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Chapter 2 NETWORK
by TERMINOLOGY
Ts. Dr. Nazrulazhar Bahaman BITS 2343 | Computer Network
nazrulazhar@utem.edu.my

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Objectives

• Describe the structure of a network, including the devices and

media that are necessary for successful communications.
• Explain the function of protocols in network communications.
• Explain the advantages of using a layered model to describe
network functionality.
• Describe the role of each layer in two recognized network
models: The TCP/IP model and the OSI model.
• Describe the importance of addressing and naming schemes in
network communications.

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 Elements, Components and
Media

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Elements of Communication

• Message source or sender

• People or electronic devices that send a message to other individuals
or devices
• Destination or receiver of the message
• The message is received and interpreted
• Channel
• Consists of the media that provides the pathway over which the
message can travel from source to destination.

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Communicating the Messages

• Segmentation
• Divided the data into smaller, more manageable pieces called
segments
• Many different conversation can be interleaved on the network, giving
each user a part or the bandwidth – multiplexing
• Increases the reliability of network communication

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Communicating the Messages

• Segmenting and multiplexing a message requires additional

processes
• Addressing and labeling each segment at the source
• Reassembling the segments into its original message at the destination.

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Components of the Network

• Networks use devices, media and services

• Hardware or physical elements
• Devices and media
• Software that run on the networked devices
• Services such as applications and processes that provide the
functionality to direct and move the message through the network

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End Devices

• An end device refer to a piece of equipment that is either the

source or the destination of a message on a network
• The interface between the human and the network
• Also known as a host. Eg. -Computers, printers, VoIP Phones
• Each host is identified by an address
• Role of end devices : Client, Server or Client & Server

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Intermediary Devices

• Provide connectivity and ensure data flows across the network

• Connect individual hosts to the network and can connect
multiple individual networks to form an internetwork
• Use the destination host address to determine the path the
messages take through the network
• Examples: Hubs, switches, access points, routers, modems,
firewalls, etc

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Intermediary Devices

• Processes
• Regenerate and retransmit data signals
• Maintain information about what pathways or routes exist through the
network and the internetwork
• Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
• Direct data along alternate routes when there is a link failure
• Classify and direct message according to QoS priorities
• Permit or deny the flow of data based on setting

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Network Media

• Modern networks primarily use three types of media

• Copper
• Glass or plastic fiber
• Wireless
• The signal encoding method is different for each media type
• Data is encoded onto electrical pulses on copper wires
• Fiber optic transmission rely on pulses of light, within either infrared or
visible light ranges
• Pattern of electromagnetic waves represent the various bit values in
wireless transmission

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Network Media

• Examples of network media

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Network Media

• Selecting a network media

• The distance the media can successfully carry a signal
• The environment in which the media is installed
• The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted
• The cost of the media and installation

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 LANs, WANs, and
Internetworks

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Network Infrastructures

• Network infrastructures can be vary in terms of”

• The size of the area covered
• The number of users connected
• The number and type of services available
• Common types of network infrastructures
• LANs
• WANs
• Internet

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Local-Area Networks

• A LAN usually spans a small geographical area

• Provides services and applications to people within a common
organization structure, such as a home, building or campus
• Usually administered by single organization
• Security and access control policies are enforced on the network level

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Wide-Area Networks

• Telecommunication Service Provider (TSP) networks are used

to interconnect an organization’s LAN that are located
geographically for apart
• TSPs operate large regional networks that span long distance
• The TSP networks are referred to as wide area networks
• WANs use specially designed network devices to makes the
interconnections between LANs

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The Internet –
A Network of Networks
• a global mesh of interconnected networks
• Owned by large public and private organizations
• LANs and WANs maybe connected into internetworks
• The internet is an example of a public-accessible internetwork

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Network Representations

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Rules That Govern Communications

• Protocol is a set of predetermined rules

• Implemented in software that is loaded on each host and
network device
• A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to perform
a communication function is called a Protocol Suite

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Network Protocols

Format
• The format or structure of the message.
• How much data to put into each segment
• Defines the sizes of each Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

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Network Protocols

Process
• The process by which intermediary devices share information
about the path to the destination

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Network Protocols

Error Messages
• The method to handle error and system messages between
intermediary devices

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Network Protocols

Termination
• The process to setup and terminate communications or data
transfers between hosts
• Define the duration of inactivity or idle timeout to terminate a
connection

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Industry Standards

• A standard is a process that has been endorsed by the

networking industry and officially approved by a standard
organization
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
• IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
• The use of standards in developing and implementing protocols
ensures that products from different manufacturers can work
together for efficient communication

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Interaction of Protocols

• Application Protocol
• Transport Protocol
• Internetwork Protocol
• Network Access Protocol

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Interaction of Protocols

• Application Protocol
• HTTP defined the content and formatting of the requests and
responses exchanged between the client and the server

• Transport Protocol
• TCP messages the individual conversations and divides to HTTP
messages into smaller pieces called segments
• TCP is also responsible for controlling the size and rate at which
messages are exchanged.

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Interaction of Protocols

• Internetwork Protocol
• IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from TCP,
encapsulating them into packets, assigning the appropriate IP
addresses and selecting the best path to destination
• Network Access Protocols
• Describes the data link management and the physical transmission of
the data on the media.
• Data-link management protocols encapsulates the packets into frames
• The physical media standards and protocols govern how the signals
are sent over the media and how they are interpreted by the receiving
end device

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Technology-Independent Protocols

• Many diverse types of devices can communicate using the same

sets of protocols
• This is because protocols specify network functionality, not the
underlying technology to support this functionality

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 TCP/IP model
OSI model

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The Benefits of a Layered Model

• Assists in protocol design

• Protocol that operate at a specific layer have defined information that
they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below
• Fosters competition
• Product from different vendors can work together
• Prevent technology or capabilities changes in one layer from
affecting other layers above and below
• Provides a common language to describe networking functions
and capabilities

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Protocol and Reference Models

• A protocol model provides a model that closely matches the

structure of a particular protocol suite
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model
• A reference model provides a common reference for maintaining
consistency within all types of network protocols and services
• It is not intended to be an implementation specification or to provide a
sufficient level of detail to define precisely the services of the network
architecture
• The primary purpose is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions
and processes involved
• Open System Interconnection (OSI) model

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Protocol and Reference Models

• TCP/IP model
• The functions that occur at layer of protocols within the TCP/IP suite
• OSI model
• Used for network design, operation specifications and troubleshooting

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TCP/IP Model

• Defines four communication functions that protocols perform

• An open standard develop in the early 1970s
• Defined in publicly-available document called Request For Comment
(RFCs)

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Communication Process

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Communication Process

1. Creation of data at the application layer of the originating source end-device

2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down the protocol stack in
the source end-device
3. Generation of the data onto the media at the network access layer of the stack
4. Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which consists of media and
any intermediary devices
5. Reception of the data at the
network access layer of the
destination end-device
6. Decapsulation and reassembly of
the data as it passes up the stack in
the destination device
7. Passing this data to the destination
application at the application layer
of the destination end device
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Protocol Data Units and
Encapsulation
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU) is the generic term for “data” at each
level
• Encapsulation is the process of adding control information as it
passes through the layered model

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Sending Process

• The Application layer begins the process by delivering the data

to the transport layer
• The Application data is broken into TCP segments and segment
is given a label, called a header
• The header contains information about which process running on the
destination computer should receive the message
• It also contains the information to enable the destination process to
reassemble the segments
• The TCP segment is sent to the Internet layer and encapsulated
within an IP packet, which adds an IP header
• The IP header contains the source and destination IP addresses

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Sending Process

• The IP packet is sent to the Network Access layer where it is

encapsulated with a frame header and trailer
• Each frame header contains the source and destination physical
address
• The trailer contains error checking information

• Finally the bits are encoded onto the Ethernet media by the end-
device Network Interface Card (NIC)

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Sending Process

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Receiving Process

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Comparing the OSI Model to the
TCP/IP Model
• The functions of the Application,
Presentation and Session layers of the OSI
model are combined into on Application
layer in the TCP/IP model
• The Data Link and Physical layers of OSI
model combine to make the Network
Access layer of the TCP/IP model
• The key parallel between the two models
occur at layer 3 and 4 of the OSI model
• TCP operates at TL
• IP operates at IL / NL
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 Physical addresses
Logical addresses
Service Port numbers

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Addressing

• Various types of addresses are needed to successfully deliver

the data from a source application running on one host to the
correct destination application running on another
• Data Link physical addresses
• Network logical addresses
• Transport service port numbers

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Getting Data to the End Device

• This is the physical address of the host (or end device)

• In a LAN using Ethernet, this address is called the Media Access
Control (MAC) address
• Layer 2 addresses are used to communicate between device on a
single local network

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Getting Data Through the
Internetwork
• This is the logical address
• Layer 3 addresses are primarily used to move data from local
network to another local network
• Enable intermediary network device to locate hosts on different
networks

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Getting Data to the Right
Application
• At layer 4, the information contained in the PDU header
identifies the specific process or service running on the
destination host device
• The separately running programs are examples of individual processes

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