Class 13-Merged

Surveying
(CE2005)
Levelling
Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Outline
• Introduction
• Methods of levelling
• Levelling instruments
Introduction
Levelling is a branch of surveying, used:
• To find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed
datum.
• To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with
respect to a given or assumed datum.
Elevation: The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its
vertical distance above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or
datum.
The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between the two
level surfaces in which the two points lie.
Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane. The instrument for
measuring the elevations is known as level and the process of determining the
elevations is called levelling.
Introduction
Introduction
Level Surface: It is a surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth
is a level surface. It can also be defined as a curved surface which at each point
is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point. The surface of a still
water is a truly level surface.
Level Line: It is a line lying in a level surface. It is,
therefore, normal to the plumb line at all points.
Horizontal Plane: Horizontal plane through a point
is a plane tangential to the level surface at that
point. It is therefore, perpendicular to the plumb
line through the point.
Horizontal Line: It is straight line tangential to the
level line at a point. It is also perpendicular to the
plumb line.
Introduction
Vertical Line: It is a line normal to the level line at a point. It is commonly
considered to be the line defined by a plumb line.
Bench Mark (BM): It is a relatively permanent
point of reference whose elevation with respect
to some assumed datum is known. In ordinary
survey work, a BM can be arbitrarily chosen and
its elevation assumed.
Reduced level (RL): It is height of a point
obtained by adding the known or assumed datum
surface elevation and the elevation of the point
from the datum surface.
i.e. RL = Elevation of datum surface + height of
the point from the datum surface
Methods of levelling
Different methods are: Direct method, Barometric levelling,
Trigonometric Levelling etc. The direct method is commonly used.
Direct method (Spirit levelling): It is that branch of levelling in which
the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line (perpendicular to
the direction of gravity is used to determine the relative difference in
elevation between two points.
• A telescope attached with spirit level, can give a horizontal plane as it
moves in different directions. This horizontal plane is taken as a
reference and vertical distances/heights are measured by observing on
graduated rods placed on the points.
• It is the most accurate method of determining elevations and the one
most commonly used by engineers.
Direct method ~ Steps
• Set up the levelling instrument by centring the spirit level, to a convenient
point, generally at the midway between the bench mark (BM) and the point
whose elevation is required to be determined. The instrument station is not
the point whose elevation is determined.
• Keep the measuring rod vertically at the station whose elevation is known
(BM) or, already assumed. Take the reading on the measuring rod with the
horizontal hair of the telescope. The reading gives the height of line of sight
(LOS) or, also called as Height of Instrument (H.I.).
• Turn the telescope from the same location towards the point whose
elevation is to be determined. Keep the measuring rod vertically at the new
station and take reading corresponding the horizontal hair of the telescope.
This reading gives the height of the next point, below or above the line of
sight (LOS).
Direct method
From the reading taken, the elevation of the point of interest can be
determined by two methods:
• Height of Instrument Method
• Rise and Fall Method
= (100+2.5) m
2.5 m 2m
= 102.5 m
Rise = (2.5-2) m
= 0.5 m
Elevation of B = (102.5-2) m Elevation of B = (100+0.5) m
= 100.5 m = 100.5 m
Terms and abbreviations
Station: Point where the level rod is held and not where level is set up. It is
the point whose elevation is to be determined or the point that is to be
established at a given elevation.
Height of Instrument (H.I.): It is the elevation of plane of sight (line of sight)
with respect to the assumed datum. It does not mean the height of the
telescope above the ground.
Back Sight (B.S.): It is the sight taken on a rod held at a point of known
elevation, to estimate the amount by which the line of sight is above that
point and thus to obtain the height of the instrument. It is also known as a
plus sight as the back sight reading is always added to the level of the datum
to get the height of the instrument.
Fore Sight (F.S.): It is a sight taken on a rod held at a point of unknown
elevation, to determine the amount by which the point is below the line of
sight and to obtain the elevation of the station. It is also known as a minus
sight as the fore sight reading is always subtracted from the height of the
instrument to get the elevation of the point.
Instruments
The main instruments commonly used in direct levelling are:
• A level
• A levelling staff: It is a straight rectangular rod having graduations.
The main types of levels:

• Dumpy level
A level consists of the following four parts :
• Wye (or Y) level
• Telescope: To provide line of sight
• Tilting level • Level tube: To make the line of sight horizontal
• Reversible level • Levelling head: To bring the bubble in its centre
• Tripod: To support the instrument.
• Auto level
Dumpy level
Levelling staff
Levelling staff a straight rectangular rod
having graduations, at the foot of the staff
representing zero reading.
Types of levelling staff :
• Solid staff: 3 m long, marked in cm.
• Telescopic staff: Generally made in three
parts, 1.5 m, 1.5 m and 2 m.
• Folding staff: Generally 4 m long, divided
into two parts, 2 m each.
Solid Telescopic Folding

staff staff staff
Next class
Will continue ~ Levelling
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)
Levelling

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Introduction
• Temporary adjustments
• Direct method of levelling ~ Differential levelling ~ Booking and reducing levels
Temporary adjustments
Levelling instruments needs two types of adjustments:
• Permanent adjustments
Temporary adjustments are those which are required at every instrument
setting and before taking readings.
Permanent adjustments are required to be made only when the
fundamental relations between some parts or lines are disturbed.
The temporary adjustments for a levelling instrument:
• Setting up
• Fixing the instrument on the tripod stand, and
• Levelling the instrument approximately by tripod leg adjustment
• Centring is not required
• Levelling up ~ accurate levelling is done using the foot screws
• Steps for three screw head
• Steps for Four screw head
• Focusing the eye-piece
• Focusing the objective
Levelling up ~ Steps for three screw head
• Swing the instrument to bring the bubble
parallel to the line joining any two of the foot
screws.
• Hold these two levelling screws between the
thumb and forefinger of each hand and
uniformly rotate both either inwards or
outwards until the bubble is at central position.
N.B. the bubble will move in the direction of
movement of the left thumb.
• Swing the instrument to bring the bubble over
the third foot screw, turning it 90˚.
• Rotate this levelling screw until the bubble is
central.
• Again swing the instrument to the first position
and check the bubble is central or not. If not
repeat the procedure.
• Now swing the instrument through 180˚ and the
bubble should remain central.
Levelling up ~ Steps for four screw head
parallel to the line joining any two diagonally
opposite screws.
parallel to the line joining other two diagonally
opposite screws, turning it 90˚.
• Rotate these levelling screws until the bubble is
central.
Focusing the eye-piece
Required for distinct vision of the cross-hairs, and by focusing the
objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross-hairs.
• Keep a piece of white paper in the
front of the telescope or, turn the
telescope towards the sky.
• Adjust the vision by rotating the eye-
piece (Number 2 in figure) till the
cross-hairs are sharp and clear.
• If graduations are provided at the eye-
piece, remember the particular
graduation position to suit eyes of
anyone.
Focusing the objective
Required for focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in
the plane of cross-hairs.
• The telescope is directed towards
the staff and the focusing screw
(No. 6 in figure) in rotated till the
image appears clear and sharp.
• The image so formed is in the
plane of cross-hairs.
Direct method of levelling
From the readings, the elevation of the point of interest, i.e. booking and
reducing the elevation of points can be determined by two methods:
• Height of Instrument Method/ Collimation Method
• Rise and Fall Method
= (100+2.5) m
2.5 m 2m
= 102.5 m
Rise = (2.5-2) m
= 0.5 m
Elevation of B = (102.5-2) m Elevation of B = (100+0.5) m
= 100.5 m = 100.5 m
Differential levelling
The operation of 1evelling to determine the difference in elevation of
two points at some distance apart is called differential levelling and is
usually accomplished by direct levelling.
• Horizontal positions of the points with respect of each other is not
point of interest.
• It may be necessary to set up the instruments several times. This type
of levelling is also known as fly levelling.
• When two points are at such a distance from each other that they
cannot both be within range of the level at a time, the difference in
elevation is not found by single setting but the distance between the
points is divided into stages by Turning Points (T.P.) on which the staff
is held.
Differential levelling
100.5 m +2.5 m =103 m 100.2 m +2.3 m

100 m + 2 m =102 m =102.5 m 1.5 m
2m 2.5 m 2.8 m
1.5 m 2.3 m
102 m - 1.5 m
Elevation of B
= 100.5 m 103 m - 2.8 m
=102.5 m – 1.5 m
= 100.2 m
= 101 m
Booking and reducing levels
Height of Instrument Method/ Collimation Method
Rise and Fall Method
Height of Instrument Method/ Collimation Method
• Arrange the reading in a tabular form as shown below:
Staff Back Intermediate Fore sight H.I. Reduced level Remarks
station sight sight
• Column 1 to 4 show data obtained from field.

• The first reading is always back sight (B.S.) and the last reading is
entered as foresight (F.S).
• Check: Sum of B.S. – Sum of F.S. = last RL – 1st RL
Problem-1
The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level:
3.864, 3.346, 2.932, 1.952, 0.854, 3.796, 2.639, 1.542, 1.934, 0.864, 0.665
The level was shifted after 5th and 8th reading. The 1st reading was taken
on a benchmark of RL 150.25 m.
• Calculate the RL of all the points with using Line of Collimation /
Height of Instrument (HI) Method
• Apply all the usual checks.
Solution
Readings: 3.864, 3.346, 2.932, 1.952, 0.854, 3.796, 2.639, 1.542, 1.934, 0.864, 0.665
The level was shifted after 5th and 8th reading.
Stn. Back sight Inter. sight Fore sight H.I. Reduced level Remarks
A 3.864 154.114 150.250 Benchmark
B 3.346 150.768
C 2.932 151.182
D 1.952 152.162
E 3.796 0.854 157.056 153.260 Change pt.
F 2.639 154.417
G 1.934 1.542 157.448 155.514 Change pt.
H 0.864 156.584
J 0.665 156.783 Last point
Σ B.S. = Σ F.S.=3.061 Last RL- 1st RL Sums for
Check
9.594 = 156.783-150.250 check

Σ B.S.-Σ F.S.
= 6.533
= 6.533
Rise and Fall Method
• Arrange the reading in a tabular form as shown below:
Staff Back Intermediate Fore sight Rise Fall Reduced level Remarks
station sight sight
• Column 1 to 4 show data obtained from field. The first reading is always
back sight (B.S.) and the last reading is entered as foresight (F.S).
• Calculation of H.I. is not required. The difference of level between
consecutive points (Rise or, fall) is found by comparing the staff readings on
the two points for the same setting of the instrument.
• Check: Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ Fall = Last RL – 1st RL
Problem-1 ~ Using Rise and Fall Method
The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level:
3.864, 3.346, 2.932, 1.952, 0.854, 3.796, 2.639, 1.542, 1.934, 0.864, 0.665
The level was shifted after 5th and 8th reading. The 1st reading was taken
on a benchmark of RL 150.25 m.
• Calculate the RL of all the points with using Rise and Fall Method.
• Apply all the usual checks.
Solution
Readings: 3.864, 3.346, 2.932, 1.952, 0.854, 3.796, 2.639, 1.542, 1.934, 0.864, 0.665
The level was shifted after 5th and 8th reading.
Stn. Back Intermediate Fore sight Rise Fall Reduced level Remarks
sight sight
A 3.864 150.250 Benchmark
B 3.346 0.518 150.768
C 2.932 0.414 151.182
D 1.952 0.98 152.162
E 3.796 0.854 1.098 153.260 Change pt.
F 2.639 1.157 154.417
G 1.934 1.542 1.097 155.514 Change pt.
H 0.864 1.07 156.584
J 0.665 0.199 156.783
Last point
Σ B.S. = Σ F.S.=3.061 Σ Rise = 6.533 Σ Fall = 0 Last RL- 1st RL Sums for
Check
9.594 Σ B.S.-Σ F.S. Σ Rise - Σ Fall = 6.533 = 156.783-150.250 check

= 6.533 = 6.533
Problem-1 ~ Extn.
If the readings were taken on a continuously sloping ground at a
common interval of 15 metres, calculate gradient of the line joining the
first and the last point.
156.584 156.783
Solution: 155.514
154.417 y = 0.054 x + 150.25
153.26
6.533 m
152.162
151.182
150.768
150.25
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
0.054
6.533 1
Gradient of the line joining the first and the last point =  i.e. 1 in 18.37 (Rising)
120 18.37
Next class
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)
Levelling

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Introduction
• Direct method of levelling ~ Booking and reducing levels
• Special methods of direct levelling
• Balancing backsight and foresight lengths
• Curvature and refraction
Special methods of direct levelling
Differential Levelling: The difference in elevation between two points far apart is determined. It may
be necessary to set up the instruments several times. It also known as fly levelling.
Profile Levelling: Elevations of points are measured at some constant intervals along a given line in
order to obtain a profile of the surface along that line.
156.584 156.783
155.514
154.417
153.26
152.162
150.25 150.768 151.182
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
Cross-Sectioning: It is the process of taking levels on each side of a main line at right angles to that
line, in order to determine a profile perpendicular to the longitudinal line.
G
D E F
C
B
A
Reciprocal Levelling: The difference in elevation between two points is accurately determined by
two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not possible to set up the level between the two points,
e.g. points lying on either side of a river.
It is useful when it is not possible to balance the lines of sights. It also eliminates errors due to curvature and refraction.
Balancing backsight and foresight lengths
• The readings from a level are accurate if the line of collimation is
parallel to the axis of bubble tube.
• If the line of collimation is not parallel to the axis of bubble tube, the
error in the reading is proportional to the length of sight.
• To eliminate this error, it is necessary to balance the line of sights.
• If the lengths of two sights can be made equal, then this error can be
eliminated. So, here balancing means making the two sight lengths
nearly equal.
• The error due to curvature and refraction can also be eliminated by
making the lengths of two sights equal.
Balancing backsight and foresight lengths
Curvature and refraction
• A level surface is defined as a surface parallel to the mean spheroidal
surface of the earth. i.e. the level line lying on the level surface is a curved
line.
• The line of sight (LOS) deviates from the
level surface due to curvature of the level Cr
surface.
• The effect of curvature makes the reading
higher than what it should be. So, the
correction for curvature is negative.
• Again, the LOS gets refracted due to
atmospheric effects and bends down with
concavity towards the earth surface.
• The effect of refraction makes the reading
lower than what it should be. So, the
correction for curvature is positive.
Correction for curvature
Correction for refraction
• The refraction curve is highly irregular because of varying
atmospheric conditions, so the correction for refraction is taken
empirically.
• For average conditions it is assumed, the LOS takes a curved shape,
having a radius about seven times that of the earth.
• Calculations are similar to that of curvature correction but here
correction for refraction (Cr) is positive.
Problem-2
Calculate the corrections required for curvature and refraction and
combined of both if the sight distance is 2000 m.
Solution:
Problem-3
Station A and B are 2000 m apart. The instrument station is located very
close to the station A. The reading taken at A and B are 1.5 m and 2 m,
respectively. Find the true difference in elevation between A and B.
Solution:
Next class
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)
Levelling

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Distance to the visible horizon
• Dip of the horizon
• Reciprocal levelling
• Profile levelling
Curvature and refraction
• The line of sight (LOS) deviates from the level surface due to curvature of the level
surface and require a correction for curvature (Cc).
• The LOS also gets refracted due to atmospheric effects and bends down with
concavity towards the earth surface and require a correction for refraction (Cr).
d2
Cc  (-ve)
2R
 0.07849 d 2 m (d in m)
1 d2
Cr  (+ve)
7 2R
 0.01121 d 2 m (d in m)
6 d2
Combined correction, (Cc  Cr )  (-ve)
7 2R
 0.06728 d 2 m (d in m)
Distance to the visible horizon
Distance to the visible horizon
Combined correction,
6 d2
Cc  Cr  (-ve) B Level
7 2R surface
P d
 0.06728 d 2 m (d in m) h
A
Say, C  0.06728 d 2
C
or, d   3.8553 C
0.06728
i.e. d  3.8553 h
Dip of the horizon
Level
D surface
Dip angle B Level
P d surface
h
A
Dip of the horizon = Distance to the visible horizon / R
d/R
Problem-1
The eye of an observer is 9 m above the sea level. He was able to see a
50 m high lighthouse just above the horizon. Find the distance between
the observer and lighthouse.
Solution:
Reciprocal levelling
• It is a method of levelling to accurately determine the difference in
elevation between two points which are at long distance with an
obstacle in between them.
• Where the lengths of foresight and backsight can be done even
approximately equal, reciprocal levelling must be used to obtain
accurate reading.
• The following errors can be eliminated:
• Error in instrument adjustment
• Error due to of curvature and refraction
True difference in elevation

between point A and B,
 ha  hb    ha'  hb' 
H
2
Problem-1
The following readings were taken during reciprocal levelling between two points A
and B, which are 1500 m apart across a wide river.
i. Find the true difference in elevation between A and B.
ii. If the instrument had a collimation error +0.002 m in 100 m, calculate the
error due to refraction.
Instrument near the Staff readings at
station A B
A 1.170 2.815
B 1.085 2.360
Solution
Given data,
Instrument near Staff readings at
the station A B
A 1.170 2.815
B 1.085 2.360
Distance AB = 1500 m
Collimation error +0.002 m in 100 m
Solution
The value is different from the

calculated actual value at the
given location
Profile levelling
• Profile levelling is the process of determining the elevations of points
at short measured intervals along a fixed line such as the centre line of
a railway, highway, canal etc.
• Elevations of points are measured at measured intervals along a given
line in order to obtain a profile of the surface along that line.
• Comparing the existing ground with proposed construction can be
done ~ Fixing grades ~ Estimation
Levelling to establish grade points
• This kind of levelling, often referred to as giving elevations is used in
different engineering construction works. The operation of
establishing grade points is similar to profile levelling.
• After the profile bas been plotted and the grade line has been
established on the profile map, the grade elevation for each station is
known. The amounts of cut or fill at each point are thus determined
before going into the field.
• Elevation of the grade point is established as:
Grade point elevation = H.I.- Grade rod reading
Problem-2
In a preliminary survey, a line was run from a bench mark of reduced
level (RL) 100 m and following readings were obtained:
Backsight 2.315 3.135 2.960 3.635
Foresight 1.965 4.120 1.960
From the last position of instrument, five pegs at 20 m intervals are to

be set out on a uniformly rising gradient of 1 in 40. The first peg is to
have an RL of 101 m.
Work out staff readings required for setting the tops of each of the pegs
on given gradient and enter them in the appropriate columns of the table
used for booking and reducing the elevations
Backsight 2.315 3.135 2.960 3.635
Solution Foresight 1.965 4.120 1.960
Stn. Dist. Back Intermediate sight Fore H.I. Reduced Remarks
sight sight level
1 2.315 100 Benchmark
2 3.315 1.965
3 2.960 4.120
4 3.625 1.960
5 0 101 Peg-1
6 20 Peg-2
7 40 Peg-3
8 60 Peg-4
9 80 Peg-5
Check
Sums for
check
Next class
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)
Levelling

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Reciprocal levelling
• Profile levelling
• Bubble tube and its sensitiveness
• Levelling difficulties
Bubble tube
The bubble tube gives the direction of horizontal plane because, the surface of
a still liquid at all points is at right angles to the direction of gravity.
• For ordinary surveys the radius of the earth is so large that a level surface is
considered to be the same thing as a horizontal plane.
• The spirit level or bubble rube consist of a glass tube partially filled with a
liquid of low viscosity, such as alcohol, chloroform or sulphuric ether,
leaving a small space which forms a bubble of mixed air and vapour.
• The tube is graduated on its upper surface and is enclosed for safety in a
metal casing. At the ends of the metal casing there are arrangements for
securing it to the telescope or any other instrument.
Sensitiveness of bubble tube
The sensitiveness of the bubble tube is defined as the angular value of one
division of the bubble tube. It is the amount the horizontal axis has to be tilted
to cause the bubble to move from one graduation to another.
e.g. if the tilting is 20" of arc when the bubble moves one division, generally 2 mm, the
sensitiveness of the level rube is expressed as 20" per 2 mm.
The sensitiveness of a bubble tube can be increased by:

• increasing the internal radius of the tube,
• increasing the diameter of the rube,
• increasing the length of the bubble,
• decreasing the roughness of the walls, and
• decreasing the viscosity of the liquid.
There are two methods of determining the sensitivity.
First Method:
Second Method:
Problem 1
The reading taken on a staff 100 m from the instrument with the bubble
central was 1.570 m. The bubble is then moved 5 divisions out of the
centre and the staff reading is observed to be 1.605 m. Length of one
division of the bubble tube is 2 mm. Find the radius of curvature and
sensitivity of the bubble tube.
Solution:
Levelling difficulties
Common difficulties faced during fieldwork:
• Levelling across steep slope
• Determining the elevation of a high point
like: under side of a beam
• Levelling across wall
• Levelling across a lake
• Levelling across a river
• Levelling across intervening high or, low
ground
Next class
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)
Levelling

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Numerical problem ~ Reciprocal levelling, Errors
• Bubble tube and its sensitiveness
• Levelling difficulties
• Errors in levelling
• Barometric levelling
• Hypsometry
Levelling difficulties
Common difficulties faced during fieldwork:
• Levelling across steep slope
• Determining the elevation of a high point
like: under side of a beam
• Levelling across wall
• Levelling across a lake
• Levelling across a river
• Levelling across intervening high or, low
ground
Levelling across steep slope
• To equalize the back sight and fore
sight distances, one will be uphill and
another downhill.
• One reading will be near the bottom of
staff another at top of the staff.
• So, extra care should be taken while
reading the staff and also to keep the
staff vertical.
Determining the elevation of a high point
e.g. to find elevation for underside
of a beam.
• Staff is held inverted.
• Reading is taken as a negative
value during booking.
Levelling across wall
When the height of wall is not so high:
• Inverted staff reading is taken from one
side (from top of the wall).
• The instrument is taken to the other
side of the wall and again an inverted
reading is taken. The two line of sights
can now be related to continue the
levelling work.
When the height of wall is very high and

inverted staff reading cannot be taken:
• Mark the line of sight on the wall and
measure the distance from top of the
wall.
• The instrument is taken to the other
side of the wall and again a mark is
made for the new line of sight.
Levelling across a lake
Case-1: Possible to go around the
lake.
• Levelling can be done easily by setting
some intermediate points and using
Case-1
differential or, fly levelling.
Case-2: Not possible to go around the

lake.
• The help of water surface can be
taken, which is a level surface when
Case-2
Levelling across a river
• Reciprocal levelling is done.
• If, width is very large and the staff on the
station at other side is not visible, then
reciprocal levelling is not possible.
• The method of using still water surface can
be used, as in the case of a lake.
• Find suitable locations near both the sides
where the water is still and pegs can be
driven.
Levelling across intervening high or, low ground
• The level is kept on one side of the intervening high or, low ground
as shown in the picture below.
• The staff is suitably placed so that it can be bisected by the line of
sight.
Errors in levelling
1. Instrumental
• Error due to imperfect adjustment ~ Line of collimation not parallel to the bubble axis
• Error due to sluggish bubble ~ The bubble come to rest at centre in wrong position
• Faulty levelling staff ~ Incorrect graduations and defective joints in case of folding staff
2. Natural
• Earth's curvature ~ Should be considered for greater distances
• Refraction
• Variations in temperature ~ Required only for precise work
• Effect of wind
3. Personal
• Mistakes in manipulation ~ mistakes in setting up the level, imperfect focusing of eye-piece
and objective, errors in centring
• Mistake in rod handling ~ If the rod is not in plumb line, the reading will be more than actual.
• Mistake in reading the rod
• Errors in sighting
• Mistakes in recording
Barometric levelling
• The barometric levelling is based on the fact that the atmospheric
pressure varies inversely with the height.
• As air is a compressible fluid, strata at low level will have a greater
density than those at a higher altitude.
• This method of levelling is very rough and is used only for exploratory
or reconnaissance surveys.
• Two types of barometers are commonly used:
• Mercury barometer ~ Long glass tube dipped in a vessel containing mercury
~ Not portable so finds little use in survey work, used in fixed stations
• Aneroid barometer ~ Highly portable but less accurate than the mercury barometer
Mercury barometer
(at MSL)
Cistern Siphon
Aneroid barometer
• A non-liquid barometer called the aneroid barometer is widely used
because it is highly portable.
• It contains a flexible-walled evacuated capsule, the wall of which
deflects with changes in atmospheric pressure.
Barometric methods
There are two methods of levelling with a barometer:
Method of single observations
• The barometer is carried from point to point and a single reading is taken at each
station; the barometer is brought back to the starting point.
• The temperature reading is taken at each station.
• The readings obtained involve all atmospheric errors due to the changes in the
atmosphere which take place during the interval between the observations.
Method of simultaneous observations

• Observations at two stations are taken simultaneously by two barometers to eliminate
the errors due to atmospheric changes that take place during the time elapsed between
the observations.
• One barometer is kept at the base or starting point. Another barometer, called the field
barometer is taken from station to station.
• The readings of the field barometer are then compared with those of the barometer at
the base.
• The temperature readings are also taken with each observation.
Barometric Formula
 T1  T2 
H  18336.6  log h1  log h2  1  
 500 
H = Difference in elevation between two stations A and B in m

h1 = Barometer reading in cm at station A
h2 = Barometer reading in cm at station B
T1 = Air temperature at station A in ˚C
T2 = Air temperature at station B in ˚C
Problem 1
Find the difference in elevation between two points A and B from the following barometric data:
Time Location Barometric Temp Solution:

pressure (cm) (˚C)
6 a.m. A 78.04 20.25
8 a.m. B 76.25 11.15
10 a.m. A 78.26 22.45
Hypsometry
Hypsometry uses a hypsometer based upon the boiling point of water
for rough indication of heights.
Principle: Boiling point of a liquid depends on the atmospheric pressure.
Pressure (cm of mercury) = 76 ± 2.679 (T-100)

Elevation can be calculated
where T is the boiling point. by barometric formula
Height above the datum (generally MSL, where water boils at 100˚C), is calculated
by empirical formula:
T1  T2

H  a 285.9t  0.74t 2
 m, where, a  1 
500
and t  100  T
T1 = Air temperature at datum in ˚C and T2 = Air temperature at height H
Problem 2
Next class
Will start a new chapter
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)
Theodolite Surveying

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Introduction
• Vernier theodolite
• Measurement of horizontal angles
• Method of Repetition
• Method of Reiteration
Introduction
• Theodolites are used to measure horizontal angles between lines and
can also measure vertical angles.
• In case of compass survey, the property of magnetic needle is used, i.e.
if it is freely suspended then it shows the North direction and unsuitable
in some areas.
• A telescope is used to provide a much greater range of line of sight and
for better accuracy.
• Accuracy in readings: Compass ~ 30”, Theodolite ~ 20” or less.
• Types of theodolites:
 Vernier theodolite
 Optical theodolite
 Electronic theodolite
Vernier theodolite or, transit theodolite
• A vernier theodolite (or, transit) is one in which the line of sight can be
reversed by revolving the telescope through 180˚ in the vertical plane.
• The non-transit theodolites are either plain theodolites or Y-theodolites in
which the telescope cannot be transited. Non-transit theodolites have now
become obsolete.
• The common vernier theodolite can measure angles up to an accuracy
of 20”.
Vernier theodolite or, transit theodolite
Fundamental axes of a theodolite
Lower plate
• The lower plate is attached to the
outer spindle and carries a graduated
horizontal circle.
• Graduations are provided all around
0˚ to 360˚. Each degrees divided into
three parts i.e. 20’ division.
• The lower plate have a lower clamp

screw and a corresponding slow
motion or tangent screw.
• With the help of tangent screw which it
can be fixed accurately in any desired Generally, the size of a theodolite is represented
position. by the size of the lower plate, like: 100 mm
theodolite.
Upper plate
• The upper plate is attached to the
inner spindle.
• It is also a horizontal plate of smaller
diameter than the lower plate.
• The upper plate have a upper clamp
screw and a corresponding slow
motion or tangent screw.
• The upper plate carries two vernier
scales A and B, in diametrically
opposite sides.
Clamps and tangent screws
There are lower clamp, upper clamp and tangent screws.
• The lower and upper clamps locks and releases the lower plate and upper plate
respectively.
• To use any tangent screw, its corresponding clamp screw must be tightened.
• On clamping the upper and unclamping
the lower clamp, the instrument can
rotate on its outer axis without any
relative motion between the two plates.
• If, however, the lower clamp is
clamped and upper clamp unclamped,
the upper plate and the instrument can
rotate on the inner axis with a relative
motion between the vernier and the
scale.
Terminology
The vertical axis: The axis about which the instrument can be rotated in a horizontal
plane.
The horizontal axis (trunnion axis): The axis about which the telescope and the vertical
circle rotate in vertical plane.
Line of collimation (LOS): The line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs and the
optical centre of the object glass and its continuation.
The axis of level tube (bubble line): Straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of
the level tube at its centre. The axis of the level-tube is horizontal when the bubble is
central.
Centring: The process of setting the theodolite exactly over the station mark.
Transiting (plunging or reversing): The process of turning the telescope in vertical
plane through 180˚ about the trunnion axis.
Swinging the telescope (right swing, left swing): The process of turning the telescope
in horizontal plane.
Face left observation: If the face of the vertical circle is to the left of the observer.
Face right observation: If the face of the vertical circle is to the right of the observer.
• Setting up and centring
• Fixing the instrument on the tripod stand
• Tripod leg adjustment
• Centring by using plumb bob
• Levelling
• Steps for three screw head
• Steps for Four screw head
• Focusing the eyepiece
• Focusing the objective
Levelling ~ Steps for three screw head
parallel to the line joining any two of the foot
screws.
N.B. the bubble will move in the direction of
movement of the left thumb.
• Swing the instrument to bring the bubble over
the third foot screw, turning it 90˚.
• Rotate this levelling screw until the bubble is
central.
Levelling ~ Steps for four screw head
parallel to the line joining any two diagonally
opposite screws.
parallel to the line joining other two diagonally
opposite screws, turning it 90˚.
• Rotate these levelling screws until the bubble is
central.
Focusing the eye-piece
Required for distinct vision of the cross-hairs, and by focusing the
objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross-hairs.
• Keep a piece of white paper in the front of the telescope or, turn the
telescope towards the sky.
• Adjust the vision by rotating the eye-piece till the cross-hairs are sharp
and clear.
• If graduations are provided at the eye-piece, remember the particular
graduation position to suit eyes of anyone.
Focusing the objective
Required for focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in
the plane of cross-hairs.
• The telescope is directed towards the staff and the focusing screw in
rotated till the image appears clear and sharp.
• The image so formed is in the plane of cross-hairs.
Measurement of horizontal angles
To measure ∠POQ between two lines OP and OQ:
• Set the instrument at O to read 0˚00ʹ00 ʹʹ or any
convenient reading:
• Release the upper clamp and rotate the instrument to
read approximately zero.
• Clamp the upper plate and use upper tangent screw to
make its exactly zero.
• Release the lower plate and rotate the instrument
to bisect station P:
• After bisecting it approximately clamp it.
• Use the lower tangent screw to bisect it exactly.
• Release the upper plate and bisect the signal at Q:
• Use the upper tangent screw to bisect it exactly.
Used for ordinary work.
Measurement of horizontal angles
Method of Repetition
• The accuracy can be improved by reading the angles with face-left and
face-right observations and taking average of these two readings.
• For more precise work, the angles are repeatedly measured with both
faces and the average of all the readings taken. This method is called
as Method of Repetition.
• N.B. The angles are measured without setting it back zero when sighting it
back the previous station.
• The method of repetition is used to measure a horizontal angle to a
finer degree of accuracy than that obtainable with the least count of the
Vernier.
• Generally, three reading for each face is taken except for very precise
work.
Method of Repetition ~ Procedure
To measure ∠POQ, set up the theodolite at station O. Check that the theodolite is in the
normal position i.e. face left.
1. Set the instrument to read 0˚00ʹ 00ʹʹ:
• Release the upper clamp and rotate the instrument to read
approximately zero.
• Clamp the upper plate and use upper tangent screw to make
its exactly zero.
• The verniers at A and B should read 0˚ and 180˚
5. Release the lower clamp and
2. Release the lower clamp and rotate the instrument to rotate the instrument clockwise to
bisect station P: bisect station P.
• After bisecting it approximately clamp it. 6. Repeat Step-3 and Step-4. The
• Use the lower tangent screw to bisect the signal at P readings should be about twice the
exactly, N.B. readings should remain zero. angle.
3. Release the upper clamp and rotate the instrument 7. Repeat Step-5 and Step-6 once
clockwise bisect the signal at Q: more and calculate the average
• After bisecting it approximately clamp it. reading.
• Use the upper tangent screw to bisect the signal at Q 8. Change face of the instrument by
exactly. inverting the telescope to make it
4. Record the reading using both vernier A and B. face right.
• Reading at A gives the angle exactly but, the reading at B 9. Repeat the whole procedure again.
will be 180˚+ ∠POQ.
Method of Repetition ~ Recording
Table-1 Face: Left (Right swing) Reading at Mean reading
Instrument Sight Repetition no. A B
at to ˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
O P 0 00 00 00 00 0 00 00
Q 1 30 41 20 41 20 30 41 20
30 41 20 41 20
Q 2 61 22 40 22 40 61 22 40
61 22 40 22 40
Q 3 92 04 20 04 20 92 04 20
Mean value of the horizontal angle: = 92˚ 04′ 20′′ / 3 = 30˚ 41′ 27′′
Method of Repetition ~ Recording
Table-2 Face: Right (Left swing) Reading at Mean reading
Instrument Sight Repetition no. A B
at to ˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
O P 0 00 00 00 00 0 00 00
Q 1 30 41 20 41 20 30 41 20
Q 2 61 22 20 22 20 61 22 20
Q 3 92 04 00 04 20 92 04 00
Mean value of the horizontal angle: 30˚ 41′ 20′′
Final value (mean) of the horizontal angle: (30˚ 41′ 27′′ + 30˚ 41′ 20′′) / 2 = 30˚ 41′ 24′′
Sets for precision work: For measuring an angle to the highest degree of precision, several sets of
repetitions are usually taken.
Method of Repetition ~ Advantages
The following errors are eliminated by method of repetition:
• Errors due to eccentricity of verniers are eliminated by taking both vernier
readings.
• Errors due to in-adjustments of line of collimation and the trunnion axis are
eliminated by taking both face readings.
• Error due to inaccurate graduations are eliminated by taking the readings at
different parts of the circle.
• Errors due to inaccurate bisection of the object, eccentric centring etc., may
be eliminated to some extent or balanced in different observations.
It should be noted, however, that in repeating angles, operations such as

sighting and clamping are multiplied and hence opportunities for error are
multiplied. The limit of precision in the measurement of an angle is generally
reached after the fifth or sixth repetition.
Method of Reiteration
• It is another method of measuring horizontal angles.
• This method is suitable for the measurements of the angles of a group
having a common vertex point, i.e. number of angles are measured from a
common point.
• Each angle is measured in succession and finally the LOS is brought back to
the initial position where the reading was zero, i.e. the instrument is rotated
through 360˚.
Method of Reiteration ~ Procedure
Set up the theodolite at station O. Check that the theodolite is in the normal position i.e. face left.
1. Set the instrument to read 0˚00ʹ 00ʹʹ
• Release the upper clamp and rotate the instrument to read
approximately zero.
• Clamp the upper plate and use upper tangent screw to make
its exactly zero.
• The verniers at A and B should read 0˚ and 180˚
2. Release the lower clamp and rotate the instrument to
bisect station P.
• Use the lower tangent screw to bisect the signal at P 5. Release the upper clamp and
exactly, N.B. readings should remain zero. rotate the instrument clockwise
bisect the signal at R.
3. Release the upper clamp and rotate the instrument 6. Continue the process with other
clockwise bisect the signal at Q. stations.
• Use the upper tangent screw to bisect the signal at Q 7. After the reading taken at last
exactly. station, take another reading at P.
the verniers should read the initial
4. Record the reading using both vernier A and B. readings.
• Reading at A gives the angle exactly but, the reading at B 8. Repeat the whole procedure again
will be 180˚+ ∠POQ. by changing the face.
Method of Reiteration ~ Recording
Table-1 Face: Left Reading at Mean reading Angle Value
(Right swing)
Instrument Sight A B
at to ˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
O P 0 00 00 00 00
Q 61 22 40 22 40 61 22 40 ∠POQ 61˚ 22′ 40′′
R 140 16 20 16 20 140 16 20 ∠QOR 78˚ 53′ 40′′
S 265 30 40 30 40 265 30 40 ∠ROS 125˚ 14′ 20′′
P 0 00 00 00 00
Method of Reiteration ~ Recording
Table-2 Face: Right Reading at Mean reading Angle Value
(Left swing)
Instrument Sight A B
at to ˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
O P 0 00 00 00 00
Q 61 22 20 22 20 61 22 20 ∠POQ 61˚ 22′ 20′′
R 140 16 20 16 00 140 16 00 ∠QOR 78˚ 53′ 40′′
S 265 30 40 30 00 265 30 00 ∠ROS 125˚ 14′ 00′′
P 0 00 00 00 00
Final (mean) values of the horizontal angles are:

∠POQ = (61˚ 22′ 40′′ + 61˚ 22′ 20′′) / 2 = 61˚ 22′ 30′′
∠QOR = (78˚ 53′ 40′′ + 78˚ 53′ 40′′/ 2 = 78˚ 53′ 40′′
∠ROS = (125˚ 14′ 20′′ + 125˚ 14′ 00′′/ 2 = 125˚ 14′ 10′′
Sets for precision work: For measuring an angle to the highest degree of precision, several sets of
repetitions are usually taken.
Next class
Will continue this chapter
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Introduction
• Vernier theodolite
• Measurement of vertical angles
• Other operations with theodolite
• Theodolite traversing
Measurement of vertical angles
• A vertical line is made by an inclined line of sight with the horizontal.
• It may be inclined upwards or, downwards from the horizontal line.
• Angle of elevation
• Angle of depression
• To measure a vertical angle, the instrument should be levelled with
reference to the altitude bubble.
Measurement of vertical angles ~ Procedure
• Set up the instrument and level the instrument with reference to the plate
level.
• Level the instrument with reference to the altitude level.
• Keep the altitude level parallel to any two foot screws and bring the bubble central.
• Rotate the telescope through 90˚ till the altitude bubble is on the third screw.
• Bring the bubble to the centre with the third food screw.
• Repeat the procedure till the bubble is central in both the positions.
• Loose the vertical circle clamp and rotate the telescope in vertical plane to
sight the object.
• Use vertical circle tangent screw for accurate bisection.
• Read both verniers (i.e. C and D) of vertical circle.
• The mean of the two gives the vertical circle.
• Similar observation may be made with another face. The average of the two
will give the required angle.
Measurement of vertical angles ~ Recording
Table-1 Face: Left Reading at Mean reading Vertical Value
(Right swing) angle
Instrument Sight C D
at to ˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
O P 15 30 40 30 40 15 30 40
Q 10 22 00 22 00 10 22 00 ∠POQ 5˚ 08′ 40′′
R (-)8 50 20 50 20 (-)8 50 20 ∠POR 24˚ 21′ 00′′
Table-2 Face: Right Reading at Mean reading Vertical Value

(Left swing) angle
Instrument Sight C D
at to ˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
O P
Q
R
Other operations with theodolite
• Measuring magnetic bearing of a line
• Prolonging a straight line
• Laying a straight line between two points
• Locating the point of intersection of two lines
• Measuring deflection angles
• Laying off a given angle by repetition
Measuring magnetic bearing of a line
Say, we have to determine magnetic bearing of a line PQ. N Q
1. Set the instrument at P and level it accurately.
2. Set the Vernier A accurately to zero P
• Using upper clamp and upper tangent screw.
3. Make the line of sight in the direction of magnetic
meridian
• Release the lower clamp and the magnetic needle of the compass.
• Rotate the instrument till the magnetic needle roughly points to
north.
• Clamp the lower clamp. Using the lower tangent screw, bring the
needle exactly against the mark so that it is in magnetic meridian.
4. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to bisect
the signal at Q
• Bisect Q accurately using the upper tangent screw. Read verniers A
and B.
5. Change the face and repeat steps 2, 3 and 4. The average of
the two give the correct bearing of !he line PQ.
Prolonging a straight line
There are three methods:
i. Direct method
ii. By back sighting
iii. By double sighting
Laying a straight line between two points
~ fixing intermediate points on a straight line
There may be three different cases:

i. The stations are inter-visible
ii. The stations are visible only from an intermediate point
iii. The stations are not visible from any intermediate point
Locating the point of intersection of two lines
• Set up the instrument at P and bisect the
signal at Q.
• Mark two points 1 and 2 along the line
of sight, approximately on either side of
the estimated point of intersection.
• Mark a line joining point 1 and 2.
• Set up the instrument at R and bisect the
signal at S.
• To find the point of intersection O,
obtain a point on the line 1-2 sighting
from R to S.
Measuring deflection angles
• Set up the instrument at P and set zero
reading for Vernier A, using upper clamp
and upper tangent screw.
• Release the lower clamp and bisect the
signal at R. Accurately bisect it using lower
tangent screw.
• Transit the telescope.
• Release the upper clamp and bisect the
signal at Q. Accurately bisect it using upper
tangent screw. This will give the deflection
angle at P.
Laying off a given angle by repetition
Say, an angle ∠POQ is given (say 24˚20′00′′),
which have to lay off on ground.
• Set up the instrument at O and set zero reading
for Vernier A, using upper clamp and upper
tangent screw.
• Release the lower clamp and bisect the signal at
P. Accurately bisect it using lower tangent screw.
• Using the upper clamp and upper tangent screw,
rotate the instrument to read the given angle
(24˚20′00′′). Mark the point as Q′.
• Measure the angle ∠POQ′ by the repetition
method and calculate the difference from the
given angle (say, 7′′).
• To fix the point Q the perpendicular distance QQ′
can be calculated from line OQ′. Measure the
distance OQ′ using chain or, tape which is
required for the calculation.
Theodolite traversing
Traversing includes the survey of framework or, skeleton and filling up of
details with offsets. For theodolite traversing, the skeleton is not restricted to
framework of triangles as in chain surveying and can have any shape.
Steps: Reconnaissance -> Decide surveying strategy -> Actual survey work
There are different methods:
1. Traversing with magnetic bearing
2. Traversing by interior or, exterior angles
3. Traversing by deflection angles
Traversing by angles
4. Open traverse with direct angles
5. Closed traverse with central angles
1. Traversing with magnetic bearing
The magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by a theodolite fitted
with a compass. However, the direction of magnetic meridian is not
established at each station.
• The magnetic bearings of the lines are measured with reference to the direction of
magnetic meridian established at the first station.
• Therefore, this method more accurate than the loose needle method where the
direction of magnetic meridian is established at each station (generally used in
compass survey).
There are different methods:

i. Direct method with transiting
ii. Direct method without transiting
iii. Back bearing method
i. Direct method with transiting
1. Set the theodolite at P and level it. Set the
vernier A exactly to zero reading, using
upper clamp and upper tangent screw.
2. Loose the clamp of the magnetic needle.
Using lower clamp and tangent screw
point the telescope to the magnetic
meridian and set the magnetic needle to
read exactly zero.
3. Loose the upper clamp and rotate the
telescope clockwise to sight Q. Bisect Q
accurately by using upper tangent screw.
Read vernier A which gives the magnetic
bearing of the line PQ. 6. Transit the telescope. The line of sight
will now in the direction of PQ while the
4. Keeping both the clamps tight, move the instrument reads the bearing of PQ.
instrument and set up and level it at Q.
7. Using the upper clamp and tangent screw,
5. Using lower clamp and tangent screw, take a foresight on R. Read Vernier A
take a back sight on P. See that the which gives the magnetic bearing of QR.
reading on the vernier A is still the same
as the bearing of PQ. 8. Continue the process at other stations.
i. Direct method with transiting ~ Recording
Instrument Sight Reading at Line Bearing
at to A B
˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
P 0 00 00 00 00
Q 40 21 20 21 20 PQ 40 21 20
Q R 72 16 40 16 40 QR 72 16 40
R S 191 14 00 14 00 RS 191 14 00
S T 275 43 40 43 40 ST 275 43 40
T P 350 22 40 22 40 TP 350 22 40
ii. Direct method without transiting
1. Set the theodolite at P and level it. Set the
vernier A exactly to zero reading, using
upper clamp and upper tangent screw.
2. Loose the clamp of the magnetic needle.
Using lower clamp and tangent screw
point the telescope to the magnetic
meridian and set the magnetic needle to
read exactly zero.
3. Loose the upper clamp and rotate the
telescope clockwise to sight Q. Bisect Q
accurately by using upper tangent screw. 6. Transit the telescope. The line of sight is out of
Read vernier A which gives the magnetic orientation by 180˚.
bearing of the line PQ. 6. Using the upper clamp and tangent screw, take
a foresight on R. Read Vernier A. Correction
4. Keeping both the clamps tight, move the of 180˚ is needed to get the correct bearing of
instrument and set up and level it at Q. QR.
5. Using lower clamp and tangent screw, 7. Keeping both the clamps tight, shift the
take a back sight on P. See that the instrument at next station and repeat the
reading on the vernier A is still the same procedure from step-4. No correction is
as the bearing of PQ. needed in the reading as LOS is out of
orientation by 360˚.
ii. Direct method without transiting ~ Recording
Instrument Sight Reading at Line Bearing
at to A B
˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
P 0 00 00 00 00
Q 40 21 20 21 20 PQ 40 21 20
Q R 252 16 40 16 40 QR 72 16 40
R S 191 14 00 14 00 RS 191 14 00
S T 95 43 40 43 40 ST 275 43 40
T P 350 22 40 22 40 TP 350 22 40
iii. Back bearing method
• Set the instrument at P and measure the
magnetic bearing of PQ as before.
• Shift the instrument and set at Q. Before
taking back sight on P, set Vernier A to read
back bearing of PQ, and fix the upper clamp.
• Using lower clamp and tangent screw, take a
back sight on P. The instrument is now
oriented since the line of sight is along QP
when the instrument is reading the bearing of
QP (or back bearing of PQ).
• Loose upper clamp and rotate the theodolite
clockwise to take a fore sight on R. The
reading on Vernier A gives directly the
bearing on QR.
• The process is repeated at other stations.
2. Traversing by interior or, exterior angles
1. Set the theodolite at P and level it.
Measure the magnetic bearing of
the line PQ.
2. Set the vernier A exactly to zero
reading, using upper clamp and
upper tangent screw.
3. Using lower clamp and tangent
screw, swing the theodolite to sight
Q exactly.
4. Release the upper clamp and swing
the instrument to sight last station
T and exactly bisect it using
tangent screw. This gives the
interior angle at P.
5. Shift the instrument at Q and repeat
the procedure from step-2.
3. Traversing by deflection angles
Measure the magnetic bearing of
the line PQ.
2. Set the vernier A exactly to zero
reading, using upper clamp and
upper tangent screw.
3. Using lower clamp and tangent
screw, swing the theodolite to sight
last station T exactly. Transit the
telescope.
the instrument to Q and exactly
bisect it using tangent screw. This
gives the deflection angle at P.
5. Shift the instrument at Q and repeat
the procedure from step-2.
4. Open traverse with direct angles
Measure the magnetic bearing of the
line PQ.
2. Shift the instrument to the next station
Q. Set the vernier A exactly to zero
reading, using upper clamp and upper
tangent screw.
3. Using lower clamp and tangent screw,
swing the theodolite to sight P exactly.
the instrument to sight R and exactly
bisect it using tangent screw. This
gives the angle between two lines QP
and QR.
5. Shift the instrument at other stations
and repeat the procedure from step-2.
5. Closed traverse with central angles
The method of reiteration can be used for a closed traverse, as described below:
1. Choose a convenient point O within the
traverse, from where all the points are
visible and chaining is also possible to
all the points.
2. Set the theodolite at O and level it. Set
the Vernier A exactly to zero reading,
using upper clamp and upper tangent
screw.
3. Using lower clamp and tangent screw,
swing the theodolite to sight P exactly.
4. Release the upper clamp and swing the 6. Finally complete the horizon by taking
instrument to sight Q and exactly bisect a sight to the 1 st station P.
it using tangent screw. This gives the
central angle ∠POQ. 7. Accuracy can be improved by taking
5. Similarly take sights to the other another set of reading by changing the
stations R, S and T and note the angles. face, starting with a reading other than
zero.
5. Closed traverse with central angles ~ Recording
Instrument Sight Reading at Angle Horizontal angle
at to A B
˚ ′ ′′ ′ ′′ ˚ ′ ′′
O P 0 00 00 00 00
Q 50 23 40 23 40 POQ 50 23 40
R 108 24 00 24 00 QOR 58 00 20
S 194 14 20 14 20 ROS 85 50 20
T 275 43 40 43 40 SOT 81 29 20
P 359 59 40 59 40 TOP 84 16 00
Next class
Will continue this chapter
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Measurement of vertical angles
• Other operations with theodolite
• Theodolite traversing
• Included angles from bearings
• Fundamental lines and desired relations
• Errors in theodolite work
• Electronic theodolite
Included angles from bearings
Given the bearings of a traverse, it is possible to calculate the included
angles, which can be used for plotting the traverse.
N.B. Traverse is a control network of lines running through the stations. It can
be an open traverse or closed traverse.
• At the point where two survey lines meet, two angles are formed ~ an
exterior angle and an interior angle.
• Rules are there to calculate included angles, but a rough sketch is
recommended for this purpose.
Included angles from WCBs
Theodolite measures Whole Circle Bearings (WCB).
The interior angle is generally < 180˚

but not necessarily.
Included angle = Bearing of previous line- Bearing of next line

• Subtract from 360˚ if calculated angle > 180˚ N
• Add 360˚ if calculated angle negative, FB of BC
BB of AB B
which will be an exterior angle.
α
∠ABC = Bearing of BA - Bearing of BC N
= BB of AB – FB of BC A
C
FB of AB
Included angles from WCBs
Bearings from included angles
Reverse process and a neat sketch of the traverse is useful for the
calculation.
• Bearing of line AB = θ1
• Bearing of next line BC = θ2 = θ1 + α – 180˚
• Bearing of next line CD = θ3 = θ2 + β – 180˚
So, add the measured clockwise angles to the bearing of the previous
line. If the sum is more than 180° then deduct 180°.
∠ABC = Bearing of BA - Bearing of BC
Bearing of BC = Bearing of BA - ∠ABC
Fundamental lines and desired relations
All the methods discussed before assume that, the instrument is properly
adjusted. Some, techniques (e.g. taking reading from both faces) have
already discussed to eliminate some errors.
• The fundamental lines and desired relations between then should be
fixed after adjustment. The fundamental lines for a theodolite are:
i. The vertical axis
ii. The horizontal axis or, trunnion axis
iii. The line of collimation or, line of sight
iv. Axis of plate level
v. Axis of altitude level
The vertical axis: The axis about which the
instrument can be rotated in a horizontal plane.
The horizontal axis (trunnion axis): The axis
about which the telescope and the vertical
circle rotate in vertical plane.
Line of collimation (LOS): The line joining
the intersection of the cross-hairs and the
optical centre of the object glass and its
continuation.
The axis of level tube (bubble line): Straight
line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
level tube at its centre. The axis of the level-
tube is horizontal when the bubble is central.
The relationships between these axes are:
• The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis: The line of sight
will generate a vertical plane when the telescope is transited.
• The axis of the plate level must lie in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis:
The vertical axis will be truly vertical when the bubble is in the centre of its run.
• The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the
horizontal axis: The line of sight will generate a
vertical plane when the telescope is rotated about the
horizontal axis.
• The axis of the altitude level must be parallel to line
of collimation: The vertical angles will be free from
index error due to lack of parallelism.
• The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the
line of collimation is horizontal: The vertical angles
will be free from index error due to displacement of
the vernier.
Errors in theodolite work
The sources of error in a theodolite work are :
• Instrumental
• Personal
• Natural
Instrumental errors:
• Maladjustment of plate level
• Line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis
• Horizontal axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis
• Axis of altitude level not parallel to the line of collimation
• Eccentricity of inner and outer axes
• Faulty circle graduations
• Eccentric verniers
Line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis
Horizontal axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis
Personal errors:
• Inaccurate centring
• Inaccurate levelling
• Slip
• Manipulating wrong tangent screw
• Errors in sighting and reading ~ inaccurate bisection of target, parallax etc.
Natural errors:
• Unequal atmospheric refraction
• Unequal expansion of parts of telescope and circles due to temperature
changes
• Unequal settlement of tripod
• Wind causing vibrations
Electronic theodolite
• The Vernier or, transit theodolite was a very valuable instrument
earlier and still used in many places.
• The transit theodolite can read an angle accurately up to 20′′ (least
count).
• To improve this instrument many modifications are made with time.
• Optical and electronic theodolites were developed for ease of
operation and greater accuracy, which need less maintenance also.
• These can read an angle accurately up to 1′′ or even less.
• The working principle is same as transit theodolite.
Electronic theodolite
• Recent development.
• The working principle is same as transit
theodolite.
• The graduated circle is made differently and
method of taking reading is also different.
• The angles can be calculated by pressing buttons
and can also be stored.
Electronic theodolite ~ Graduated circle
• Graduated circle is made of glass.
• Graduations are made of special codes
which are readable by photodiods.
• Photodiods converts light into
electrical signal, which is processed into
angles by a microprocessor, which is
displayed digitally on a LED panel.
• The graduated circle can be encoded in
two ways:
• Incremental system
• Absolute encoding system
Electronic theodolite ~ Graduated circle
Incremental system:
• Two photodiods are placed diametrically opposite positions over the glass
circle.
• The circle is encoded by dividing it into large number of divisions.
• One photodiode is fixed in position and denotes zero reading.
• The circle remain static during measurement of angle and the other photodiode
moves.
Absolute encoding system:

• Each position of the circle is uniquely coded.
• The circle is illuminated by internal sources and this light passes through
array of photodiodes.
Electronic theodolite ~ Compensator
• A compensator system is used to eliminate any error due to any
deviation of axis from the true horizontal.
• Single or, dual-axis compensator are used, which can take care any
small tilt of the instrument due to error in levelling.
Fig. 1: Single-axis compensator Fig. 2: Dual-axis compensator

Next class
Will start ~ Traverse Computations
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)
Traverse Computations
Omitted measurements
Calculation of area
Assistant Professor
Outline
1. When the length/bearing/both of only one side is omitted.
a) When the length of one side is omitted.
b) When the bearing of one side is omitted.
c) When the length and bearing of one side is omitted.
2. When the lengths of two sides are omitted.
3. When the length of one side and the bearing of another side are omitted.
4. When the bearings of two sides are omitted.
Calculation of area
• Introduction
• Different methods for the calculation of area of a traverse
• Co-ordinate method
• DMD method
There are four general cases of omitted measurements

c) When both, length and bearing of one side is omitted.
3. When the length of one side and the bearing of another side are
omitted.
3. When length of one side and bearing of another side are omitted
Say, l3 and θ1 are missing.
From equation (i):

Problem 1
For a closed traverse ABCDE, find the missing measurements from the
data given below:
Solution:
Line Length Bearing Latitude Departure
(m) (W.C.B.)
AB 301.5 74˚30′
BC 288.4 119˚45′
CD 199.5 210˚45′
DE Missing 277˚45′
EA 201.4 Missing
Problem 1 ~ Solution ~ contd.
4. When the bearings of two sides are omitted
Say,
Problem 2
For a closed traverse ABCD, find the missing measurements from the
data given below: Solution:
(m) (W.C.B.)
AB 240 Missing
BC 420 102˚30′
CD 180 Missing
DA 480 270˚00′
Problem 2 ~ Solution ~ contd.
From equation (i):
Calculation of area
Introduction
Different methods for the calculation of area of a traverse
Co-ordinate method
DMD method
Introduction
The primary objective of surveying is to prepare a plan or map.
After a plan/map is prepared, it is often required to determine the area of
the traverse surveyed or, to determine the quantities of earthwork.
N.B. The area of land means the area as projected on a horizontal plane
which is not the area of actual surface.
The areas of regular geometrical shapes can be calculated using standard
formulas. A traverse is generally a closed polygon and there are many
methods to determine the area.
N.B. The area can also be computed from the survey data without need
of the plan.
Calculation of area of a traverse
The following are the general methods of calculating areas:
• Methods directly based on the field measurements:
• From coordinates of vertices
• From latitudes and double meridian distances (D.M.D. method)
• From departure and total latitudes
• By dividing into triangles
• By offsets to base line:
• Mid-ordinate rule
• Average ordinate rule
• Trapezoidal rule
• Simpson’s one third rule
• Calculation of area from a plan drawn:
• Determining area using a tracing paper
• Determining area using a planimeter
Calculation of area from co-ordinates of vertices
Calculation of area from co-ordinates of vertices
Problem 1
The following table shows corrected latitudes and departures for the
sides of a closed traverse ABCD. Find area of the traverse using co-
ordinate method. Solution:
Line Latitude Departure Station North (y) East (x)
A 100 100
AB 162 6
B 262 106
BC 22 373
C 284 479
CD -184 6
D 100 485
DA 0 -385
Problem 1 ~ Solution
1
Station x y Area =  x1  y4  y2   x2  y1  y3   x3  y2  y4   x4  y3  y1  
2
A 100 100
B 106 262
C 479 284
D 485 100
Latitudes and double meridian distances method
Latitudes and double meridian distances method
Problem 2
The following table shows corrected latitudes and departures for the
sides of a closed traverse ABCD. Find area of the traverse using DMD
method. Solution:
Line Latitude (L) Departure (D) D.M.D. D.M.D. × L
AB 162 6 6
BC 22 373
CD -184 6
DA 0 -385
Next class
Will start a new chapter…
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)

Assistant Professor
• Plotting a traverse
• Latitude and departure of lines
• Consecutive and independent coordinates
• Closing error
• Balancing a traverse
• Gale’s traverse table
• Omitted measurements
• Calculation of area
Outline
• Introduction
• Co-ordinate method of plotting
• Independent co-ordinates
• Closing error
• Balancing the traverse
• Bowditch's method
• Transit method
• Graphical method
• Axis method
Introduction
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey
lines form the framework using the measured directions/angles and
lengths of the survey lines.
• When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point, it is
known as a closed traverse. If the circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to
be an open traverse.
• Closed traverse: For survey of any large area/ locating boundary.
• Open traverse: Long narrow strip of land e.g. road, canal, coast line.
Plotting a traverse
Different methods of plotting a traverse is already discussed in the
chapter compass surveying. e.g.
i. Plotting by bearings
ii. Plotting by included angles
iii. Plotting by rectangular coordinates
iv. Plotting by deflection angles
v. Plotting by tangent lengths
vi. Plotting by chords
• The co-ordinate method of plotting will be discussed in detail.

Co-ordinate method of plotting
In this method, survey stations are plotted by calculating their co-
ordinates. This method is by far the most practical and accurate one for
plotting traverses.
• The biggest advantage in this method of plotting is that the closing
error can be eliminated by balancing, prior to plotting.
• The methods of calculating the co-ordinates include calculating
consecutive co-ordinates at first and then the independent co-
ordinates.
• Consecutive co-ordinates: Latitudes and Departures of lines.
• Independent co-ordinates: Co-ordinates of traverse stations with
respect to a common origin.
Latitudes and Departures of lines
Latitude: Projection of a line on north-south meridian.
Departure: Projection of a line on east-west direction.
For a line AB with length l and bearing θ,

Latitude, L = l cos θ
Departure, D = l sin θ
The sign of latitude and departure can be positive or, negative based on
the bearing angle (i.e. according to the quadrant on which the line is
lying) as shown in the figure above.
Calculations of latitudes and departures
Line Length W.C.B. Latitude, L Departure, D
(l) (θ) (l cos θ) (l sin θ)
AB 220 m 30˚20' +191.61 +112.12
BC 150 m 120˚45' -76.69 +128.91
CD 375 m 208˚50' -328.51 -180.85
DE 284 m 290˚38' +100.08 -265.78
Independent co-ordinates
• The co-ordinates of traverse stations are generally calculated with
respect to a common origin.
• The total latitude and departure of any point with respect to a common
origin are known as independent co-ordinates or total co-ordinates of
the point.
• Total latitude (or departure) of end point of a traverse = total latitudes
(or departures) of first point of traverse plus the algebraic sum of all
the latitudes (or departures).
Independent co-ordinates
Line Latitude Departure Station Total co-ordinates
N S E W N E
A 300 (Assumed) 300 (Assumed)
AB 191.61 112.12
B 491.61 412.12
BC 76.69 128.91
C 414.92 541.03
CD 328.51 180.85
D 86.41 360.18
DE 100.08 265.78
E 186.49 94.40
Closing error
If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the
end point of the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting
point, due to the errors in the field measurements of angles and
distances. Such error is known as closing error.
• In a closed traverse the algebraic sum of the latitudes should be zero
and the algebraic sum of the departures should be zero, i.e.
Closing error
Balancing the traverse
Balancing the traverse: It is the operation of applying corrections to the
latitudes and departures so that there will be no closing error.
i.e. after balancing the sum of latitudes and departures will become zero.
Common methods for balancing:

• Transit method
• Axis method
Bowditch's method
• Used where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision.
• The total error in latitude   L  and the total error in departure   D  is
distributed in proportion to the lengths of the side.
If, l = Length of any side.

 l = Perimeter of the traverse.
l l
Correction in latitude, CL   L ; Correction in departure, CD   D
l l
Transit method
Used where angular measurements are more precise than the linear
measurements.
L D
Correction in latitude, CL   L ; Correction in departure, CD   D
 LT  DT
where,
L = Latitude of any line
D = Departure of any line
LT = Arithmetic sum of latitudes
DT = Arithmetic sum of departures
Problem 1
For a closed traverse ABCDE, calculated latitudes and departures for the
lines joining the stations are as given below:
Line Latitude Departure
AB + 62.97 + 63.34
BC + 67.61 + 209.10
CD - 143.67 + 47.05
DE - 104.97 - 119.56
EA + 118.58 - 199.71
Check for the closing error and apply necessary corrections using:
i) Bowdith’s rule and
ii) Transit rule
Solution
Closing error (e) =   L     D   0.522  0.222  0.565.
2 2
Direction of closing error (δ) = tan   D  L   tan  0.22 / 0.52   22 56.

1 1 o
Using Bowdith’s rule:

Correction in Correction in Corrected Corrected
Latitude Departure Length (l)
Line latitude (CL) departure (CD) Latitude Departure
(L) (D)  L2  D 2   Ll l  Dl l L  CL D  CD
AB 62.97 63.34 89.32 - 0.055 - 0.023 62.915 63.317
BC 67.61 209.1 219.76 - 0.134 - 0.057 67.476 209.043
CD -143.67 47.05 151.18 - 0.092 - 0.039 -143.762 47.011
DE -104.97 -119.56 159.10 - 0.097 - 0.041 -105.067 -119.601
EA 118.58 -199.71 232.26 - 0.142 - 0.060 118.438 -199.77
ΣL = ΣD = Σl = ΣCL = ΣCD = ΣL = ΣD =
Sum
0.52 0.22 851.62 - 0.52 - 0.22 0 0
Solution
Using Transit rule:
Correction in Correction in Corrected Corrected
Latitude Departure latitude (C ) departure (CD) Latitude Departure
Line L
(L) (D)
 L  L  LT  D  D  DT L  CL D  CD
AB 62.97 63.34 - 0.066 - 0.022 62.904 63.318
BC 67.61 209.1 - 0.071 - 0.072 67.539 209.028
CD -143.67 47.05 - 0.150 - 0.016 -143.82 47.034
DE -104.97 -119.56 - 0.110 - 0.041 -105.08 -119.601
EA 118.58 -199.71 - 0.124 - 0.069 118.456 -199.779
ΣL = ΣD = ΣCL = ΣCD = ΣL = ΣD =
Sum
0.52 0.22 - 0.52 - 0.22 0 0
Arithmetic ΣLT= ΣDT=
sum
497.8 638.76  Sum, taking absolute values
Next class
Will continue ~ Traverse Computations
Thank you…
Surveying
(CE2005)

Assistant Professor
Outline
• Introduction
• Closing error
• Balancing the traverse
• Transit method
• Axis method
• Gale’s traverse table
• Omitted measurements
Balancing the traverse
Balancing the traverse: It is the operation of applying corrections to the
latitudes and departures so that there will be no closing error.
i.e. after balancing the sum of latitudes and departures will become zero.
Common methods for balancing:

• Transit method
• Axis method
Graphical method
This is graphical version of Bowditch’s rule, useful for compass survey, where the
traverse can be adjusted after plotting without calculating latitudes and departures.
• To adjust a traverse ABCDEA′, draw a line equal to
the perimeter of the traverse to a suitable scale and
mark the stations A, B, C etc.
• At the end of this line, draw a line parallel to the
closing error and mark it to the same scale as AA′.
Join A′ with the starting point.
• Draw lines parallel to AA′ through B, C, D etc.
which will give the amount of corrections as BB′,
CC′ etc.
• Draw parallel lines to the closing error through the
traverse points and mark corresponding corrections
on it as BB′, CC′ etc.
• Join A, B′, C′, D′, E′, A to get the corrected traverse
AB′C′D′E′.
Axis method
This method is used when the angles are measured very accurately, the corrections
being applied to lengths only. To adjust a traverse abcdefa1, with closing error aa1:
• Join a1a and extend it to cut the side cd at x.
• The line a1x is the axis of adjustment. It should be so
chosen that it divides the traverse approximately into
two equal parts.
• Bisect a1a at A.
• Join xb, xe, ef.
• Draw a line AB parallel to ab through A, cutting
the extended line xb.
• Draw line BC parallel to bc and cutting the
extended line xc at C.
• Similarly, draw line AF and FE. Draw line ED
parallel to ed through E, cutting the line xd at D.
• ABCDEF is the adjusted traverse.
Axis method
When the closing error is not dividing the
traverse approximately into two equal parts,
transfer the closing error to other point.
• Draw a line ae′ parallel and equal to a1e.

• Draw e′d′ parallel and equal to ed, through e′.
• The new un adjusted traverse is now dcbae′d′
with closing error dd′.
• dd′ cuts the side ab at x, dividing the traverse
approximately into two equal parts.
• Now, this traverse can be adjusted to ABCDE.
Gale’s traverse table
Traverse computations are usually done and the traverse is balanced in a tabular
form. The common form of the table is known as Gale’s Traverse Table. The
necessary steps for the preparation of Gale’s Traverse Table are:
• Adjust the interior angles to satisfy the geometrical conditions, i.e. sum of
interior angles to be equal to (2n- 4) right angles. Bearings (if measured) are
adjusted for local attraction if any.
• Starting with observed bearings of one line, calculate the bearings of all other
lines. Convert the whole circle bearings to the reduced bearing.
• Calculate the latitudes and departures (consecutive co-ordinates) of the lines and
find their algebraic sum, i.e. ΣL and ΣD .
• Apply necessary corrections to the latitudes and departures of the lines so that
ΣL=0 and ΣD=0 . Use transit rule for theodolite traverse and Bowditch’s rule for
compass traverse.
• Using the corrected consecutive co-ordinates, calcu1ate the independent co-
ordinates for the points so that they are all positive, the whole of the traverse thus
lying in the North East quadrant.
Gale’s traverse table
Independent co-
Line
Inst. Corr Corr. in Corr. in Corr. Corr. ordinates
length Angle Corr. W.C.B. R.B. Latitude Departure
Stn. angles latitude departure latitude departure
(m) N E
A 80˚41′10′′ -1′4′′ 80˚40′06′′ 50 50

15.20
(AB) 87˚53′30′′ N87˚53′30′′E 0.5592 15.1897 -0.0023 -0.0359 0.5569 15.1538
B 96˚32′30′′ -1′4′′ 96˚31′26′′ 50.5569 65.1538
21.40
(BC) 171˚22′04′′ S8˚37′56′′E -21.1576 3.2120 -0.0857 -0.0076 -21.2433 3.2044
C 87˚02′20′′ -1′4′′ 87˚01′16′′ 29.3136 68.3582

13.90
(CD) 264˚20′48′′ S84˚20′48′′W -1.3693 -13.8324 -0.0055 -0.0327 -1.3748 -13.8651
D 95˚48′16′′ -1′4′′ 95˚47′12′′ 27.9388 54.4931

22.60
(DA) 348˚33′36′′ N11˚26′14′′W 22.1510 -4.4825 -0.0898 -0.0106 22.0612 -4.4931
SUM 360˚4′16′′ -4′16′′ 360˚ 0.1833 0.0868 -0.1833 -0.0868 0.0000 0.0000
Arithmetic sum = 45.2373 36.7155
The length and direction of each line is generally measured in the field.
However, it may not be possible to take all the measurements due to obstacles
or may be missed because of some over-sight.
Such omitted measurements or missing quantities can be calculated by
latitudes and departures provided, the quantities required are not more than
two.
For a closed traverse, ΣL and ΣD are zero, i.e.
 L  l1 cos1  l2 cos 2  l3 cos 3  ...  0 (1)
 D  l1 sin 1  l2 sin  2  l3 sin 3  ...  0 (2)
where l1, l2, l3, … etc. are the lengths of the lines and θ1, θ2, θ3, … etc. their
bearings. So, two missing quantities can be calculated using the above two
equations.
There are four general cases of omitted measurements

c) When both, length and bearing of one side is omitted.
3. When the length of one side and the bearing of another side are
omitted.
1. When the length/bearing/both of only one side is omitted
Case (a) and (b): When the length/bearing of one side is omitted
 L  l1 cos1  l2 cos 2  l3 cos3  ...  0 (1)
 D  l1 sin 1  l2 sin  2  l3 sin 3  ...  0 (2)
Say, the length/bearing of a line CD for a closed traverse ABCD is
omitted. So, sum of latitudes of all the remaining lines can be
calculated, say ΣL′. Then,
 L   L   l cos  CD  0
or,  L  Latitude of line CD = 0
or, Latitude of line CD = -  L
Similarly, Departure of line CD = -  D
1. When the length/bearing/both of only one side is omitted
Case (c): When both, length and bearing of one side are omitted
 L  l1 cos1  l2 cos 2  l3 cos3  ...  0 (1)
 D  l1 sin 1  l2 sin  2  l3 sin 3  ...  0 (2)
Say, both length and bearing of a line CD for a closed traverse ABCD is
omitted. So, sum of latitudes of all the remaining lines can be
calculated, say ΣL′. Then,
 L   L   l cos  CD  0
or,  L  Latitude of line CD = 0
or, Latitude of line CD = -  L
Similarly, Departure of line CD = -  D
Problem 1
For a closed traverse ABCD, the length and bearing of line CD were not
recorded during survey. Find the missing measurements from the data
given below:
Solution:
(m) (W.C.B.)
AB 202 315˚00′
BC 288 60˚30′
CD Missing Missing
DA 252 240˚00′
2. When the lengths of two sides are omitted
Problem 2
For a closed traverse ABCDE, find the missing measurements from the
data given below:
Solution:
Line Length Bearing
(m) (W.C.B.)
AB 275.2 14˚31ʹ
BC Missing 319˚42ʹ
CD Missing 347˚15ʹ
DE 240.0 5˚16ʹ
EA 1566.4 168˚12ʹ
Next class
Will continue ~ Traverse Computations
Thank you…

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Surveying

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

The main types of levels:

Solid Telescopic Folding

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

100.5 m +2.5 m =103 m 100.2 m +2.3 m

• Column 1 to 4 show data obtained from field.

9.594 = 156.783-150.250 check

9.594 Σ B.S.-Σ F.S. Σ Rise - Σ Fall = 6.533 = 156.783-150.250 check

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

True difference in elevation

The value is different from the

From the last position of instrument, five pegs at 20 m intervals are to

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

The sensitiveness of a bubble tube can be increased by:

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

When the height of wall is very high and

Case-2: Not possible to go around the

Method of simultaneous observations

H = Difference in elevation between two stations A and B in m

Time Location Barometric Temp Solution:

Pressure (cm of mercury) = 76 ± 2.679 (T-100)

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

• The lower plate have a lower clamp

It should be noted, however, that in repeating angles, operations such as

Final (mean) values of the horizontal angles are:

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

Table-2 Face: Right Reading at Mean reading Vertical Value

There may be three different cases:

There are different methods:

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

The interior angle is generally < 180˚

Included angle = Bearing of previous line- Bearing of next line

Absolute encoding system:

Fig. 1: Single-axis compensator Fig. 2: Dual-axis compensator

1. When the length/bearing/both of only one side is omitted.

From equation (i):

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

• The co-ordinate method of plotting will be discussed in detail.

For a line AB with length l and bearing θ,

Common methods for balancing:

If, l = Length of any side.

Direction of closing error (δ) = tan   D  L   tan  0.22 / 0.52   22 56.

Using Bowdith’s rule:

Dr. Bibekananda Mandal

Common methods for balancing:

• Draw a line ae′ parallel and equal to a1e.

A 80˚41′10′′ -1′4′′ 80˚40′06′′ 50 50

B 96˚32′30′′ -1′4′′ 96˚31′26′′ 50.5569 65.1538

C 87˚02′20′′ -1′4′′ 87˚01′16′′ 29.3136 68.3582

D 95˚48′16′′ -1′4′′ 95˚47′12′′ 27.9388 54.4931

1. When the length/bearing/both of only one side is omitted.

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