | weid welding) of Cracking test for boundary layer (t = 39 + 3 clad stel plate, co- test |70n€ vered arc welding) 75 steel pl. weld zone) ‘Mechanical ving max. pl. thickness in property | every combination of steel pl. and welding process) Joint impact test (all welded joints having max. pl. thickness in every combination of steel pl. and welding process) Joint fatigue test (for t=50 steel pl. butt welded joint, covered arc welding, submerged arc welding, MIG semi-automatic welding) Offset joint fatigue test (for 1= 35 steel pl., MIG automatic butt welded joint) Useability Automatic MIG welding procedure test (full size model) Semi-automatic MIG welding procedure test Welding ‘Submerged arc welding procedure test material Covered arc welding procedure test Others Struc. Wide tension test for cross-shaped joint with angular distortion we (1=75 steel pl. & steel forging) (for investigation of low tempera- ture brittleness) Year of completion 197 Reason for ‘SOkyi/mm? class high tensile steel with extreme thickness to be additional test___| used for steel penstocks Note Us 50mm ST < ts 100mm @Carbon equivalent = 053 3 057 Remarks Tensile strength 80~9Skgf/mm? — 78~93kgf/mm? Yield point 2 TOkgf/mm? 2 68kef/mm* WT rg (parent material) 40°C s VE“ (parent material) > 3.6kgf-m 2 Tre, (weld zone) s0°C s Eq (weld zone) > 3.6kgf-m 2 — 26 - ae Sah Na BU RETRY Ria sashaTable 1.11-1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont'd) Power station ‘Okukiyotsu Note Carbon equivalent = 0.60 core part Tensile strength surface 78~93kgf/mm? 76 ~ 93kgt/mm? Yield point surface 2 68igi/mm? core part 2 65kgf/mm? Wie surface < 40°C VE w surface = 3.6kgf-m on ee \Carbon equiv 5 0.60 Remarks Tensile strength 80~95kgf/mm? Yield point 2 TOkgf/mm? Vtg s -2°C (Parent material) vee s0°C (weld zone) 5 VE Ww = 3,6kgf-m 2 (parent materia!) vEy 2 36kgem 35) (weld zone)Table 1.11- 1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont'd) Power station ‘Used stee! thickness (mm) ‘Okuyoshino HT8O seel plate t = 34~50, 59, 60, 78 @ Steel forging equivalent to HT80 section 350 x 680, 350% $25 @ ‘Workability Strain aging impact test (stec! plate) Heat affection heat Pare | reament temperature brittleness “Taper hardness test (eel pl. & ste! forging) Tempering test (steel pl. & stel forging) SR brittleness test (see! pl.) ‘Thermal cycle test (steel forging) ort bead cracking test (steel ‘Deep notch test (steel pl. Double tension test (steel pl.) Two point bending COD test (steel pl.) Weld of test property Toint hardness (every max. thickness for all combinations of steel imaterials and welding processes) ‘Y-groove cracking test (every max. thickness for all combinations of steel materials and welding processes) Window type restraint weld cracking test (every max. thickness for all combinations of steel materials and welding processes) Cracking test for T-type filet welded joint ((= 78 steel pl., covered are welding) Cracking test for restraint lap joint (t= 50 steel pl. covered arc welding) Deep notch test (t= $0 steel pl. weld zone) Joint tension test (all welded joints having max. pl. thickness in every combination of steel pl. & welding process) Joint impact test (all welded joints having max. pl. thickness in every combination of steel pl. & welding process) Joint fatigue test (¢= 50 stel pl. and stel forging butt joints weld- ced with covered arc, submerged arc and semi-automatic MIG ‘welding) Offset joint fatigue test ((=35 steel pl. but joints by automatic MIG welding) Useability Welding materials Automatic MIG welding procedure test (full-size model) ‘Semi-automatic MIG welding procedure test Submerged arc ‘welding procedure test (full-size model) | Covered are welding procedure test (full-size mode!) id metal strain aging test (each butt welding material used for auto- matic MIG, semi-automatic MIG, submerged arc, covered arc welding) Weld metal SR brittleness test (cach butt weld material used for auto- matic MIG, semi-automatic MIG, submerged arc, covered arc welding) ‘Struc- ture Wide tension test for cross shaped joint with angular distortion ((=78 steel pl. & stel forging) (for investigation of low temperature brittleness) Three point bending COD test (t= 50, 78 steel pl. weld zone) = 2% - eto Lt‘Okuyoshino 1980, additional test ‘GOkgf/mmn? class high tensile stcel with extreme thickness to be used for steel Note ts Somm 30 < ts 78mm ‘@Cardon equivalent 0.47 ~ 0.53 0.50 ~ 0.56 Tensile strength 80 8 ~ 93kgf/mm? Yield point & kgf/mm? — = 68kgf/mm? s Ss - WC z s 3 & a vTrs (parent material) VE-4 (parent i vTrs (weld zone) vEq (weld zone) 2 @Carbon equivalent 037 + 0.03 Tensile strength 78 ~ 93kgf/mum? Yield point 6Bkgf/mm? virs 5 -0°C 3.6kgf-m = 3.6kgf-m vE_« 2 3.6kgf-m Table 111-1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont'd) Power station Year of completion Reason for ‘penstocks ~ Remarks | | | | i t ITable 1.11-1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont’d) Power station Nabara ‘Used steel thickness (mm) HT80 t = 27 ~ 32 Steel pl. @ _ (test piece « = 34) ‘Workability | Strain aging impact test Heat “Taper hardness test affection | Max. hardness test Parent | and heat | Thermal cycle test material | treatment | Tempering test Reheating test - ‘Low Deep notch test temperature bates Hardness | Joint harciness test (covered arc, submerged arc welding) Type ‘Crack ‘Window type restraint weld cracking test (submerged arc welding) of ‘Y-groove cracking test (covered arc welding) test | Welded | Mechanical Joint tension test (covered arc, submerged arc welding) part | property | Joint bending test (covered arc, submerged arc welding) Joint impact test (covered arc, submerged arc welding) Joint with reinforcement tension test (submerged arc welding) ‘Weld metal tension test (Submerged arc welding) Useabilty | Field yelding procedure test (covered arc welding) Weld Yegroove cracking test material ‘Window type restraint weld cracking test Measurement of cooling speed of submerged arc Sirve- ture Year of completion 1976 Reason for ‘Okgf/mm? class high tensile steel to be used for steel penstock additional test Remarks | Note (@Carbon equivalent 0.53 _ a Tensile strength = 80kef/mm? Yield point 2 70kgf/mm? -30- we leTable 1.11-1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont'd) Power station Okuyahagi No.2 Used steel thickness (mm) HIT80 t = 100 Steel pl. [Steel forging equivalent to ® HT801 = 345@ ‘Workability Heat Taper hardness test | Taper hardness test Parent | ffection Max. hardness test Parent | | and heat Thermal cycle test treatment Tempering test Low ~ temperature brittleness ~ Hardness | Joint hardness test Joint hardness test (Gubmerged arc, MIG | (submerged arc, MIG ~ welding) welding steel forging + steel forging t = 345) ~ Joint hardness test (submerged arc, MIG. . welding steel forging + steel plate t = 100) ~ Crack WOL test, Y-groove cracking test (covered are welding) Mechanical | Joint tension test Joint tension test - Property | (submerged arc, MIG | (submerged arc, MIG welding steel forging + | welding steel forging + . steel plate) steel forging t = 345) Weld Joint bending test (submerged are, MIG. . ‘Type of | zone (submerged arc, MIG | welding steel forging + teat welding steel forging + | steel plate t = 100) {. steel plate) Joint bending test Joint impact test (submerged arc, MIG (submerged arc, MIG | welding steel forging + . welding steel forging + | steel forging t = 345) | stee! plate) (submerged arc, MIG . Weld metal tension test | welding steel forging + { (submerged arc, MIG | steel plate t = 100) welding) Joint impact test (submerged arc, MIG . welding steel forging + steel forging « = 345) (submerged arc, MIG ~ welding steel forging + { steel plate t = 100) ~ Useability ‘Automatic welding proce- { : dure test (submerged arc, . MIG welding) Welding Welding procedure test for . materials steel forging & steel plate(t = 100 submerged re are, MIG welding) Others ~ StructureTable 1.11-1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont'd) Power station Okuyahagi No.2 Year of completion 1981 ‘Reason for To ensure applicability of | To review possiblity of field additional test HT 80 to steel penstocks | weld connection of HT 80 steel forging ‘Note |(@ Carbon equivalent |@ Carbon equivalent Remarks 0.55 + 0.01 0,59 + 0.01 reside stren Tensile strength 78 ~ 93kgf/mm? = 78kgf/mm? (core Yield point part exclusive) 2 68kgl/mm? Yield point = 68kgf/mm? (core part exclusive) -32- peti a i ni de na Si ie A oe redArticle 12. Allowable Stress 1. Allowable stresses used for design calculation shall be less than those listed in Table 1.12-1. As for a joint made of the material concerned, its efficiency shall be taken into consideration. 2. Allowable stresses of the materials not specified in Table 1.12-1 shall be decided after taking account of the properties of the materials con- cerned. Table 1.12-1 Allowable Stress of Material Materials Tensile [COMP Shearing] Bearing wa | ae | Se | See 7 Classifieation Kinds a we em) | om) Rolled steel for general [gg g, | tekness = 4mm | 1.300 | 1,300 structure thickness > 40 1,200 | 1,200 Rolled steels for welded |SMAI | thickness = 40 | 1,300 | 1,300 simaung or Hotrod [Sad | ices > «| 00 | L3m0 atmospheric corrosion mos thickness 3 40 | 1,750 | 1,750 resisting stels for welded | SMs0_ | 5 : resisting thickness > 40 | 1,650 | 1,650 SMSOY | thickness = 25 | 2,000 [2,000 SMASO | thickness = 40 | 2,000 | 2,000 SMS3. | thickness > 40 | 1,880 | 11880 ‘SMS8 thickness = 40 2,400 2,400 SMASB | thickness > 40 | 2,300 | 2,300 Stel plates for pressure ves- | spyyq | thickness = 40 | 1,300 | 1,300 sels for intermediate tempera- thickness 5 40 | 1200 | 1/200 (ture service spv32 | tlekness = 40 1,750 [1,750 thickness > 40 | 1,650 | 1,650 | ‘950 thickness ¢ 40 [2,000 [2,000 | “1,150 SPV36 | thickness > 40 | 1,850 | 1,850 | 1,050 thickness = 40 [2.400 [2,400 | 1,400 SPVA6 | thickness 5 40 | 2,300 | 2'300 | 1:300 Steel bars for Fivet, sv T1989 SV4IA = = } 1300 = Carbon sel castings SC 70 | 700 | 400 | 1,200 S46 30 | 750 | 400 | 1250 S49 %0 | 800 | 450 | 11350 Steel casings for welded | SCW42 1,050 [1,080 [doo [1,750 structure scwa9 1200 } 1,200 | 700 | 2:00 Carbon stel forgings for | SF40 1,100 | 1.100 | 00 | 1,850 general use SF4s 13250 | 1/280 | 700 | 2/100 SFO 1350 | 1/380 | 730 | 21300 SESS 13550 | 1,550 | 900 | 2,600 SFO 1,650 1,650 950 | 2,800 —Table 1.12-1 Allowable Stress of Material (Cont'd) [Compres] Materials Tensile |e | Shearing | Bearing — Gall | ae | a | Gar ke! Classification Kinds em?) | S80 | cnt) |] om Gray iron castings FC 200 20 100 300 FC2S 250 250 150 BU FC30 0 300 20 500 Note: Allowable shearing stresses of rivets and allowable bearing stresses of steel plates in a field riveted joint shall be 80% of the above values. Description: (1) Allowable tensile stress The allowable tensile stresses of steel materials specified in this Ar- ticle are decided so that the safety factor should be 1.8 against their basic design strength. The basic design strength of a steel material can be obtained by divid- ing the yield point by the material factor. The material factor is the- one determined by taking account of differences in the yield ratio, cold workability, absorbing energy up to fracture, and reliability of each steel. Each allowable stress mentioned above is set by taking the material factor of SM58, SPV46 as 1.05, and other steel materials as 1.00. As for Carbon Stee! Castings, they have inferior property in terms of uniform quality, an inspection is hard to be executed, and they are uncertain against impact as a pressure vessel. Thus the safety fac- tor of the steel penstock is taken as 6 against a tensile strength and even carbon steel castings are treated equally as common steel materials for a hydraulic gate and steel structure. As for Steel Castings for Welded Structure, the carbon equivalent is specified in JIS, and the shock absorbing energy is also specified as more than 2.8kgf-m (0 deg. C), and thus the safety factor against the tensile strength is specified as 4. Carbon Steel Forgings for General Use are specified with the same concept as SS41. The safety factor for Gray Iron Castings is specified as 10. Allowable compressive stress According to experiments and so forth, it is said that the compres- sive strength is almost the same as the tensile strength, and other regu- lations for steel structures specify the same, and thus this article also follows this concept. (2) = 34 - ee ee ee ha Ai tet A ot Mi dt it lM om Ne os ae _ om(3) Allowable shearing stress The allowable shearing stress is taken as about 1/v3 of the allowa- ble tensile stress based on the shearing strain energy fracture theory, and that of SS41 is taken as 750kgf/cm. As for rivets, it is appropri- ate to assume that the ratio of allowable shearing stress of shop rivet- ing to the allowable tensile stress of steel material is about 80%, and so the stress of SV34 is taken as 1,050kgf/cm?. Field riveting, compared with shop riveting, is inferior somewhat, and so 80% is set. Allowable bearing stress It is generally said that the ratio of a steel plate bearing strength by shop riveting to the tensile strength of a steel plate is about 1.8 to 2.0, and so 170% is taken taking account of an allowance of safe- ty, and the stress of SS41 for instance is taken as 2,200kgf/cm?, Field riveting, compared with shop riveting, is inferior somewhat, and so 80% is set. Allowable bearing stresses of Gray Iron Castings are also specified with the same concept. (5) Refer to Article 13., Chapter 4 for joint efficiency. (6) When using materials not specified in Table 1.12-1 such as HT70, HT80 etc., the allowable stresses should be decided based on the same concept of aforementioned material factors. It is appropriate to take 1.15 to 1.20 as the material factor for HT70, HT80 etc. (4) 3. Pressure Lining Part Article 13. Loads to be Considered A pressure lining part shall be so designed as to be safe against the fol- lowing loads: For exposed pipes internal pressure, self-weight of pipe, water weight in pipe, tempera- ture change, external pressure For embedded pipes internal pressure, temperature change, external pressure Description : The shell thickness at the pressure lining part is mainly decided by the circumferential tensile stress caused by the internal pressure, but in case agof a long-span ring support type of exposed pipe, the self-weight of pipes, water weight in the pipes, temperature change, etc., give a great influence to the shell thickness, whilst in case of an embedded pipe the external pres- sure and temperature change give a great influence to the shell thickness. With regard to the temperature change for embedded pipes, the dif- ference between the pipe temperature when installed and the water tem- Perature after water is filled should be taken. It is general to take the temperature drop as 15°C to 20°C, but in a cold district a temperature rising may take place when the temperature at the time of installation is very low, thus requiring a careful determination taking weather and con- struction work conditions into consideration. In addition to the loads listed in this Article, there are other ones, such as seismic force, wind pressure, snow load and so forth. The seismic force and wind pressure do not directly give an influence to the pressure lining part and so they should only be considered in the designing of its sup- port. (See Articles 29., 55. and 58., this Chapter.) With regard to snow load, snow around pipes melts due to the temper- ature of the flowing water inside the pipe, and so it is considered that the snow load hardly works by an arch action. However, its influence is greater when pipes are empty and in case of a long span ring supporting type, and thus a careful study is required. Article 14. Combination of Loads The loads in the previous Article shall be taken into consideration with the following combination: For exposed pipes . With water fully filled in the pipe: internal pressure, self-weight of pipe, water weight in pipe, tempera- ture change 2. During water filling in the pipe: water weight in pipe 3. When the pipe is empty: external pressure when drained For embedded pipes 1. With water fully filled in the pipe: internal pressure, temperature change 2. When the pipe is empty: external pressure = 36 - adDescription : With water fully filled in an exposed pipe, the internal pressure is the most influential load, but self-weight of pipe, water weight in pipe and temperature change should also be taken into consideration. During water filling, a circumferential bending moment by water weight is generated in the pipe shell. This bending moment gets largest with water half filled (with water filled up to 50% of a pipe section) in case of a ring support type, and gets largest with water just fully filled in case of a sad- dle support type, thus requiring a careful review and study. When it can be assumed that a half-filled water condition cannot be generated due to a sharp gradient pipeline, the calculation for a half-filled water condition may be neglected. It is required to study the difference in pressure inside and outside the pipe when drained. For embedded pipes, it is not necessary to consider the self-weight of pipe and water weight in pipe because the pipe is supported with surround- ing concrete, and it is only required to study the internal pressure and tem- perature change when water is fully filled, and to study just the external pressure when the pipe is empty. Article 15. Design Condition for Pressure Lining Part ‘The pressure lining part shall be designed against the loads in Article 14. in accordance with the following conditions: 1. With water fully filled in the pipe (1) Circumferential stress, longitudinal stress, perpendicular stress to a pipe axis and resultant stress shall be less than allowable stresses of the materials used. In case that a local bending stress(secondary stress) of a pipe shell is added, it shall be permissible to increase the allowable stress up to 1.35 times. (2) The resultant stress shall be calculated from the following formula: o, = Voe + of = 00, + 37 where o,: Resultant stress o,: Circumferential stress (tension to be positive) a,: Longitudinal stress (tension to be positive) 1: Perpendicular shearing stress to a pipe axis2. During water filling in the pipe The circumferential stress shall not exceed 1.5 times the allowable stress of the material used. 3. When the pipe is empty Buckling shall not take place by external pressure equivalent to 1.5 times the design external pressure. Description : In case of water fully filled in pipes, it is set to check the resultant stress provided that the stresses in every direction do not exceed the allowable stress. A formula to determine the resultant stress is based on the shearing strain energy theory (Mises-Hencky-Huber Theory) in that a fracture takes place when the shearing strain energy gets equal to the strain energy at the yield point of simple tension. For biaxial stresses, the following formula can be applied to ductile materials: G+ 0} - 9,0, + 31,3 S of where 7,,: Shearing stress normal to o, or 9, o,: Yield point of material under simple tension With regard to the shearing stress, the values given by the formula in paragraph 9 of the Description of Article 16. should be used for the side face of a pipe. In case of a long span of a ring support type and a thin pipe shell plate compared with its diameter, 7 cannot be neglected around a support, but 7 diminishes at the pipe section midway of the span. In case of the latter, however, the resultant stress gets large at the pipe top and so attention should be paid to this fact. The stress including local bending stress (secondary stress) in the pipe shell is specified not to exceed 1.35 times the allowable stress so as to be less than 75% of the yield point considering that the yield point gets high for bending stress and that this calculation is made under normal loading conditions. The local bending stress (secondary stress) at a pipe shell is generated due to restriction of ring girder, stiffener, anchor block, etc., and the cal- culation formula of paragraph 3 in the Description of Article 16. is gener- ally used. As the stress during water filling is transient, the allowable value is set at 1.5 times the allowable stress. - 38 - at pant dasa: xiiicabes.FOP FOOT TTT As for the external pressure, it is necessary that an external pressure of 1.5 times the design external pressure should not exceed the critical buck- ling pressure of the pipe shell itself and stiffener. Article 16. Stress to be Considered As for the design specified in Article 15. of this Chapter, the following stresses shall be calculated respectively: For exposed pipes 1, With water fully filled in the pipe: (1) Circumferential stress 1) Tensile stress due to internal pressure (2) Longitudinal stress 1) Bending stress regarding the pipe as a continuous beam 2) Local bending stress due to the restraint of the pipe shell displace- ment by means of a ring girder, a stiffener, an anchor block, etc. 3) Stress due to pipe gradient 4) Stress due to longitudinal components of the internal pressure acting on the reducer 5) Stress due to longitudinal component of the internal pressure acting on an expansion joint 6) Stress due to temperature change of the pipe (3) Shearing stress perpendicular to the pipe axis 1) Shearing stress regarding the pipe as a continuous beam 2. During water filling in the pipe: (1) Circumferential bending stress due to water filling 3. When the pipe is empty (1) Critical buckling pressure due to external pressure For embedded pipes 1. With water fully filled in the pipe: (1) Circumferential stress 1) Tensile stress due to internal pressure (2) Longitudinal stress 1) Local bending stress due to the restraint of the pipe shell dis- placement by means of a stiffener, etc. 2) Temperature stress 3) Stress due to Poisson’s effect 2. When the pipe is empty 1) Stress due to external pressure and critical buckling pressureDescription : wag For calculating the stresses listed in this Article, formulae commonly used are shown below. aw Nomenclatures in the formulae are shown in each paragraph, but Plate thickness, corrosion allowance, diameter and radius, and longitudiidl length are defined as illustrated in Fig. 1.16-1 and below. ¢ Fig. 1.16-1 Dimensions used for calculation should all be the nominal dimensions‘ when manufactured. : Internal diameter (cm) External diameter (cm) / : Internal diameter subtracting 1/2 the corrosion allowance from the internal surface of the pipe shell = D.+e (cm) D’ : External diameter subtracting 1/2 the corrosion’ allowance from the external surface of the pipe shell = Dy’ —« (cm) : Diameter to the center of plate thickness = 2r,, (cm) : Radius to the center of plate thickness (cm) Shell thickness (cm) Shell thickness excluding corrosion allowance = f—« (cm) Allowance thickness for corrosion and wear (cm) Pipe length from anchor block to expansion joint (cm) Length of pier span (cm) 1: Interval of stiffeners (cm) For exposed pipes 1. Tensile stress due to internal pressure — 40 -—PD PD oe Ge where 9: Stress (kgf/cm?) P: Maximum hydraulic pressure at a place to determine stress (kgf/cm?) v . Bending stress regarding the pipe as a continuous beam oa Ms 4 where M,: Bending moment as a continuous beam (kgf*cm) Z,: Section modulus of pipe’s effective section 5 + tD,2 (cm’) » . Local bending stress due to the restraint of the pipe shell displacement by means of a ring girder, a stiffener, an anchor block, etc. A,— bt PD a 1827 156 Tat Ot where A,: Ring's sectional area = 2t,h, + bt (cm?) Fig. 1.16-2. Ringer Girder Section “b” used for calculation should be within the following range: 61.56) fmt +2, (cm)According to this formula, it may be necessary to increase the shell thickness around the ring girder and a minimum range L, to increase the shell thickness can be obtained from the following formula: L,=4.67{tmt +b (cm) 4. Stress due to pipe gradient one ePatae sind where f,: Shell thickness of the pipe included in the portion con- cerned (cm) L,: Length of the portion having a plate thickness of ¢, (cm) ‘yz: Unit weight of steel material = 7.85 x 10-3 (kgf/cm?) 6: Angle between pipe axis and horizontal plane A,: Pipe shell plate’s sectional area of the portion to consider stress = +D,f (cm?) 5. Stress due to longitudinal component of the internal pressure acting on the reducer P, o=F Gr Da) where D,: Internal diameter equivalent to D at a place before reduc- tion (cm) D,; Internal diameter equivalent to D at a place after reduc- tion (cm) P,: Maximum hydraulic pressure in the center of reducer (kgf/cm?) 6. Stress due to longitudinal component of the internal pressure acting on an expansion joint gat atePe. As where Pz: Hydraulic pressure at expansion joint (kgf/cm?) tg: Plate thickness of internal pipe of expansion joint (cm) 7. Stress due to temperature change of the pipe In case of temperature change in pipes, the direction of frictional force may change depending upon rising or dropping temperature, so = 42- .°° the following stress should be added so as to be on the safe side: (1) Stress due to friction between pipe and support Sn(W.+ W..)cos0 where W,: Load due to self-weight of the pipe (kgf) W,: Load due to weight of water in the pipe (kgf) Jig: Friction factor (Refer to Article 19. of this Chapter) (2) Stress due to friction of expansion joint Sexx(Do+ 2te) o= As where f,y: Frictional force of expansion joint According to the Bureau of Reclamation, fey 4 7kgf/cm For longitudinal stresses with no expansion joints, it is necessary to consider longitudinal stresses due to temperature changes and Pois- son’s effect. Maximum shearing stress regarding the pipe as a continuous beam r= 2Scosd ~ As where S$: Shearing force at a support (kgf) ). Circumferential bending stress due to water filling Bending stress due to water filling differs greatly in cases of a saddle support and a ring support. In case of a saddle support, a maximum bending moment generates when water is fully filled and the formula shown in Article 28. is applied. In case of a ring support, the stress variation in the process of water filling is rather complicated, and the stress does not become maximum with water half filled depending on places. But in case of a steel pen- stock, different from a waterway conduit, the water partially filled is not a normal loading condition, and so it is not necessary to make cal- culation as precisely as in the case of a waterway conduit. Therefore, as for the circumferential stresses in the mid-section of a span, it is prac- tically permissible to assume the stress on the side of the pipe with water half filled to give a maximum value.As for the longitudinal stress, it may get a little larger with water half filled than with water fully filled, but the difference is minor. There- fore, the calculation for the longitudinal stress due to water filling may be omitted. Calculation formulae for the circumferential stress can be divided into three, depending upon the ratio of the length of the span to the diameter. (i) L > 13D Set Sorte 8 where +: Inside of pipe —: Outside of pipe o,: Circumferential bending stress (kgf/cm?) @: Fluid density 1 x 10-3 (kgf/cm?) @ BD>L> wD 2ptm m(1— v2) a= + DA + vem?g?a] + =2Ugat pet +n) A= Bt Peter + Py 1 ~ Cin + C5? + where »,: Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 Table 1.16-1 = 2 : " Ge 121 = v2) ORT 2 6.088 p o.8242 0667 4 0.3805 20.60 0.1333 6 0.07517 112.2 0.08714 8 0.02378 363.5, 0.03174 10 0.00974 897.5 0.02020, 12 0.00470 I 1873 0.01399 — 44 =G3) 7D>L>2D The following formula should only be used for n = 2. _ 2.467? +1)? K "Cnt CB Formula (1) is assumed that, taking out a ring of a unit length from S acylinder, the water weight is transmitted to the next ring by the shear- ; ing flow. This assumption can be applicable to a long span but the assumption of transmission by the shearing flow cannot be applica- He ble as a span becomes shorter, and thus this formula is liable to give ; a larger stress than the actual one. > Formula (2) is assumed that both ends of a cylindrical shell be free et supported, and this formula is an appropriate equation for a bend- ing stress. ~ In either case, as the direct stress is quite small, the calculation i of stress by bending moment is sufficient. ' : x10)—T TT 111 . il prema an | o/0 g half filled | LY ( Oe Fluid density ; 215 ar, 8 Pipe radius ofA Pin Pipe length 7) 2 Span length 250 6 205 5fe sch in 3 — | 150 erie 4125 it Ag 100 0 es 4 5 6/7 8 9 10 il 1213 | 7 Fig. 1.16-3 Bending Stress on Side of Pipe with Water Half Filled | By using Formulae (2) and (3), bending stresses with D/t as | parameters are shown in Fig. 1.16-3. Calculated values given from Formulae (2) and (3) are plotted like gethe dotted lines around the right side in the figure but in case of L/D = 13, values calculated by Formula (1) are closer to the actual ones and so they are adjusted as shown in the figure as full lines. . Critical buckling pressure due to external pressure (1) Without stiffeners ne tle] ve where p,: Critical buckling pressure (kgf/cm?) E,: Elastic modulus of steel (2.1 x 10° kgf/cm?)' (2) With stiffeners 1) Pipe shell proper ‘When computing the critical external pressure of a pipe shell proper, formulae of Tokugawa and R.V. Southwell are frequent- ly used. Tokugawa’s formula (oy mt(Qn?— oy ve (+02)? where n: Number of wrinkles t: Interval of stiffeners (cm) say a?<€1 approximately nal" Number of wrinkles (n) is obtained from oe = 0, but simi- in larly to the above, an integer closest to the value obtained from the following formula can be taken: n= 1.3(2-J(Pe) 2s — 46 - aoe 4 i Rteae tie Eh. A ns A BR BR Bie aR aR Va 7 7 7 R.V. Southwell’s formula ~Tlat=o (7) at =m] Sayr-1l=n approximately pe=2. 9b 1s 2) Stiffeners ___ ET Pe v2) Dol where J: Moment of inertia of combined sections of stiffeners (cm*) For embedded pipes 1. Tensile stress due to internal pressure _PD. PD 2 2m-e : Stress (kgf/cm?) P: Maximum hydraulic pressure at a place to determine stress (kgf/cm?) Tensile stress is generally calculated by the above formula. When bedrocks are strong enough to share part of the internal pressure, cal- culation should be made by the following equation. where PD a=, U-®) 1 oy AT P La 40g ge Boge PE + (14 py fen MEL ; d= where : Sharing ratio of internal pressure by bedrock E,: Elastic modulus of steel (= 2.1 10° kgf/cm?) a,: Coefficient of linear expansion of steel (= 1.2 x 10°-5/°C) _ wtAT: Temperature change of steel penstock (= 0~20°C) : Coefficient of plastic deformation of concrete (permissi- ble to take as + 0) Elastic modulus of concrete (= 2.1 x 10° kgf/cm?) Excavation diameter of tunnel (cm) Coefficient of plastic deformation of bedrock Elastic modulus of bedrock (kgf/cm?) m,: Poisson’s number of bedrock (= 5) 8, is usually taken as 0.5. Sharing ratio of internal pressure by bedrock differs greatly depend- ing on the physical properties of bedrock, initial gaps between a pen- stock and concrete and so forth. If bedrock is sound with no cracks, and its elastic modulus is fairly large, it can share the internal pressure to a great extent. But there are a lot of unknown factors in bedrock, It is not uniform and there may exist such a defective portion as a partial dislocation. It is not always sure to secure a situation close to a theoretical compu- tation. Therefore, a condition to the effect that “the pipe shell stress due to the internal pressure should not exceed the yield point of material even if it is assumed that the bedrock does not share an internal pres- is provided in many cases. Examples of the above are listed in Table 1.16-2. — 48 — ~ 6 2 @ KR KR HB = Mh 8~ om - Table 1.16-2 Example of Pressure Shared by Bedr Power station Kiso | Kisenyama | Shintoyone |Okutataragi|Okuyoshino] Shintakase Power (MW) “tie ee ins [| 1a [1206 | 1,280 Eee bad ee vce Ges) @ Gay 2G) GG) I Vy a) Discharge (m5) =_{(Pamp) 220] (Pump) 600 (Pump) 285.24Pump) 229. - ee el Ce p38 ee Gat | 53-00 [hoses tel ane) aoa nt9 | $2208 | tes | wes] amis) Taal was |r| ee Tes of lB) a i Dain aiag ni Tandem | | Ee | ae & | “Actual sharing ratio of internal pressure | 6-75 | 62-68 | 81-89 | S7-88 |” 30-70 = ep a a of aE 30,000- [30,000 Baie 3 30,060 | 20.000 | 95,000 | 9608 [320 | ea coo ‘SMSOB ‘SMSOB | SMSOB | SMSOB Pipe shell material HW4S ‘SMS8Q | SMs8Q. sss saiseq | Tita | sassq Yea of completion | 6 aso | ase | isis | isan | et2. Local bending stress due to the restraint of the pipe shell displacement by means of stiffeners. -») where A,: Ring’s sectional area = ¢,, + 4(1.56Vr,f + 1,) (cm?) - Fig. 1.16-4 Stiffener’s Section 3. Temperature stress oa=atE*AT where ,,: Stress due to temperature change (kgf/cm?) a: Coefficient of linear expansion (1.2 x 10-5/°C) E: Elastic modulus of steel 2.1 x 10° (kgf/cm?) AT: Temperature change (°C) 4. Stress due to Poisson's effect Because of restraint of longitudinal displacement of a pipe, longitu- dinal stress corresponding to the circumferential stress is generated by Poisson’s effect. On = Vor where 9,3 Stress due to Poisson’s effect (kgf/cm?) v: Poisson’s ratio of steel (= 0.3) o,: Circumferential stress (kgf/cm?) PD <2 (1- 4! ) — 50 — aha Bk ae he ae