Module 10: Information Processing

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

•describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving knowledge.
•cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.
Introduction
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge
enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant
cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning
process.
Information Processing Theory
Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in the
information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy, In fact, those who program and
design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that
of the human mind. Read on to know more about IPT.
Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned. They consider learning as largely an internal not an behavior change (as behaviorist
theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information.
They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what she receive shape what
he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information processing
theory.
IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment
through the senses and what takes place in between determins whether the information
will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short term memory and the long
term memory, Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be
retrieved or “remembered when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details.
We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.
“Types” of Knowledge”
General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is used in many tasks, or only in
one.
•Declarative - This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They
may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the
definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.

• Procedural -This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson plan,
baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
•Episodic-This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.

• Conditional-This is about "knowing when and why" to apply declarative or procedural strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term memory and
the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external
information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept,
script, frame, mental model, etc.).

These three primary stages in IPT are:

• Encoding-Information is sensed, perceived and attended to..

•Storage-The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the
processes following encoding.

•Retrieval-The information is brought back at the appropriate Tetime and reactivated for use on a
current task, the true measure of effective memory.

What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like
model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the memory
system, and brought back when needed. Most theories of information processing revalve around the
three main stages in the memory process:

Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.

Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our minds can
hold ur perceive Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for-an extremely brief
period in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.

•There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent than
visual.

The Role of Attention

• To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it. Such that, we
can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through our attention "gate".

•Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the material; when
there is concious control over attention, or when information involves novelty, surprise, salience,
and distinctiveness.

•Before information is perceived, it is known as "precategorical" information. This means that until
that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical membership of the
information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it
is perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to
perceive, we have no means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

•Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 "chunks" of information, sometimes described as 7+/- 2. It is
called working memory because it is where new information is temporarily placed while it is
mentally processed. STM maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate
resources to process the information , or until the information is forgotten.

• Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.

•To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using
repetition to keep the information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number just given
over and over.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the stored
information until needed again.

Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.

Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite

Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor of what is referred to as
metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system, help the
learner make informed decisions about how to categorize, organize or interpret information.
Example of processes are attention, rehearsals and organization Forgetting Forgetting is the inability
to retrieve or access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

Decay - Information is not attended to, and eventually 'fades' away. Very prevalent in Working
Memory.

Interference- New or old information 'blocks' access to the information in question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

Rehearsal - This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud. Meaningful Learning -
This is making connections between new information and prior knowledge. Organization - It is
making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is organized efficiently should be
recalled.

Elaboration - This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already knows. It
is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.

Visual Imagery - This means forming a "picture" of the information

Generation Things we produce' are easier to remember than things we 'hear'. Context -
Remembering the situation helps recover information.

• Personalization It is making the information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods

Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) You will remember the beginning and end of a 'list' more
readily Part Learning Break up the "list" or "chunk" information to increase memorization.

Distributed Practice Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Massed
Practice)

Mnemonic Aids - These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them retain and
retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci technique, acronyms, sentence
construction, peg-word and association techniques, among others.

The Information Processing Model

The information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a
very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM
and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not
properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the information
will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.

EXTENDED WITH SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS

1. Read more on specific mnemonic techniques and write about how you can use it to
make information processing more effective in yourself and your future students.

2. Does forgetting go with advancing age? What do experts say?

 MODULE 11 – GAGNE’S CONDITIONING OF LEARNING

TAKE THE CHALLENGE!

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:
 Explain Gagne’s condition of learning.
 Make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s instruction
events.
 Articulate the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in teaching.

INTRODUCTION
In his theory, Gagne specified several different types of levels of learning. He stressed
that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus for
this theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instruction events that
serve as basis for the sequencing of instruction.

ADVANCE ORGANIZER
Gagne’s Condition of Learning
ENGAGE
Before reading the entire module, see if you can arrange the nine steps in lesson
presentation (instructional events) in their proper order. Read and arrange the steps by
numbering them. Form groups of 5 for this activity.
________1. Guidance of student’s performance
________2. Recall prior learning
________3. Enhance retention and transfer
________4. Gain attention
________5. Provide feedback
________6. Assess performance
________7. Present stimulus
________8. Elicit performance
________9. Identify the objective

EXPLORE
Each group writes its arrangement on the bord for comparison and discussion. Each
group explains and justifies the arrangement. For discussion, the teacher asks the class:
“Which of the arrangements presented on the board is correct? Why?”

EXPLAIN
Gagne’s theory deals withal aspects of learning. However, the focus of the theory is
on intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in all domains. In the
earlier version of the theory, special attention was given to military training settings. Later,
Gagne also looked into the role of instructional technology in learning.

Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne’s theory
asserts that there are several different types of levels of learning. Furthermore, the
theory implies that each different type of learning calls for different types of
instruction. Gagne named five categories of learning: verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Distinct internal
and external conditions are required for each type of learning. For instance, for
cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be an opportunity for problem solving;
to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to credible role model or arguments
that are convincing and moving. Below are the categories of learning with
corresponding learning outcomes and conditions of learning:
-

Category of Learning Example of Learning Conditions of Learning

Outcome

Verbal Information Stating previously learned 1. Draw attention to

materials as facts, concepts, distinctive features
principles and by variations in
procedures,e.g. listing the print or speech.
14 learner-centered 2. Present information
psychological principles. so that can be made
into chunks.
 3. Provide a
meaningful context
for effective
encoding of
information.
4. Provide cues for
effective recall and
generalization of
information.

Intellectual skills: Discriminations: 1. Call attention to

Distinguishing objects, distinctive features.
features or symbols, e,g., 2. Stay with the limits
distinguishing an even and of working
an odd number memory.
3. Stimulate the recall
Concrete Concepts: of previously
Identifying classes of learned component
concrete objects, features skills.
or events., e.g., picking out 4. Present verbal cues
all the red beads from a to the ordering or
bowl of beads combination of
component skills.
Defined Concepts: 5. Schedule occasions
classifying new examples for practice and
of events or ideas by their spaced review.
definition, e.g., noting “she 6. Use a variety of
sells sea shells” as contexts to promote
company transfer.

Order Rules: Applying a

new combination of rules
to solve a complex
problem, e.g., generating a
balanced budget for school
organization

Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways 1. Describe or

to guide learning, thinking, demonstrate the
acting and feeling, e.g., strategy.
obstructing concept maps 2. Provide a variety of
of topic being studied occasions for
practice using the
strategy.
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the
creativity or
originality of the
strategy or
outcome.
 Attitudes Choosing personal actions 1. Establish an
based on internal states of expectancy of
understanding and feeling, success associated
e.g., deciding to avoid soft with the desired
drinks and drinking a least attitude.
8 glasses of water 2. Assure student
everyday. identification with
an admired human
model.
3. Arrange for
communication or
demonstration of
choice of personal
action.
4. Give feedback in
the human model.

Motor skills Executing performances 1. Present verbal or

involving the use of other guidance to
muscles, e.g., doing the cue the executive
steps of the singkil dance subroutine.
2. Arrange repeated
practice.
3. Furnish immediate
feedback as to the
accuracy of
performance.
4. Encourage the use
of mental practice.
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence
of instruction. Gagne suggest that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity: Stimulus recognition, response generation, produce
following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and
problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that
should be complete to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a
task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the
sequencing of instruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the
basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media. The theory includes nine
instructional events corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) gaining attention (reception)
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall or prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
 (7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) assessing performance(retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events of instruction.
Example 1 Lesson : Equilateral triangles
Objectives: For students to create equilateral triangles
Target group: Grade 4 pupils
1. Gain attention - show variety of computer-generated triangles
2. Identify of objective- pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”
3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangle
4. Present stimulus-give definition of equilateral triangles
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create an equilateral triangle
6. Elicit performance - asl students to create 5 different examples
7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify
equilaterals
Example 2 Lesson: Powerful Lessons with POwerPoint
Objective: Students to create presentation using Microsoft PowerPoint
Target Group: This lesson is geared for education students(pre-service teachers) with basic
computer skills.
Extended by applying
Choose a topic with particular lesson objective in any grade or year level. Make a teacher sequence
applying Gagne’s Instructional events. Use the table provided for you

Tapic__________________________________

Events Lesson Example/Condition of lerning

1. Gaining Attention

2. Informing the Learner of the Objective

3. Stimulating Recall
of Prior Learning

4. Presenting the Stimulus

5. Providing Leamer Guidance

6. Eliciting Performance

7. Giving Feedback
8. Assessing Performance
9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer

Event of Instruction Lesson Example/conditions of Rational

learning
1. gaining Attention Teacher Tells learner how she Giving background information
has used Powerpoint in the create validity
classroom. Shows an example The use of multimedia grabs
of a powerpoint Asks learners the audience attention.
questions about using Asking question in the begging
Powerpoint. creates an interactive
atmosphere.
2. Informing the learner of the Teacher says “ Today we are Make learners aware of what to
objective going to work on using a expect so that they are aware
multimedia presentation and prepared to receive
software,Microsoft Powerpoint information.
3. Stimulating Recall of prior For this particular group of When learning somethingnew,
Learning learners, they have learned accessing prior knowledge is a
previously about Microsoft major factor in the procces of
Windows. Teacher associate acquiring new information
this knowledge with lesson at
hand
4. Presenting The stimulus Teacher gives student hand on The goal is information
step by step tutorial on using acquisition, therefore, the
Microd=soft powerpoint stimulus employed is written
content and the actual software
proram.
5. Providing Learner guidance The teacher demonstrates how Teacher uses “ discovery
to create a presentation. The learning” because learner are
teacher moves around the adult and it gives themthe
 show student how to use the freedom to explore. Teacher
tool to type in text, add links, facilitates the learning process
add symbols and clip art, insert by giving hints and cues when
videos and diagrams, use needed. Since the audience are
sound, etc. Learners are pre service with some basic
allowed in partners on their level of technology skills and
computers. the softwear program is aesy to
follow and understand
guidance is minimal
6. Eliciting Performance Teacher ask student to Required the learner to
demonstrate Powerpoint Tools. produce based on what has
been taught enable the lerner
to confirm his/her learning
7. Giving feedback Teacher gives Immediate
feedback to lerners after
eliciting response
8. Assessing Performance Assign a practical activity create Independent practice forces
an electronic story book using student to use what they
Microsoft powerpoint teacher learned and apply it. Assessing
checks work. such gives instructors a means
of testing student learning
outcomes.
9. Enhancing Retention and Teacher ask learner to create
transfer activities using powerpoint
presentation for 6th grade
pupil. Teacher also assigns
learner to teach another
learner how to make
powerpoint presentation.
 Module 12
Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory

Take the Challenge!

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

 explain Ausubel's subsumption theory.

 determine the uses of graphic organizers.
 use advance graphic organizers for a topic presentation.
Introduction
Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or presentational
manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major role in learning as
providers of information, while students remain as passive receivers of information. David
Ausubel, instead of criticizing this manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He
suggested the use of advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his theory of Meaningful
Verbal Learning.
Advance Organizer

Ausubel's
Subsumption
Theory

Meaningful Reception Four Processes for Advance

of Information Meaningful Learning Organizers
Learner's Cognitive Derivative Expository
Structure
Use of subsumption
Advance Correlative Narrative
Graphic subsumption
organizer
Superordinate Skimming
Subsumption
Learning
Combinatorial Graphic
Learning Organizers
ENGAGE
1. The figure above is an advance organizer

2. Study it. Read the words found in each box.

3. Examine how the lines connect the boxes.

4. Describe the advance organizer, specifically on how the words are related to each other.

EXPLORE
1. Why was the advance organizer presented before the discussion of the topic?
___________________

2. How can the advance organizer help the students?

__________________________________________

EXPLAIN
The main theme of Ausubel's theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new
information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is already
known. It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual
presentations in a school setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for learning

Focus of Ausubel's Theory

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of the
learner's present knowledge. This present knowledge consists o Tacts, concepts, propositions,
theories and raw perceptua data that the learner has available to him/her at any point in time. This
comprises his/her cognitive structure.

2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to
ideas that the learner already possesses. Ausubel believed that before new material can be
presented effectively, the student's cognitive structure should be strengthened. When this is done,
acquisition and retention of new information is facilitated.

The way to way to strengthen the student's cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that
allow stud already have a bird's eye view or to see the big picture of the topic to be learned even
before going to the details.

Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of subsumption. He
thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process by which new material is
related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Likewise, Ausubel pointed out that what

Is learned is based on what is already known. This signifies that one’s own prior knowledge and
biases limit and affect what is learned. Also, retention of new knowledge is greater because it is
based on prior concrete concepts, Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:
Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you learn is an
example of a concept that you have already learned. Let’s say you have acquired a basic concept
such as "bird". You know that a bird has feathers, a beak, lays egg. Now you learn about a kind of
bird that you have never seen before, let's say a blue jay that conforms to your previous
understanding of bird. Your new knowledge of blue jays is attached to your concept of bird, without
substantially altering that concept in any way. So, an in Ausubel's theory, you had learned about blue
jays through the process of derivative subsumption. Correlative subsumption. Examine this example.
Now, let's say you see a new kind of bird that has a really big body and long strong legs. It doesn’t fly
but it can run fast. In order to accommodate this new information, you have to change or expand
your concept of bird to include the possibility of being big and having long legs. You now include
your concept of an ostrich to your previous concept of what a bird is. You have learned about this
new kind of bird through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense, you might say that this
is more "valuable" learning than that of derivative Subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level
concept. Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango,
dalandan, guava etc., but the child did not know, until she was taught, that these were all examples
of fruits. In this case, the child already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but did not know the
concept itself until it was taught to her. This is superordinate learning. Combinatorial learning. This is
when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of
both concepts. The first three learning processes all included new information that relates to a
hierarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired knowledge. Combinatorial
learning is different; it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is
neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related, "branch").
It a lot like as learning by analogy. For example, to teach someone about OW plants "breathe you
might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of human respiration where man inhales oxygen
and exhales carbon dioxide. Advance Organizers The advance organizer is a major 1nstructional tool
proposed by Ausubel. The advance organizer, gives you two benefits: (1) You will it easier to connect
new information with what you already know about find it e topic, and (2) you can readily see how
the concepts in a certain topic related to each other. As you go about learning about the topic and
go through the four learning processes, the advance organizer helps you link the new learning to
your existing scheme, As such, advance organizers facilitate new learning by your cognitive structure
by helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive structure

Ausubel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with overviews and
summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of
abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming
bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
Types of advance, organizers
1. Expository describes the new content.
2. Narrative-presents the new information in the form of a story to students.
3 Skimming is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview
4 Graphic organizer-visuals to set up or outline the new information. This may include
pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept maps.

Application of Principles
1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. He called this progressive
differentiation. According to Ausubel, the purpose of progressive differentiation is to
increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is that, if you're
teaching three related topics A, B and C, rather than teaching all of topic A, then going on
to B, etc., you would take a spiral approach. That is in your first pass through the
material, you would teach the big ideas (i.e., those highest in the hierarchy) in all three
topics, then on successive passes would begin to elaborate the details. Along the way
you would point out principles that the three topics had in common, and things that
differentiate them.
2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously
presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old
ideas.
 Module 14: Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/ Concept Learning

Take the Challenge!

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:
 explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning.
 describe strategies that promote knowledge construction.
 describe strategies to facilitate concept learning.

Introduction
This Module discusses constructivism which was mentioned in the previous modules
of Piaget and Bruner. It is the distillation of most of the principles of cognitive psychologists.
ENGAGE
Read the quotation below:
“Teaching is not about filling up the pail;
it is about lighting a fire.”
—Williams Butler Yeats Treats

 What concepts/ideas/images came to your mind when you read "Teaching as filling up
the pail"? Elaborate.

 What concept/ideas/images came to your mind when you read "Teaching is about
lighting a fire"? Elaborate.

EXPLORE
What do you think the quotation meant? What two kinds of teaching are being referred to?

EXPLAIN
So far, you have studied about both the behavioristic and cognitive views of learning.
Behaviorism focused on the external, observable behavior. Learning is explained as a connection
between the stimulus and the response. Reinforcement is the key to learning. Behaviorists saw
learning as a change in behavior brought about by experience with little acknowledgement of the
mental or internal aspects of learning. On the other hand, the cognitive view focuses on the
internal processes. Learning is an active process. Learners initiate experiences, search for
information to solve problems, and reorganize what they already know to come up with new
insights.

In the quotation above, "filling up the pail" is more linked to rote learning and behaviorism. It
connotes that teaching is dominated by the teacher and the learners are passive receivers of
knowledge. "Lighting the fire" is related to the cognitive perspective and constructivism. It
signifies that teaching involves giving opportunities for learners to explore and discover.
Learners construct their own meaning. Learners generate insights and are "enlightened".

More associated with 'cognitive psychology than behaviorism, constructivism focuses on

knowledge construction. You were introduced to constructivism in Module 14 on Bruner's
theory. Just as there are different views within cognitive psychology, constructivism also has
different ''versions".
Two Views of Constructivism

Individual Constructivism. This is also called cognitive constructivism. It

emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge. It is largely based on
Piaget's theory. Proponents of this type choose child-centered and discovery learning.
They believe the learners should be allowed to discover principles through their own
exploration rather than direct instruction by the teacher.
Social Constructivism. This view emphasizes that "knowledge exists in a social
context and is initially shared with others instead of being represented solely in the
mind of an individual." It is based on Vygotsky's theory. Here, construction of
knowledge is shared by two or more people. According to social constructivists, the
opportunity to interact and share among learners help to shape and refine their ideas.
Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual.

Characteristics of Constructivism
Whether one takes the individual or social- view of constructivism, there are
four characteristics that these two views have in common. According to Eggen and
Kauchak, these are:
l. Learners construct understanding. As discussed earlier, constructivists do not view
learners as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners as active thinkers who
interpret new information based on what they already know. They construct knowledge in a
way that makes sense to them.
2. New learning depends on current understanding. Background information is very
important. It is through the present views or scheme that the learner has that new information
will be interpreted.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction. Constructivists believe in creating a
"community of learners" within classrooms. Learning communities help learners take
responsibility for their own learning. Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate and
collaborate to solve problems and discover things. Teachers play the role of a facilitator
rather than an expert who has all the knowledge.
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An authentic task is one
that involves a learning that involves constructing knowledge and understanding that is so
akin to the knowledge and understanding needed when applied in the real world. Example, a
writing activity where six-year olds prepare a checklist of things they need to do in school is
a more an authentic activity than for them to be working only on tracing worksheets with
dotted lines.
Organizing Knowledge

Concepts. A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our mind. A concept of
"teach" includes a group of tasks such as model, discuss, illustrate, explain, assist, etc. In your life as
a student you would learn thousands of concepts, some simple ones, others more complicated that
may take you to learn them more gradually. The concepts you learn are also revised as you learn
more and experience more.

Concepts as Feature Lists. Learning a concept involves learning specific features that characterize
positive instance of the concept. Included here are defining features and correlational feature. A
defining feature is a characteristic present in ALL instances. Example, a triangle has three sides.
Having three sides is a defining feature of a triangle because ALL should have three sides. If one
doesn't, then it is not a triangle. A correlational feature is one that is present in many positive
instances but not essential for concept membership. For example, a mother is loving. Being loving is
a feature commonly present in the concept mother. But a mother may not be loving. So "being
loving" is only a correlational feature, not a defining one.

Concepts as Prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a "typical" example. It is usually

formed based on the positive instances that learners encounter most often. Example, close your
eyes now and for a moment think of a cat. Picture in mind what it looks like. You probably thought of
the an image of the common cat we see, rather than some rare breed or species. Once learners have
their own concept prototypes, the new examples that they see are checked against this existing
prototype.

Concepts as Exemplars. Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows learners to know that
an example under a concept may have variability. Example, a learner's concept of vegetable may
include a wide variety of different examples like cauliflower, kangkong. cabbage, string beans,
squash, com, potatoes. When he encounters a new type of vegetable like "bitsuelas", he would
search from the exemplars he knows and looks for one that is most similar, like string beans.

Making Concept-learning Effective. As a future teacher, you can help students learn concepts by
doing the following:

•Provide a clear definition of the concept

•Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
•Give a variety of positive instances
•Give negative instances
•Cite a "best example" or a prototype Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and
negative instances
•Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept
•Point out how concepts can be related to each other
Schemas and scripts. A schema is an organized body of knowledge about something. It is like a file of
information you hold in your mind about something. Like a schema of what a teacher is. A script is a
schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity. Examples would include
knowing the series of steps done when we visit a doctor, or what transpires at the beginning of the
class when the teacher arrives.

Your role as a teacher is to bring learners to construct their own knowledge such that they have a
well organized set of concepts. Aim to make clear those concepts that are still vague for them, and
to pave the way for them to overcome misconceptions. It is important that you acquire skills on how
to facilitate concept formation and development. Constructivism can be an excellent guide for you.

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning

•Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner, rather than taking up so
many topics superficially.
•Give varied examples.
•Provide opportunities for experimentation.
• Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction.
• Have lots of hands-on activities.
•Relate your topic to real life situations.
•Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.