TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

Code:2170603

Lecture-1
Traffic Characteristics

Lecture by
Prof. Bicky Agarwal
Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering Department
S.P.B Patel Engineering College
 Outline
 What is Traffic Engineering ?

 Scope of traffic Engineering

 Traffic System Components

 Traffic
Characteristics
– Road User Characteristics
– Vehicular Characteristics

– Road Characteristics
What Is Traffic Engineering ?
 Traffic Engineering is the
branch which deals with
science of measuring
traffic ,designing &
operating system to
achieve Safe& efficient
movement of persons as
well as goods.

 Traffic Engineering deals

with regulation,direction
and control of vehicular &
pedestrian traffic so as to
ensure safety.
Scope Of Traffic Engineering
 Traffic Characteristics
 Study
of Road User
Characteristics
 Driver & Pedestrian

 Study
of Vehicular
Characteristics
 Dimension, Weight,
Maximum Turning Radius,
Speed, Braking system,
lighting system, tyres.
 Traffic Studies & Analysis
Traffic Survey
 Traffic Volume Count
 Traffic Speed Study
 O-D study
 Parking Study
 Accident Study
 Traffic Operation-Control
Law & Ordinances
Traffic regulatory
measures such as
speed limit, one
way traffic, U-turn
prohibited.
Traffic control
device as sign,
signals.
 Planning & Analysis
Analysis of all
Traffic data.

Planning of proper
Traffic needs.
 Geometric Design
Design of all
elements such as
cross section, surface
details, sight
distance, Hz &
vertical alignment,
intersection, parking
facilities
 Elements of Traffic Operation

Road Users- Drivers & Pedestrians The Vehicles

Highway Environment
 Traffic Characteristics

Road User Road

Vehicular
Characteristics Characteristics
Characteristics
 Visual Acuity factors
 Field of Vision : Indication of
the ability of the eye to see
under average illumination.

 In Horizontal plane:
Clearest 3°
Fairly satisfactory 12°
 In Vertical plane:
2/3 of Horizontal plane

 Peripheral vision:
Horizontal 160°
Vertical 115°
 Responsing Time
 Reaction Time: Time taken from the
instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant the brakes are
effectively applied.

 Reaction time = Perception Time +

Brake Reaction Time

 Reaction Time: Time required for a

driver to realise that brakes must be
applied.

 Brake Reaction Time: Time taken by

the drive to apply brakes.
PIEV Theory
PIEV Theory
 Vehicular Characteristics

Static Dynamic

Speed
Acceleration
Dimensions(Length, Width, Height) Braking System
Weight (Gross Weight, Axle Load) Lighting System
Maximum Turning Radius Vehicle Design
Tyre
Table: Maximum Dimension of
Vehicles
Dimension of Vehicle Details Maximum Dimension
in metre
Width All Vehicles 2.5 m
Height a) Single decked 3.80 m
vehicles for normal
applications. 4.75 m
b)Double decked vehicle
Length a) Single unit truck 11.0 m
with two or more
axles. 12.0 m
b) Single unit bus with
two or more axles. 16.0 m
c) Semi trailer tractor
combinations 18.0 m
d) Tractor and trailer
combinations.
Turning Movements
Off Tracking= nl2/2R
 n=no of lanes
 l= length of wheel base
 R= Radius of wheel base

 V: Speed km/h
 R : Curve Radius m
 e : Super elevation rate %
 f : Coefficient of side friction
Turning Movements
• High-speed turning characteristics

S : Speed km/h
R : Curve Radius m
e : Super elevation rate %
f : Coefficient of side friction
 Formulas regarding Braking Length
Average skid resistance= retardation/ acc due to gravity.
f= a/g.

Braking Distance, L= u2/2gf.

u=initial velocity
g=acceleration due to gravity
f=average skid resistance.

Brake efficiency=f’ / f
Numericals
A vehicle travelling with a speed of 45 kmph was
stopped within 1.7 sec after application of brakes. Find
the average skid resistance.
Solution:
Initial speed, u= 45 kmph= 45/3.6 =12.5 m/s
V=u+at
0=12.5+a*1.7
a= -7.35 m/sec2 (retardation)
Now,
F= a/g
= 7.35/9.81
= 0.75
Numericals
A vehicle travelling at a speed of 36 kmph was stopped
fully by applying brakes. The skid marks on the road
was found to be 6.0 m. Find the average skid resistance
of the pavement surface
Solution:
Initial speed, u= 36 kmph= 36/3.6 =10 m/s
Braking distance , L=u2/2gf

f= u2/2gL
= 102/2*9.81*6
= 0.849
Numericals
A vehicle moving at a speed of 45 kmph was stopped by
applying brakes and the skid length was found as 12.5
m. If avg skid resistance was 0.70. Find the brake
effeciency of the vehicle.
Solution:
Initial speed, u= 45 kmph= 45/3.6 =12.5 m/s
Braking distance , L=u2/2gf
f= u2 /2gL
= 12.52/2*9.81*12.5
= 0.637
Brake effeciency = f’/F*100
=0.637/0.7*100
=91 %
Vehicle Resistances and power requirement
Inertiaforrce (Fi)
Rolling Resistance (Rr)
Air Resistance (Ra)
Grade Resistance (Rg)

1. Inertia
Force: It is the force required to bring a
vehicle in motion.
Inertia force= mass * acceleration
Fi= m*a
2. Rolling Resistance: It is expressed in kg. of
tractive pull required to move each gross
tonne over a level surface of the specified
type or condition.
R=P/ W, R= Rolling resistance in kg per tonne
P= Total tension in tow cable in kg
W=Gross weight of truck in tonne.

Rr= m*f*g , R= Rolling resistance in Newton

m=mass of the vehicle in kg
f=coefficient of rolling resistance
g=acceleration due to gravity
Numericals
A Car of mass 1365 kg is travelling with a speed of 40
kmph on a road. Determine rolling resistance of the car.
Take coefficient of rolling resistance as 0.016
Solution:
m= 1365 kg
f=0.016
g= 9.81

Rolling Resistance, Rr=m*f*g

=1365*0.016*9.81
=214.25 N
2. Air Resistance:

Ra=Ca*A*V2
Ra= Air resistance in Newton
Ca= Coefficient of air resistance
A=Frontal Area of vehicle in m2
V= Velocity of vehicle in m/s
Numericals
 Determine air resistance of a vehicle with 2.15 m2
frontal area moving with 60 kmph speed. Take Ca=0.39
Solution:
A= 2.15 m2
v= 60 kmph= 60/3.6 =16.67 m/s

Air Resistance, Ra=Ca*A*V2

=0.39*2.15*(16.67)2
=233 N
2. Grade Resistance: The force opposing
movement of a machine up a frictionless
slope is called Grade Resistance

Rg=m*g*G/100
Rg= Grade resistance in Newton
m= mass of vehicle
G= percent grade

Power of Engine

Power= Grade Resistance * Velocity

=Rg* V
Numericals
 Determine Grade resistance of a vehicle with 3 tonne
weight and having 2 percent gradient. Calculate engine
power in horse power. Assume velocity as 3 m/sec.
Solution:
m= 3 tonne= 3000 kg
G= 2

Grade Resistance, Rg=m*g*G/100

=3000*9.81*2/100
=588.6 N
Power in HP= Rg* V/746
=588.6*3/746
=2.36 HP
Power requirement of the vehicle
Total resistance = Inertia force due to
acceleration + Rolling resistance + Air
resistance +Grade resistance.
Pp= Fi +Fr+ Fa+ Fg.

Power in Hp= Pp*V/746 HP

Numericals
A passenger car weighing 2 Tonne is required to
accelerate at a rate of 3 m/s2 from a speed of 10 kmph.
The gradient is 1% and projection area of the car is
2.15 m2 . Calculate engine horse power needed. Assume
f=0.02, Ca=0.39.
Solution:
m= 2 tonne= 2000 kg
a= 3 m/s2
speed, v= 10 kmph ( initially)
Let speed increased to 20 kmph eventually
Average speed= (10+20)/2
=15 kmph
=15/3.6 =4.16 m/s
G= 1%
1) Inertia force
Ri=ma = 2000*3= 6000 N
2)Rolling Resistance
Rr=m*f*g =2000*.02*9.81= 392.4 N
3) Air Resistance
Ra=Ca*A*V2 = 0.39*2.15*4.162 =14.51 N
4) Grade Resistance
Rg=m*g*G/100 = 2000*9.81*1/100 =196.2 N
Total Tractive Effort (pP)= Ri+ Rr+ Ra+Rg
=6000+392.4+14.51+196.2 =6603.11 N
Power Output, = pP*V/746
= 6603.11*2.78/746=24.60 HP
TRAFFIC
SURVEYS
TRAFFIC SURVEYS
•Volume
•Speed and Delays
• Origin and Destination
• Parking
• Accident
 TRAFFIC STUDY

Traffic Study is carried out for

•To obtain the knowledge of the type and volume
of traffic at present and to estimate future traffic that
the road is expected to carry.

•To determine the facilities provided on the roads

such as traffic regulation and control, intersections, so
that improvement on the basis of traffic density may
be carried out
TYPES OF SPEEDS USED IN TRAFFIC
ANALYSIS
• SPOT SPEED
• TIME MEAN SPEED
• SPACE MEAN
SPEED
• RUNNING SPEED
• JOURNEY SPEED
 Speed
Speed is one of the most important
characteristic of traffic and is measured frequently.

It is expressed in metric unit in kilometers per

hour.

Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a

vehicle at a specified location.
 Speed
Running Speed: It is the average speed
maintained by a vehicle over a given course while
the vehicle is moving.
Running speed = Length of course /running
time
=length of course /(journey time – delay)

Journey Speed: It is the effective speed of

the vehicle between two points
Journey Speed=distance /total time(including
delay)
 Speed
• Time mean speed is defined as the average
speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a
highway over some specified time period.
• Time mean speed is a point measurement
• Space mean speed is defined as the average
speed of all the vehicles occupying a given
section of a highway over some specified
time period.
• Space mean speed is a measure relating to
length of highway or lane
Distance Over Which Observations are made = 100 m

Vehicle Time, Sec Speed, m/sec

A 10 10

B 20 5

C 25 4

Total 55 19

• Time Mean Speed = (10+5+4)/3 = 6.33 m/sec

• Space Mean Speed =3/ (1/10+1/5+1/4)= 5.45 m/s

Numericals
 Ten spot speed survey are as under:
63,69,40,75,72,58,65,34,38,47
Solution:
Time mean speed= (63+69+40+75+72+58+65+34+38+47)/10
=56.1 kmph

Space mean speed,=

=10/0.1922
=52.03 kmph
Numericals
 The vehicles pass 1 km length of road in 1 min, 2 min, 3
min respectively. Find Time mean speed and space
mean speed
Solution:
Speed of 1st vehicle= 1km/ (1/60)hr= 60 kmph
Speed of 2nd vehicle= 1km/ (2/60)hr= 30 kmph
Speed of 3rd vehicle= 1km/ (3/60)hr= 20 kmph

Time mean speed= (60+30+20)/3

=36.7 kmph

Space mean speed,=

=3/0.10
=30 kmph
 Traffic
Volume
• The number of vehicles crossing a road per
unit time at any selected period is called
Traffic Volume.

• Its unit is vehicles per hour or vehicles per

day.

• In India the survey is to convert the mixed

traffic into passenger car unit.
 Types of volume measurements
• Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT) :
– The average 24-hour traffic volume at a given
location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total
number of vehicles passing the site in a year
divided by 365.
• Average Daily Traffic(ADT) :
– An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given
location for some period of time less than a
year. It may be measured for six months, a
season, a month, a week, or as little as two
days.
 Types of volume measurements
• Peak Hour Volume(PHV) :
– The highest hourly volume in a day is called
peak hour volume. It is the maximum number
of vehicles that pass a point on a highway
during one hour.
– There is one peak in the morning and another
in the evening referred as morning peak hour
and evening peak hour
 Different traffic studies:
 Traffic Volume study
 Speed Studies
 Spot speed study
 Speed and delay study
 Origin and destination study (O &
D)

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 Traffic Volume
study:
Traffic Volume is the number of vehicles crossing a
section of road per unit time at any selected period.
The commonly used units are vehicles per day and
vehicles per hour.

The various methods available are

1)Manual methods.
2)Combination of manual and mechanical methods.
3)Automatic devices.
4)Moving observer method.
5)Photographic methods

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 Manual
counts
This method employs a field team to record
traffic volume on the prescribed record sheets.

In this method first the fluctuations of traffic

volume during the hours of the day and the daily
variations are observed.

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ADVANTAGE
Gives classification of vehicles and turning
moments

DISADVANTAGE
It cannot work throughout day and night

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Combination of Manual and
Mechanical methods
It is the multiple pen recorders.
A chart moves continuously at the speed of a
clock. Different pens record the occurrence of
different events on the chart.
A particular switch may be pressed whenever a
particular class of vehicles arrives and this
operates the pen on the channel which can be
identified with the arrival of a particular class of
vehicle

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ADVANTAGE
The classification and vehicle count are
performed simultaneously.
DISADVANTAGE
It does not give turning moment of vehicle.

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 Speed
studies
Spot speed:
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a
vehicle at a specified section or location.

Methods of measuring Spot Speeds:

1.Long base methods
2.Short base methods

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 Spot speed by
Endoscope
It is one of the simplest methods of
finding spot speed.
Its principle is the observer is stationed on
one side of the road and starts a stop watch when
a vehicle crosses that section (i.e., observer) .
The enoscope is placed at a convenient
distance say30m to 50m, the moment when the
vehicle crosses the section where endoscope is
fixed, the stopwatch is stopped.
Time required to cross the known length
is found and is converted to speed in KMPH
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cumulative speed
distribution • 85th percentile speed:
• It is the speed at or below 85
percentage of the vehicle are
passing the point on the
highway.
• Only 15 % of the vehicle exceed
the speed at that spot.
• The driver exceeding 85 th
percentile speed are usually
consider to drive faster than
the safe speed under existing
condition hence speed is
adopted as safe speed limit.
• 98 th percentile speed is taken
for highway geometric design.
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Origin and Destination
Studies:
The O & D studies of vehicular traffic determines
their number, their origin and destination in
each zone under study. The various applications
of O & D studies may be summed up as follows:

–It is carried out for assessing the by passable

traffic at towns and for planning new facilities
like expressways.

–It is done by many methods by registration

number matching. Road side interview and post
card questionnaires.

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Origin and destination
survey
₋ To locate expressway or major routes along
the desire lines.

₋ To judge the adequacy of parking facilities and

to plan for future.

₋ To locate intermediate stops of public

transport.

₋ To establish preferential routes for various

categories of vehicle including by pass
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INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED IN O-D
SURVEYS
• Origin
• Destination
• Purpose of Trip
• Frequency
• Travel Time
• Travel Cost

• Route
Methods for collecting the O & D
data
Road-side interview method,
License plate method.
Return post card method,
Tag-on-car method and

The choice of the method is made

judiciously depending on the
objective and location
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 Road-side interview
method:
The vehicles are stopped at previously
decided interview stations, by a group of
persons and the answers to prescribed
questionnaire are collected on the spot.

The information collected include the place

and time of origin and destination, route,
locations of stoppages, the purpose of the trip,
type of vehicle and number of passengers in
each vehicle noted .
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 License plate
method:
The entire area under study is cordoned
out and the observers are simultaneously
stationed at all points of entry and exit on all
the routes leading to and out of the area.

Each party at the observation station is

given synchronized time pieces and they
note the license plate numbers(registration
numbers) of the vehicle entering and leaving
the cordoned area and the time.

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 Presentation of O and D
Data:
The data are presented in the following
forms

(i)Origin and destination tables are prepared

showing number of trips between different
zones.

(ii)Desire lines are plotted which a graphical

representation is prepared in almost all O &
D surveys.
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Desire lines

• Desire lines are the lines

connecting the origin
points with the
destination points.

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