The University College of Applied Sciences

UCAS

Engineering Dept.

Highways & Transportation

Engineering
(BENG 4326)

Instructors: Dr. Y. R. Sarraj

CHAPTER 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF:
THE DRIVER,
THE PEDESTRIAN,
THE VEHICLE, AND
THE ROAD

Highways & Transportation Engineering

(BENG 4326)
TEXT BOOK
CHAPTER THREE
PAGE 57
INTRODUCTION
Components of highway mode of transportation
 Thefour main components of the highway
mode of transportation are the driver, the
pedestrian, the vehicle, and the road.

 Thebicycle is also becoming an important

component in the design of urban highways
and streets.
CYCLING
INTRODUCTION
Importance of knowledge of characteristics
 To provide efficient and safe highway
transportation, a knowledge of the
characteristics and limitations of each of
these components is essential.
 To be aware of the interrelationships among
these components.
 important when using traffic engineering
measures such as traffic control devices.
3.1 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS

SOURCE: GARBER, PAGE 58

3.1 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS
Introduction

 Oneproblem that faces traffic and

transportation engineers is:
 the varying skills and
 perceptual abilities of drivers on the
highway, demonstrated by a wide range of
abilities to
 hear,

 See (most important),

 evaluate, and

 react to information.
3.1 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS
Introduction

 Studies
have shown that these abilities
may also vary in an individual under
different conditions, such as:
 the influence of alcohol,
 fatigue, and
 the time of day.
VISUAL RECEPTION ‫االستقبال البصري‬

 The principal characteristics of the eye are;

 Visual acuity, ‫حدة البصر‬

 Peripheral vision, )‫الرؤية المحيطية (الهامشية‬

 Color vision, ‫رؤية األلوان‬

 Glare vision and recovery, ‫رؤية الوهج واالسترداد‬

 and Depth perception ‫إدراك العمق‬

VISUAL RECEPTION- VISUAL ACUITY
 Twotypes of visual acuity are of
importance in traffic and highway
emergencies:

 Static when both the object and the driver

are stationary
 Dynamic visual acuity.
VISUAL RECEPTION- VISUAL ACUITY
Static visual acuity.

 When other visual factors are held constant at

an acceptable level,
the optimal time required for
identification of an object with no relative movement
is
between 0.5 and 1.0 seconds.
‫المرجع‪ :‬دليل معايير السالمة المرورية على الطرق‪ ،‬وزارة النقل والمواصالت‪ ،‬فلسطين ‪ ،2013‬ص ‪12‬‬
VISUAL RECEPTION- COLOR VISION

 Color vision is the ability to differentiate one

color from another,
 but deficiency in this ability, usually referred to as
color blindness,
 It is not of great significance in highway driving
because other ways of recognizing traffic information
devices (e.g., shape) can compensate for it.
e.g. Traffic signals …. Bigger red light
Pedestrian green light ….. animation
 Bigger red light
COLOR VISION

animation
VISUAL RECEPTION- COLOR VISION

black and white

black and yellow

 Combinations of:
black and white and black and yellow
have been shown to be those to which
the eye is most sensitive.
GLARE VISION AND RECOVERY
 Occurs when the image reflected by the relatively
bright light appears in the field of vision.
 Glare result in:

a decrease of visibility and

cause discomfort to the eyes.
 It is also known that:
age has a significant effect on the sensitivity to glare,
and that at about age 40, a significant change occurs
in a person's sensitivity to glare..
 VISUAL RECEPTION - DEPTH PERCEPTION
 Depth perception affects the ability of a person to
estimate speed and distance.
 two-lane highways during passing maneuvers:
HEARING PERCEPTION

 The ear receives sound stimuli

 Important to drivers only when

warning sounds, usually given out by

emergency vehicles.
 Loss of some hearing ability is not a
serious problem, since it normally can be
corrected by a hearing aid.
EXAMPLE

 Determine the location of a road sign

3.2 PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS

The process through which a driver, cyclist, or

pedestrian evaluates and reacts to a stimulus can
be divided into four sub processes:
1. Perception: the driver sees a control device,
warning sign, or object on the road
2. Identification: the driver identifies the object
or control device and thus understands the
stimulus
3.2 PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS

3. Emotion: the driver decides what action to

take in response to the stimulus;
for example, to step on the brake pedal,
to pass, or to change lanes
4. Reaction: the driver actually executes the
action decided on during the emotion sub-
process
3.2 PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS

The time that elapses from

the start of perception to the end of
reaction is
the total time required for perception,
identification, emotion, and reaction,
referred to as:
perception-reaction time.
3.2 PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS
Perception-reaction time is an
important factor in the determination of
braking distances,
which in turn dictates the
minimum sight distance required on a
highway and the length of the
yellow phase at a signalized intersection.
3.2 PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS

 The researchers noted that

the 85th-percentile time to brake, obtained
from several situations,
varied from 1.26 to over 3 seconds.
 The reaction time selected for design
purposes should, however, be large enough
to include reaction times for most drivers
using the highways.
3.2 PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS

 Recommendations made by the American

Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
stipulate
2.5 seconds
for stopping-sight distances.
 This includes the decision times for about 90
percent of drivers under most highway
conditions.
SIGHT DISTANCE

HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE VERTICAL SIGHT DISTANCE

Laws of Motion

Vf = V0 + a t
d = V0 t + ½ a t2
Vf2 = V0 2 + 2 a d
Conversion of speed from km/h to m/s

Speed of 1km/h = 1/3.6 m/s

Proof:
1𝑘𝑚 1∗1000 𝑚 1
= = m/s
ℎ 60∗60 𝑠 3.6
EXAMPLES

65km/h = 65*1/3.6 = 18 m/s

Distance traveled = v * t
= 18* 2.5 = 45m
When speed is 100km/h
Distance traveled = (100/3.6)*2.5 =
EXAMPLES
Example 2:
A breakdown of car B occurred resulting to completely stopping of this car.
A driver in car A noticed this breakdown from a distance of 150m and decided to
brake. Do you think a collision will occur if the speed of car A was:
a) 90 km/hr b) 80 km/hr
c) 70 km/hr d) 60 km/hr

150 m

Assume deceleration 1.5m/s2

(Vf)2 =(V0)2 + 2ad
Solution A

150 m

pers.-reac.
km/h m/s d1 m
Time (sec)
90 25.0 2.5 62.5
80 22.2 2.5 55.6 Total
km/h distance
70 19.4 2.5 48.6
m
60 16.67 2.5 41.7
Breaking distance 90 270.8
deceleration 80 220.2
km/h d2 m
(m/s2) 70 174.6
90 1.5 208.3
60 134.3
80 1.5 164.6
70 1.5 126.0
60 1.5 92.6
 Examples
Example 3:
A driver in a vehicle travelling at 95 km/h, shifts her eyes from left to right
and Focuses on construction activities along the right shoulder.
Estimate the distance in meters the vehicle travels as the driver's eyes
shift and fixate.

Solution:
The range of time for moving eyes is 0.1 to 0.3 seconds assume that it is
0.2 seconds on average.

The driver also requires about one second to gain information and
another 0.2 seconds to get back to the original sight.

Total time required = 0.2 + 1 + 0.2 = 1.4 seconds.

Speed (v) = 95 km/h = 95/3.6 = 26.39 m/s
Distance travelled =v*t
= 26.39 * 1.4 = 36.94 m
 3.4 PEDESTRIAN
CHARACTERISTICS

SOURCE: GARBER, PAGE 62

3.4 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

• The pedestrian is the major user of the roadway.

• When the system fails; he/she is a major victim.
• About 28% of all traffic death are pedestrian
fatalities in USA,
in urban area 5000 pedestrians are killed
each year,
and about 76,000 are injured (in 2012).

The National Highway Traffic Safety Association (NHTSA)

http://injury.findlaw.com/car-accidents/pedestrian-accidents-overview.html
3.4 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

• The very young & the very old are most affected
• The traffic engineer is responsible for designing a safe &
convenient facilities for pedestrians
• To save: Small children, elderly, Physically handicapped
and blind

Information required by the designer are:

Space requirements (needs) for pedestrians
Walking & running speeds
Traffic flow characteristics of groups of pedestrians
 3.4 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Space needs
A study indicated that for the 95th percentile:
Shoulder breadth 22.8” = 58 cm use 61 cm
Body depth 13” = 33 cm use 35 cm
We should give the pedestrian slightly more spaces to avoid bodily contact
with others & for things, that many pedestrian carry with them
Total area = 2.3 ft2 = 0.214 m2 (Standing), 61cm*35cm=2135cm2=0.214m2
The above area is useful to determine the space needs or capacity where
pedestrians are standing rather than walking (elevators & conveyance)
 3.4 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Space needs

Example: Assume that the area of Al Yarmook

playground is about 33,000 m2. what is the capacity of
this place for standing people?
Answer.: 154,205 persons
 3.4 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Space needs (continued)

For sidewalks or other pedestrian corridors we should consider the dynamic

spatial requirements for avoiding collisions with other pedestrians.
Allow space of 2.30 m2 / pedestrian for walking freely
Average distance preferred between two pedestrians following each other =
8/ = 244 cm = 2.40m, time spacing of 2 seconds.

Example: Assume that the width of Omar Al Mokhtar

Road is 30 m. Estimate a maximum number of
demonstrator when their walking platoon is 2000m?
Ans. 26086
 3.4 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Walking & running speeds

Under free flow conditions
Pedestrian speed are normally distributed
Range: 2 to 6 ft/sec, or 0.6m/s to 1.82 m/s
2.16 km/h to 6.55 km/h
Mean walking speed: 4.0 to 4.5 ft/s
1.22 m/s to 1.37 m/s
4.4 km/h to 5 km/h
In design use 4 ft/s (1.22 m/s)
If number of elderly is high use (0.9 m/s)
Lower if significant number of handicapped is present
 3.4 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Walking & running speeds

Walking speed decreases with the increase in pedestrian

density.
Running speed
470 ft/min or 7.80 ft/s
= 2.38m/s = 8.6km/h
Fastest speed = 33 ft/s
= 10m/s = 36.2km/h
 3.4 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Example:
a) Determine the time required for a pedestrian to cross a road
of 20m width.
b) Find width of pedestrian crossing if 20pedestrian want to
cross a road of 20m width in 20second.

Answer = 16s
Answer = 6.65m
 3.6 VEHICLE
CHARACTERISTICS

SOURCE: GARBER, PAGE 63

3.6 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

 Criteria for the geometric design of

highways are partly based on:
 the static,
 kinematic, and
 dynamic
characteristics of vehicles.
3.6 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

 Static characteristics include the weight and

size of the vehicle,
 while kinematic characteristics involve the
motion of the vehicle without considering the
forces that cause the motion.
 Dynamic characteristics involve the forces
that cause the motion of the vehicle.
3.6 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

 Since nearly all highways carry both passenger-

automobile and truck traffic, it is essential that
design criteria take into account the
characteristics of different types of vehicles.
 This will aid the highway and/or traffic engineer
in designing highways and traffic-control
systems;
 that allow the safe and smooth operation of a
moving vehicle, particularly during the basic
maneuvers of passing, stopping, and turning.
3.6 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

 Therefore, designing a highway involves the

selection of a design vehicle, whose characteristics
will encompass those of nearly all vehicles expected
to use the highway.
 The characteristics of the design vehicle are then
used to determine criteria for:
 geometric design,
 intersection design, and
 sight-distance requirements.
 3.6.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

 The size of the design vehicle for a highway is

an important factor in the determination of
design standards for several physical
components of the highway:
 lane width,
 shoulder width,
 length and width of parking bays, and
 lengths of vertical curves.
 3.6.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

 The axle weights of the vehicles expected on

the highway are important to determined:

 pavement depths and

 maximum grades.
 3.6.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

 For many years, each state prescribed by law

the size and weight limits for trucks using its
highways, and in some cases local authorities
also imposed more severe restrictions on some
roads.
 Table 3.1 shows some features of static
characteristics for which limits were
prescribed.
 A range of maximum allowable values is given
for each feature.
3.6.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

10.7 18.3 m
10.7 18.3 m
10.7 14.6 m
16.8 25.9 m
16.8 25.9 m
16.8 25.9 m
19.8 24.4 m
18.3 32.0 m
3.6.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
 The static characteristics of vehicles influence
the selection of design criteria for the highway.
 It is therefore necessary that all vehicles be
classified
 AASHTO has selected four general classes of
vehicles:
 passenger cars,
 buses,
 trucks, and
 recreational vehicles.
 the passenger-car class
(sport/utility vehicles)
 A sport utility vehicle
(SUV) is a generic
marketing term for a
vehicle similar to a
station wagon, but
built on a light-truck
chassis It is usually
equipped with four-
wheel drive for on- or
off-road ability, and
with some pretension
or ability to be used as
an off-road vehicle.
 the passenger-car class (vans)
 A van is a kind of vehicle used for transporting goods or
groups of people.
 the passenger-car class (minivans)
 A van is a kind of vehicle used for transporting goods or
groups of people.
 the passenger-car class (pickup truck )
 A pickup truck (also pick-up truck, pickup, bakkie in South Africa, or ute—
an abbreviation of "utility vehicle"—in Australia and New Zealand) is a light
motor vehicle with an open-top rear cargo area (bed) which is almost always
separated from the cab[1] to allow for chassis flex when carrying or pulling
heavy loads
 the Bus class (intercity motor coaches)
 A coach (also motor coach) is a large motor vehicle for
conveying passengers on excursions and on longer distance
express coach scheduled transport between cities - or even
between countries.
 the Bus class (intercity motor coaches)
 Example is New York City Transit buses. New York City
Transit buses, marked on the buses MTA New York City
Bus, is a bus service that operates in all five boroughs of
New York City,
 the Bus class (school bus)

 school bus is a type of bus designed and manufactured for

student transport: carrying children and teenagers to and
from school and school events.
 the Bus class (articulated bus)

 An articulated bus is a bus which is articulated,

essentially meaning it bends in the middle.
the Truck Class
the Truck Class
 the recreational vehicles class
(motor homes)
Recreational vehicle or RV is, in North America, the usual term for a Motor
vehicle or trailer equipped with living space and amenities found in a home.
the recreational vehicles class
(cars with camper trailers)
the recreational vehicles class
(cars with boat trailers)
the recreational vehicles class
(motor homes pulling cars)
 3.6.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
DESIGN VEHICLES

 19 different design vehicles have been

selected to represent the different categories
of vehicles within all four classes.
 Table 3.2 shows the physical dimensions for
each of these design vehicles, and
 Figure 3.1 shows examples of different types
of trucks.
DESIGN VEHICLES
DESIGN VEHICLES
DESIGN VEHICLES (AASHTO)
 AASHTO GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING
A DESIGN VEHICLE:

 For parking lots: passenger car

 For intersections on
residential streets and park
roads: single-unit truck
 For the design of
intersections of state
highways and city streets city transit bus
that serve bus traffic but
with relatively few Large
trucks:
 AASHTO GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING
A DESIGN VEHICLE:

 For intersections of highways

with low-volume large school bus with a
capacity of 84
Average Annual Daily Traffic passengers
(AADT) of 400 or less
Or a conventional bus
with a capacity of
65 passengers
 For intersections of freeway
ramp terminals
arterial highways,
intersections of state highways
industrial streets with high the WB-20 (WB-65 or 67)
traffic volumes,
or with large truck access to local
streets
 DESIGN VEHICLES
MINIMUM TURNING RADII
 DESIGN VEHICLES

AASHTO's Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets.

3.6.2 KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Definition
 kinematic characteristics involve the motion
of the vehicle without considering the forces
that cause the motion.
 The primary element among kinematic
characteristics is the acceleration capability
of the vehicle
3.6.2 KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Importance

Acceleration capability is important in:

 several traffic operations such as:

passing maneuvers and gap acceptance.
 the dimensioning of highway features such as:
freeway ramps and passing lanes
 determining the forces that cause motion.

.
3.6.2 KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Acceleration as a Function of Velocity

The lower the speed,

the higher the acceleration rate
that can be obtained.

Figures 3.4a and 3.4b show maximum

acceleration rates for
passenger cars and
tractor-semitrailers
at different speeds on level roads.
3.6.2 KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
3.6.2 KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
3.6.2 KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS