( PED 3 – Facilitating Learner-centered Teaching )

Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

Conditions of Learning

• This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The
significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of
instruction.

Categories of Learning

Intellectual skills
As the first category in the Cognitive domain, Intellectual skills outline How to follow
procedures To get things done. There Are five different levels of Learning within the
Intellectual skills category: Discrimination, concrete Concept, defined concept, Rule,
and problem-solving.
Cognitive strategy
The second type of cognitive skill is a cognitive strategy. There are a few strategies for
learning as well as for thinking, which are also called metacognitive strategies.
Verbal information
The third category in the Cognitive domain, verbal Information, is taught using Different
techniques to aid in Memory recall. Using Imagery and other Mnemonic strategies helps
Students make connections With the information and Remember it more easily.
Motor skills
The only category in the Psychomotor domain, motor Skills are physical actions that Are
assessed in complex Performances such as skiing, Dancing, skateboarding, or Even
writing with a pencil. These movements are Evaluated on accuracy, Smoothness,
speed, or force. Motor skills are also known as Psychomotor skills due to the
Coordinated response Required.
Attitude
Attitude is found in the Affective domain due to its Unique state. It is often Challenging
to measure Attitude, as each individual Must declare their own Thoughts. Self-reported
Questionnaires would be an Example of how we can Assess the attitudes of Learners.
Although it is an Internal state of mine, attitude Can be observed in one’s Own personal
choices or
9 Events
1.Gain Attention: This event Aims to capture the Learners’ attention and Engage them
in the Learning process. It can be Achieved through the use Of stimulating and relevant
Stimuli or by posing Questions or problems.
2.Inform Learners of the Objective: Learners need to Be aware of the specific
Learning objectives or goals They are expected to Achieve. Clear Communication of
these Objectives helps to focus their attention and motivate Them to learn
3.Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge: Activating Learners’ prior knowledge Helps
them connect new Information to existing Mental frameworks. By Reviewing relevant
concepts Or experiences, learners can Build upon what they Already know.
4.Present the Content: The Instructional content is Presented to the learners in A
structured and organized Manner. It should be Logically sequenced, Chunked into
manageable Units, and delivered using Appropriate instructional Strategies such as
lectures, Visuals, or multimedia.
5.Provide Guidance: Learners need guidance And support to Understand and acquire
New knowledge or skills. This event involves Providing clear Explanations, examples,
Demonstrations, and Instructions to assist Learners in grasping the Content.
6.Elicit Performance: Learners Are given opportunities to Practice what they have
Learned. This active Participation helps reinforce The newly acquired Knowledge or
skills and Allows for feedback and Correction if needed.
7.Provide Feedback: Learners Receive feedback on their Performance, indicating
Whether they have achieved The desired learning Outcomes. Feedback helps Them
assess their progress, Identify areas for Improvement, and reinforce Correct
understanding or Behavior
8.Present the Content: The Instructional content is Presented to the learners in A
structured and organized Manner. It should be Logically sequenced, Chunked into
manageable Units, and delivered using Appropriate instructional Strategies such as
lectures, Visuals, or multimedia.
9.Enhance Retention and Transfer: The final event Focuses on promoting long -term
retention and Transfer of the learned Material to real-world Contexts. Strategies such As
providing opportunities For review, application in Different situations, and Promoting
transfer of Knowledge to other Domains are employed to Solidify learning.
 INFORMATION PROCESSING

GEORGE ARMITAGE MILLER: A PIONEER OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

EXPLORING HIS LIFE, CONTRIBUTIONS, AND THE INFORMATION PROCESSING
EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION
•Born on February 3, 1920, in Charleston, West Virginia.
•Received a B.A. in history and an M.A. in speech from the University of Alabama.
•Earned a Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from Harvard University in 1946.
A PROMINENT FIGURE IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
•Conducted research and taught at Harvard, Rockefeller University, and MIT.
•Joined Princeton University in 1979 and became professor emeritus in 1990.
•Pioneered the use of empirical and objective methods to study the mind.
•Awarded the National Medal of Science in 1991 for his contributions to understanding
the human mind.
•Notably known for his work on short-term memory and linguistics.
THE MAGICAL NUMBER SEVEN, PLUS OR MINUS
•Published in 1956, this groundbreaking paper explored he limits of human short-term
memory.
•Miller proposed that short-term memory can hold only 5-9 meaningful units or “chunks”
of information.
THE ORIGINS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
•Miller was a key figure in the development of the information processing theory.
•His work was inspired by Edward C. Tolman’s theories of sign and latent learning,
which emphasized the internal and complex nature of learning.
•Miller’s research on working memory capacity and chunking further solidified the
information processing model.
WHAT IS INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY?
•An approach to cognitive development that explains how information is encoded,
stored, and retrieved in memory.
•Humans actively process information from the environment, not just passively respond
to stimuli.
•The brain is likened to a computer, analyzing information from the environment.
•Information processing affects behavior, as seen in the expectancy theory of
motivation.
ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
•Information Stores: Different locations in the mind where information is stored, such as
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, etc.
•Cognitive Processes: Processes that transfer information between memory stores,
including perception, coding, chunking, and retrieval.
•Executive Cognition: Awareness of how information is processed, including
understanding one’s strengths and weaknesses.
INFROMATION PROCESSING MODELS

MODELS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

John Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin created the multi- store model of memory in 1968.
The model has been modified by other researchers since publication, but the basic
outline is still the cornerstone of information processing theory.

MODELS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

MODELS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Their model illustrates their view of human memory by showing how the three
subsections of human memory work together. It presents a sequence of three memory
stages.
SENSORY MEMORY
Sensory memory is a fleeting snapshot of what our senses pick up. It lasts less than a
second, filtering out unimportant information and passing on only what grabs our
attention or is familiar to us. This selected information then moves to short-term
memory.
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Short-term memory, also called working memory, is like a temporary workspace in our
minds. It holds information for a short time, typically up to 30 seconds
LONG-TERM MEMORY
Long-term memory is like a vast library in your mind, storing a huge amount of
information for extended periods. It’s where we keep all the knowledge, experiences,
and skills we’ve accumulated throughout our lives.
BADDELEY AND HITCH MODEL
Known as the Working Memory Model, is a more complex and detailed explanation of
short-term memory than the earlier multi-store model. It proposes that short-term
memory isn’t just a single storage space but rather a system with multiple components
that work together.
BADDELEY AND HITCH MODEL

CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
This is the control center of the working memory system. It directs attention, manages
resources, and coordinates the other components. It’s like the boss of the working
memory team, deciding what information to focus on and how to process.
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
This component deals with auditory information, like spoken words or sounds. It has two
parts:
- Phonological Store: It holds sounds for a short period, like a “mental echo.”
 - Articulatory Control Process: It refreshes the information in the phonological store
by rehearsing it. This is like repeating a phone number to yourself until you can write it
down.
VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD
This component handles visual and spatial information, like images, shapes, and
locations. It’s used for tasks like navigating a maze or mentally rotating objects.
EPISODIC BUFFER
This component, added to the model later, acts as a temporary storage space for
information from all the other components. It integrates information from different
sources, creating a unified representation of current experience. This allows us to make
connections between different types of information, like linking a visual image to a
sound or a word.
LIMITATIONS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
•The computer analogy is limited, as human memory is more complex and capable than
current computers.
•The theory often assumes serial processing, while humans are capable of parallel
processing.
•Emotional and motivational factors are not fully accounted for in the theory.
AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING / SUBSUMPTION THEORY

DAVID P. AUSUBEL
•Born in 1918 and grew up in Brooklyn, NY.
•He attended the University of Pennsylvania and graduated from Middlesex university.
•He completed a rotating internship at Gouvemeur Hospital and served in the US public
Health
•Service, UNRRA, and three psychiatric residences. He earned a Ph.D. in
developmental psychology from Columbia University and a series of psychological
Professorships at schools of education. He retired from academic life in 1973 to
Devote full time to his psychiatric practice.
•He published extensively and received the Thomdike Award from the American
Psychological Association for “Distinguished Psychological Contributions to
Education”. He retired from professional life in 1994 to devote himself full-time to
Writing and published four books.
•He passed away on July 9, 2008.

AUSABLE’S THEORY

Its main theme is that knowledge is hierarchically organized, and that new information is
meaningful to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is already
known.

It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal and
textual presentations in a school setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as
a tool for learning.

FOCUS OF AUSUBEL’S THEORY

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity, and
organization of the learner's present knowledge. This present knowledge consists
of facts, concepts, propositions, theories and raw perpetual data that the learner
has available to him/her at any point in time. This compromises his/her cognitive
structure.
2. Meaningful Learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some
sensible way to ideas that the learner already possesses. Ausubel believed that
 before new material can be presented effectively, the student's cognitive
structure should be strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of
new information is facilitated. The way to strengthen the student's cognitive
structure is by using advance organizers that allow students to already have a
bird's eye view or to see the "big picture" of the topic to be learned even before
going to the details.

SUBSUMPTION
A process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive
structure.
Ausubel pointed out that what is learned is based on what is already known. This
signifies that one's own knowledge and biases limit and affect what is learned. Also,
retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete
concepts.

SUBSUMPTION LEARNING THEORY

It was developed in 1963 by the American psychologist David Ausubel. The theory
focuses on how individuals acquire and learn large chunks of information through visual
mearns or textual materials.
It outlines a process for producing educational materials that aids in helping students
arrange their learning in a way that makes it relevant for transfer. The objective is for
students to both acquire and retain the knowledge they need to handle any given
situation.

Meaningful learning Can take place Through (FOUR PROCESSES)

1. DERIVATIVE SUBSUMPTION
This describes the situation in which the new information you learn is an example
of a concept that you have already learned.
2. CORRELATIVE SUBSUMPTION
Now, let's say you see a new kind of bird that has a really big body and long,
strong legs.
3. SUPERORDINATE LEARNING
Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango, Dalandan, guava,
etc., but the child did not know.
4. COMBINATORIAL LEARNING
This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich
the uderstanding of both concepts.
WHAT IS ADVANCE ORGANIZERS?
✔ Instruction or before a new topic; this is sometimes called a hook, set induction, or
anticipatory set.
✔ An instructional unit that is used before direct popularized by David Ausubel first in
1968.
✔Introduced in advance of direct instruction and presented at a higher level of
abstraction than the information presented later.
✔ Presented at a higher level of abstraction than the information presented later.
✔Designed to bridge the gap between what the Learner already knows and what she
needs to Know, the
✔Use of advance organizers has been shown, through several research studies, to
improve levels of understanding and recall.
THE ADVANCE ORGANIZER GIVES YOU TWO BENEFITS:
“ORGANIZERS ACT AS A SUBSUMING BRIDGE BETWEEN NEW LEARNING
MATERIAL AND EXISTING RELATED IDEAS”
 1.) YOU WILL KNOW THE TOPIC.
2.) YOU CAN READILY SEE HOW THE CONCEPTS IN A CERTAIN TOPIC MAKE
IT EASIER TO CONNECT NEW INFORMATION WITH WHAT YOU ALREADY
KNOW ABOUT THEM.
TYPES OF ADVANCE ORGANIZERS
1. EXPOSITORY ORGANIZERS
Describes the new content.
2. NARRATIVE ORGANIZERS
Present the new information in a story format.
3. SKIMMING ORGANIZERS
Flick through the information.
4. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Include pictographs, descriptive or conceptual patterns, and concept
maps.
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES
1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then
progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. He called this
progressive differentiation.
2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously
presented information through comparisons and cross- referencing of new and
old ideas.
BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
JEROME BRUNER
•Born October 1, 1915
•Age 94
•Born in New York, New York
•Education
-PhD, Harvard, 1941 (Psychology)
-BA, Duke University, 1937
•Affiliations
-American Psychological Association
-Law & Society Association
-Society for Research in Child Development
•Publications
-The Culture of Education, 1996 Acts of Meaning, 1991

-Actual Minds, Possible Worlds, 1987 The Process of Education, 1960

•cognitive psychologist and educational psychologist
• Scaffolding Theory
•Spiral Curriculum
CONSTRUCTIVISM
•Constructivism is basically a theory – based on observation and scientific study – about
how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge
of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.
•Learning is an active process in which learners construct new Ideas or concepts based
upon their current/past knowledge.
•The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes
decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so.
J. Bruner Theory
•Bruner‘s theoretical framework is based on the theme that learning is an active process
and learners construct New ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge.
•Facets of the process include selection and transformation of information, decision
making, generating hypotheses, and making meaning from information and
experiences.
•Cognitive structure (i.e.,Schema, mental models) Provides meaning and organization
to experiences and allows the individual to “Go beyond the information Given“.
Advance Organizers
A tool used to introduce new material by connecting it to existing knowledge, facilitating
meaningful learning.
Types of Advance Organizers:

1. Expository Organizers: Provide a generalidea or overview of the new content.

2. Comparative Organizers: Highlight similarities and differences between the new
content and existing knowledge.
3. Narrative Organizers: Use stories or anecdotes to introduce new concepts.
BRUNER’S CONCEPTS
A. SPIRAL CURRICULUM
BRUNER’S SPIRAL CURRICULUM IS AN
APPROACH TO EDUCATION THAT
INVOLVES REGULARLY RE- VISITING THE
SAME EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OVER THE
COURSE OF A STUDENT’S EDUCATION.
EACH TIME THE CONTENT IS RE-VISITED,
THE STUDENT GAINS DEEPER
KNOWLEDGE OF THE TOPIC.

B. REPRESENTATION

1. ENACTIVE (0-1 YEAR) Thinking is based entirely on physical Actions, and

infants learn by doing, rather Than by representation (or thinking). Internal
2. ICONIC (1-6 YEARS) Information is stored as sensory images (icons),
usually visual ones, like pictures in The mind. Thinking is also based on
the use Of other mental images (icons), such Hearing, smell or touch.
3. SYMBOLIC (7 YEARS ONWARD) Learner has developed the Ability to
think in abstract Terms. This uses symbol System to encode knowledge.
 C. THEORY OF INSTRUCTION
1. PREDISPOSITION TO LEARN
INTRODUCED THE IDEA OF “READINESS FOR LEARNING”.
ACCORDING TO THIS IDEA, THE TEACHER WOULD DESIGN
DISCREPANT EVENT ACTIVITIES THAT WOULD PIQUE THE
STUDENTS’ CURIOSITY.
2. STRUCTURE OF KNOWLEDGE
REFERS TO THE WAY IN WHICH A BODY OF KNOWLEDGE CAN BE
STRUCTURED SO THAT IT CAN BE MOST READILY GRASPED BY
THEIR LEARNER.
3. EFFECTIVE SEQUENCING
ACCORDING TO BRUNER, INSTRUCTION SHOULD LEAD ThE
LEARNER THROUGH THE CONTENT IN ORDER TO INCREASE THE
STUDENT’S ABILITY TO “GRASP, TRANSFORM AND TRANSFER”
WHAT IS LEARNED. IT ALSO REFERS TO THE IDEA OF REVISITING
BASIC IDEAS OVER AND OVER, BUILDING UPON THEM AND
ELABORATING TO THE LEVEL OF FULL UNDERSTANDING AND
MASTERY.
4. REINFORCEMENT
REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS SHOULD BE SELECTED AND PACED
APPROPRIATELY.

D. DISCOVERY LEARNING
•Obtaining knowledge for oneself.
•LEARNING BECOMES MORE MEANINGFUL (when) students explore their
learning environment rather than listen passively to Teachers
.
E. CATEGORIZATION
•Categories are “Rules“ that specify four things about objects.
1. Criterial attributes
2. How criterial attributes are combined
3. Weight to various properties
4. Acceptance limits on attributes
•Categorization of information is in the Construction of internal COGNITIVE MAPS.
•Perception, conceptualization, learning, Decision making, and making inferences all
Involved categorization.
 1. IDENTITY CATEGORIES
2. EQUIVALENT CATEGORIES
3. CODING SYSTEMS
Principles of J. Bruner Theory
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the
student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student
(spiral organization)
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or filling the gaps
(going beyond the information given).
Characteristics of Constructivism theory
1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality.
2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of
the real world
3. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful
context rather than abstract instruction out of context.
4. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as
Real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences
of instruction.
5. Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on
experience.
6. Constructivist learning environments support “collaborative construction of
knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for
recognition.
 Constructivism Knowledge: Construction and Concept learning

What is Constructivism?
•It is a theory on how humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction
between their experiences and their ideas.
•Based on observation and scientific study about how people learn.
•It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world,
through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.
How did Constructivism come about?
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky
He believed that learning needs to be engaging. Vygotsky believed that learning takes
place as children are interacting with each other and exploring their environment.
Jean Piaget
Piaget believed that children learn through organization and schemas. He believed that
by organizing concepts and Ideas, children place them into schemas. He believed that
children are in control of The knowledge that they are provided and Move forward in
construct their own Learning by taking part in social activities And exploration.
Lev Vygotsky – associated with the social Constructivist theory
1. Making meaning - the community places a central role, and the people around
the student greatly affect the way he or she sees the world.
2. Tools for cognitive development - the type and quality of these tools (culture,
language, important adults to the student) determine the pattern and rate of
development.
3. The Zone of Proximal Development - problem solving skills of tasks can be
placed into three categories:
1. Those performed independently by the learner.
2. Those that cannot be performed even with help.
3. Those that fall between the two extremes, the tasks that can
be performed with help from others.
Two Views of Constructivism
Individual Constructivism – this is called cognitive Constructivism. It emphasizes
individual, internal construction Of knowledge.
Social Constructivism – this view emphasizes that knowledge Exists in a social context
and is initially shared with others Instead of being represented solely in the mind of an
individual
Characteristics of Constructivism
1. Learners construct understanding
2. New learning depends on current understanding
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks.
Organizing knowledge
Concepts as prototypes – prototype is an visual image Of a “typical example. It is
usually formed based on the Positive instances that learners encounter most often.
Concepts as exemplars – exemplars represent a variety Of examples. It allows learners
to know that an example Under a concept may have variability.
Making concept-learning effective:
a) Provide a clear definition of the concept.
b) Make the defining features very concrete and prominent.
c) Give a variety of positive instances.
d) Give negative instances
 e) Cite a “best exarmple” or a prototype.
f) Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative instances.
g) Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept.
h) Point out how concepts can be related to each other.
Transfer of Learning

TRANSFER OF LEARNING CONSISTS TWO WORDS:

Transfer: An act of moving something Or some to another place.
Learning: An act of gaining Knowledge, skill by Experience, study, being Taught or
creative thought.
Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning is a Process in which something Learnt in one situation is Used in
another situation.
DEFINITION
According to Sorenson (1948): Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge , training
and habits acquired in one situation to another situation.
According to Crow and Crow (1973): The carry over of the habits of thinking , feeling
or working of knowledge or skills from one learning area to another is usually referred to
as the transfer of training or learning.
According to Peterson: Transfer of learning is generalization for it is extension of idea
to a new field.
SUPPORT TRANSFER OF LEARNING
It occurs when the learner;
•Recognizes common features among concepts, skills or principles.
•Links the information in memory.
•Sees the value of utilizing what was learned one situation in another.

TRANSFER OF LEARNING IS DIVIDED INTO 3 TYPES.

POSITIVE TRANSFER: Transfer is said to be positive, when something previously
learned benefits performance or learning in anew situation.
NEGATIVE TRANSFER: When something previously learned hinders performance or
learning in a new situation, we call it negative transfer.
ZERO TRANSFER: In case the previous learning makes no difference at all to the
performance or learning in a new situation, there is said to be zero transfer from the
previous situation to the new one.

FACTORS
Many factors influencing the amount and direct of transfer, some important
factors are:
1.Learner ‘s intelligence
2.Proper study habits
3.Meaningfullness of Materials
4.Methods of teaching
5.Similarity of stimuli

PROCESS OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

1. Experience – Awareness – Motivation
2. Content Input – Lecture/Film – Discussion – Handout
3. Analysis of Experience in terms of Content input.
4. Loading to Generalization or Inferences
5. Practice of Generalization or Tryout of Inference
6. Transfer to next experience to life.
STAGES OF LEARNING
Unconscious incompetence: Unaware of what you need to learn.
Conscious incompetence: Aware of what you need to learn.
Conscious competence: learnt what you need to know but have to practice it.
Unconscious competence: No longer need to practice, what you have learnt has
become second nature.
FORMS OF TRANSFER
General transfer-The ability to apply knowledge Or skills learned in one context in a
variety of Different contexts.
Specific transfer -The ability to apply Information in context similar to the one in which
It was originally learned.
THEORIES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Theory of mental discipline- Also known as the faculty theory
It tells that education is a matter of training or disciplining the mind through vigorous
mental exercises.
Theory of identical elements
According to Edward Thorndike, transfer of learning occurs from one situation to
another in which there are most similar or identical elements such as:

• Content
• method
• aim
• attitude present in both situations facilitate learning
Theory of Generalization- Was formulated by Charles H. Judd
It means that experiences obtained in one situation are applicable to other situation.
Theory of configuration
Is based on Gestalt theory of learning
-Transfer of learning occurs from one situation to Another when generalization, concept
or insights developed into a single learning situation is employed in other situations, not
as parts, but in a holistic manner.