Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

MODULE 1

Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and

Learning
Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this course student should be able to:

1. To Identify various theories in first and second language acquisition.
2. To describe the stages of second language acquisition.
3. To differentiate between characteristics of language acquisition and
language/learning
4. To understand the different approaches and functions of language acquisitions
and learning.

Introduction

Language acquisition begins at birth. However, we are unsure how children with
minimal life experience could learn such a sophisticated talent as language.
Experiments have definitely shown an ability to discriminate syntactical shades of
difference in very young infants, even though they are still at the pre-linguistic stage,
according to Rice, Bruehler, and Specker (2004). Children as young as three can
handle complex syntactical words yet cannot tie their own shoelaces. So how do
children learn to communicate? Based on theories and empirical findings, this course
will look at the principles, variables, and contexts of language acquisition and learning.

Learning Content
Course Name Principles and Theories of Language
Acquisition and Learning
Course Credit 3 Units
Pre-requisite None
Contact Hours / Week 3 Hours
 Nature of Language and Learning

 Definition of Language
 Nature of Language
 What is Learning?
Week 1 - 3
 Nature of Learning
 Language Acquisition vs Language
Learning
 First Language Acquisition vs
Second Language Acquisition

Learning Exercise / Activities

Principles and Theories of Language

Acquisition and Learning Approaches

 Behaviorist theory
Week 4 - 6
 Basic Language Learning
 Stages in Child Language
Acquisition

Learning Exercise / Activities

Principles and Theories of Language

Acquisition and Learning: The Functional
Approaches

 Instrumental Function
  Regulatory Function
 Interactional Function
 Personal Function
 Representational/Informative
Week 7 - 9
Function
 Hueristic Function
 Imaginative function

Learning Exercise / Activities

Rating Guide

Week 1 - 3. Nature of Language and Learning

Learning Objectives

1. To define language and learning

2. To differentiate language learning from language acquisition.
3. To understand the nature of learning.

Discussion
What is language?
Language is the process of exchanging of messages and creating meaning.
Language is part of culture.
Language is also intertwined with human biology.

Characteristics of Human Language

1. Language is a social tool.
2. Language must be learned.
3. The relationship between the sound of a language and their meaning
 is arbitrary and dual.
4. Language has rules.
5. Language allows human to be creative.

Language acquisition vs Language Learning

Acquisition Learning
Similar to child’s first language acquisition Formal knowledge of language
“Picking up” a language “Knowing about” a language
Subconscious Conscious
Implicit knowledge Explicit knowledge
Formal teaching does not help Formal teaching helps

Language is about identity and communication (Baker, 2000:26). Language is

required for the transfer and sharing of knowledge as well as the development of
interpersonal connections. According to Bowen (1998), language is the symbolization of
thought. It's a learned code, or set of rules, that allows us to convey ideas and express
desires and needs. Bowen further added that language is divided into two categories:
receptive language (knowing what is said, written, or signed) and expressive language
(expressing oneself) (related to speaking, writing or signing). Thus, Richards et al.
simply define language. al. (1992, p.196) defined morphology as a system of human
communication that consists of structures that organize sounds (or their written
presentation) into bigger units, such as morphemes, words, phrases, and statements.

Learning and acquisition are the processes that allow a human to perceive
language. Knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to discuss them is a
conscious effort. Acquisition, on the other hand, is the process by which children
instinctively learn their native/first language (s). Unlike language learning, language
acquisition focuses on communication or reception of a message rather than syntax and
grammar (Rice, Bruehler & Specker, 2004). Hawk & Ebert (2003).
It is believed that the usual outcome of language acquisition is fluency, which is
by no means guaranteed in language learning.
Nature of Learning

1. Learning is a process.
2. Learning involves experiences and training of an individual which helps to
change his behavior.
3. Learning prepare the individual to adjust and adopt in the situations.
4. All learning is purposeful and goal oriented.
5. Learning is universal and continuous.
6. It is a continuous process and never- ending process that goes from womd
to tomb.

7 Principles in Learning

(Dumont et. al. 2010)

1. Learners at the center.
2. The social nature of learning.
3. Emotions are integral to learning.
4. Recognizing individual difference.
5. Stretching all students.
6. Assessment fro learning.
7. Building horizontal connections.

First Language Acquisition vs Second Language Acquisition

The first evidence of human communication is a newborn baby's expected cry.

Every day of a child's life, the language acquisition process can be seen as a running
parallel. She or he develops communication skills through natural interactions with his
or her surroundings. The process begins in a human's early life and necessitates a
healthy start, ample opportunities, and exposure to a caring environment that allows the
child's intrinsic abilities to flourish aptitude for learning to communicate with functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).

Today, more than half of the world's population speaks multiple languages and is
engaged in basic human activities. Building bridges between people of different colors,
creeds, cultures, and languages illustrates the basic humanity of bilingualism (Baker,
2000, p.5). According to Baker (2000), children are born ready to learn two or more
languages. They act like "sponges," soaking up all languages offered by their
surroundings and opportunities to engage with people of various languages. They' learn
any language without jeopardizing the development of their native tongue. According to
Lambert (1962), that being bilingual does not impair IQ (in Garcia, 1986). Many
language stimulations are necessary to improve children's bilingualism. Producing
multilingual children is simple and natural in some contexts, but it can be difficult in
others. Many variables influence the process, including encouragement from both
parents at home and from the community. In a bilingual or multilingual population,
mastering two or more languages is essential for successfully conducting daily
activities.
As a result, the bilingualism of the children is highly supported. In families who
see bilingualism as a difficulty, language engineering or shaping is critical. This means
that children's attitudes toward their languages must be consistently stimulated and
reinforced. It is critical to provide a diverse range of enjoyable environments for
language development.

Summary

Language learning is an ongoing process that begins at birth and continues

throughout life. Students learn language as they use it to express their thoughts,
feelings, and experiences, form relationships with family and friends, and try to make
sense of their surroundings. They may arrive at school speaking many languages or
learning a new language in school. It's critical to value and develop each student's first
language. Learning different languages will benefit from previous language experience.
Children develop language informally during their early years. They reproduce and
utilize language to generate and express fresh meaning in unique ways long before they
learn explicit language rules and conventions. Later, language acquisition occurs in
specific contexts for specific objectives, such as learning about a particular topic,
participating in the community, and pursuing work and leisure activities.

Learning Exercises / Activities

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following statements is true about language

acquisition?

a) At birth, children know the elementary aspects of the

language of their parents.
b) By age one, children typically use about three words
consisting of single morphemes.
c) Babies learn a language best when they are forced to repeat
phrases given to them by their parents.
d) none of the above

2. When young children begin to learn standard grammar, they tend

to over regularize it. What does this mean?

a) They consistently use correct grammar in virtually every

sentence.
b) They excessively regulate or control what they say to the
point that they become inhibited.
c) They assume that common syntax rules apply in all
situations.
 d) none of the above

3. The best time to learn a second language is in:

a) early childhood
b) junior and senior high school
c) college
4. It is best to learn a second language:

a) in a classroom where you can focus on the grammar and

receive help from a teacher
b) through constant contact with native speakers in their own
society
c) both of the above approaches to learning are equally
effective.

5. Which of the following statements is true about the effect of

language?
a) Bilingual people usually perform math and other
complicated mental tasks with their first language.
b) Second languages learned as adults are rarely
forgotten even if they are not used regularly.
b) neither of the above is true

6. Language acquisition

A. is best understood by watching animals communicate.

B. is a theory that is agreed upon by the psychological
community.
C. cannot happen among the deaf community.
D. is the process by which we learn to communicate in
 meaningful ways.

7. How can we describe the language acquisition device?

A. A hypothetical tool that helps children quickly learn and

understand language
B. A section of the brain labeled 'language acquisition device'
C. A device you plug into children's heads to teach them a
Language
D. A toy that teaches children how to speak

8. Who developed the language acquisition device?

A. Noam Chomsky
B. Choam Nomsky
C. Chuck Norris
D. Chuck Numsky

9. Which is NOT a stage of language acquisition according to

Krashen´s theory?
A. Pre- production.
B. Early production.
C. Language interference
D. Speech emergent.

10. The idea that ‘Language is not learnt by groups’ relates to.
A. Individual differences
B. Affective Factors
C. Cognitive Factors

Week 4 – 6. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning

 Approaches

Learning Objectives

1. To determine the theory of behaviorism

2. To understand the behaviorism theory in language acquisition and
Learning.
3. To analyze the theory of behaviorist theory.

Discussion

The Principle of Behaviorist Theory

Behaviorism is a learning theory that investigates observable and measurable

behavioral changes that occur as a result of the learner's stimulus-response
relationships.
Pavlov examined animal behavior and was able to prove his idea, teaches a dog to
associate the sound of a bell with food. Classic conditioning is the name given to
Pavlovian conditioning. Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner expanded on Pavlov's theory.
Skinner proposed the operant conditioning theory (a behavior followed by a reinforcer
increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again; a behavior followed by a
reinforcer increases the probability of that behavior occurring again. In the future, the
punishment is weakened or muted.

Behaviorism in the classroom

Behaviorist strategies have been used in educational settings for a long time,
particularly in classroom and behavior control. According to Behaviorism, the instructor
is in charge of adjusting the learner's behavior during the learning process.
The learner's action, whether it is thinking or acting, is limited to the framework of
"behavior" and is guided by the stimulus-response-reinforcement process.

Examples: In Behaviorism
1. Follow the instructions.
2. Take the test.
3. Get the reward.
4. Learn.

BEHAVIORIST THEORY ON LANGUAGE LEARNING AND ACQUISITION

Some fundamental theories have been proposed to explain how language is

acquired, learned, and taught. Some of these theories include behaviorist theory,
mentalist theory (Innatism), rationalist theory (otherwise known as Cognitive theory),
and interactionism. Behaviorist theory and mentalist theory are primarily applicable to
native language acquisition, while the rest can account for foreign language acquisition.
However, these four basic ideas of language acquisition are inextricably linked, because
"the aims of second language learning are not always wholly determined by native
language competency, which inevitably acts as a foil against which to put second
language learning" (H.H. Stem, .1983; 30).Mother Tongue and Foreign Language
Learning
Furthermore, these five fundamental theories are highly complementary to one
another, serving different types of learners or representing distinct circumstances of
language learning. They must not lead us to believe that first and second language
acquisition are the same or similar processes, despite the fact that second language
acquisition is closely linked to first language acquisition. Clearly, the development of
local languages must prepare the way for the development of foreign languages. Then
these five core language learning theories are unquestionably important cornerstones of
language acquisition.

The Principle of the Behaviorist Theory

"Infants learn spoken language from other human role models through a process
involving imitation, rewards, and practice," according to the behaviorist view. Human
role models supply the stimulation and rewards in an infant's surroundings" (Cooter &
Reutzel, 2004). When a kid attempts oral language or imitates sounds or speech
patterns, they are frequently complimented and shown affection. As a result, praise and
affection are the benefits. The behaviorist view, on the other hand, is questioned for a
variety of reasons. If rewards are so important in language development, what happens
if the parent is distracted or absent when the youngster begins to speak? Would a
baby's speech attempts halt if the baby's language development was solely motivated
by rewards (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)? "Learning the usage and meaning of abstract
words, evidence of innovative forms of language not patterned by others, and uniformity
of language acquisition in humans" are some of the additional arguments opposing this
theory (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).
 Stages of Language Acquisition

Stages of Language Acquisition

The babbling stage, the Holophrastic or one-word stage, the two-word stage, and
the Telegraphic stage are the four stages of normal language acquisition. Pre-
production, early production, speech emerging, beginning fluency, middle fluency, and
advanced fluency are the lesser stages that can be split down further. On this page, I'll
outline the four major stages of language acquisition.

Babbling

The newborn recognizes his or her mother's voice within a few weeks of birth. Within
this time frame, there are two sub-stages. The first happens between the ages of birth
and eight months. The baby spends the majority of this stage interacting with its
environment, and it is only around the 5/6–8 month mark that the newborn begins to use
vocals. As previously said, kids learn by imitation, and the babbling period is no
exception. During these months, the baby hears sounds around them and strives, albeit
unsuccessfully, to duplicate them. Babbling refers to a baby's attempts to create and
experiment with noises. After a few months of babbling, the infant learns to associate
the words or sounds it is creating with objects or things. The second sub-stage is here.
Between the ages of 8 and 12, the baby gets more control over not just its vocal
communication but also its physical communication, such as body language and
gestures. Only when the newborn can communicate through both verbal and nonverbal
ways does it progress to the next stage of language development.

Holophrastic / One-word stage

The holophrastic or one-word stage is the second stage of language acquisition. One-
word sentences characterize this level. Nouns make up around half of an infant's
vocabulary at this age, while verbs and modifiers make up about a third, and questions
and negatives make up the rest. This level features single-word utterances like "play"
for "I want to play right now." These sentences are mostly used by infants to get items
they want or need, but they aren't always clear. When a newborn simply wants
attention, it could cry or utter "mama." When the newborn can speak in one-word
sentences, it is ready to move on to the next stage.

Two-Word Stage

The two-word stage consists primarily of two-word statements, as you may have
guessed. There is one word for the subject and one word for the predicate in these
sentences. For example, in the statement "The dog is being walked," "Doggie stroll"
would be appropriate. Single modifiers, such as "That dog," and two-word inquiries,
such as "What does Mummy eat?" are becoming more common, as well as the addition
of the suffix –ing to nouns to reflect what is currently occurring, such as "Baby
Sleeping."
Telegraphic Stage

The telegraphic stage is the last level of language acquisition. This stage is so named
because it resembles a telegram in that it contains just enough information for the
phrase to make sense. There are a lot of three and four word statements in this level.
During this stage, the kid learns to see connections between words and objects, which
leads to overgeneralization. "Mummy eat carrot," "What her name?" are some samples
of sentences from the telegraphic stage. " and "He's on the ball." A child's vocabulary
grows from 50 words to up to 13,000 words throughout this stage. The child begins to
absorb plurals, combine words, and attempt to grasp tenses by the conclusion of this
stage. It may appear to us as a child's language skills develop that they are learning
each part in a random order, but this is not the case. Speech sounds are in a particular
order. The rounded mouthed sounds "oo" and "aa" are the first vowels that children
learn to say. P, b, m, t, d, n, k, and g follow the vowels. The consonants come first
because they are easier to speak than the others. For example, the sounds's' and 'z'
need certain tongue placement, which children at that age cannot perform.

Summary

"When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the
'human essence,' the distinctive qualities of mind that are, as far as we know, unique to
man." (Noam Chomsky) Unlike the behaviorist approach, which ignores the child's own
cognitive processes, the linguist Noam Chomsky's 'Innateness Hypothesis' supports the
idea that language acquisition has a biological basis.

Learning Exercises / Activities

I. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is the first language level children learn?

A. Lexis
 B. Grammar
C. Phonology
D. Syntax

2. At what age do children typically enter the one word stage?

A. 6 months
B. 12 months
C. 18 months
D. 24 months

3. What is it called when a child makes a mistake that make grammatical

sense but isn't correct due to an irregular rule.
A. Honest mistake
B. Virtuous mistake
C. Virtuous error
D. A boo boo

4. Which theory do virtuous errors support?

A. Naturvist
B. Behaviourist
C. Cognitive
D. Vygotsky

5. Who suggests children learn by imitating adults?

A. Chomsky
B. Skinner
C. Piaget
D. Nelson

6. Which of this is an example of positive reinforcement?

A. No, that's wrong.
 B. Say please.
C. Ok, you can have some juice.
D. When?

7. Which is more effective?

A. Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement

8. When do children enter the two word stage?

A. 6 months
B. 12 months
C. 18 months
D. 24 month

9. What does Vygotsky suggest is essential to language acquisition?

A. Interaction
B. Play
C. Older siblings
D. TV

10. In his review of Skinner’s (1957) book on behaviourism and language

learning, Chomsky (1959) argued that ______.
A. operant conditioning is inefficient because it relies on imitation
B. children acquire a good deal of their verbal behaviour by imitating
adults
C. children do not rely on imitation in the acquisition of verbal
behaviour
d. the acquisition of verbal behaviour depends on operant conditioning
 Week 7 – 9. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning: The
Functional Approaches

Learning Objectives.
1. To identify the different language approaches under functional approach
2. To understand the theory of Hallidays.
3. To discuss the theory of Hallidays and its importance in language
acquisition and learning

Several attempts have been made to catalogue the different functions of language,
and to chart child language development in terms of the increasing range of these
functions to be found in the growing child’s repertoire. Michael Halliday’s taxonomy is
documented below:- Instrumental: Language used to fulfil a need on the part of the
speaker. Directly concerned with obtaining food, drink and comfort.

– Regulatory: Language used to influence the behaviour of others. Concerned with

persuading / commanding / requesting other people to do things you want.
– Interactional: Language used to develop social relationships and ease the process
of interaction. Concerned with the phatic dimension of talk.
– Personal: Language used to express the personal preferences and identity of the
speaker. Sometimes referred to as the ‘Here I am!’ function – announcing oneself to the
world.
– Representational: Language used to exchange information. Concerned with
relaying or requesting information.
– Heuristic: Language used to learn and explore the environment. Child uses
language to learn; this may be questions and answers, or the kind of running
commentary
that frequently accompanies children’s play.
– Imaginative: Language used to explore the imagination. May also accompany play
as children create imaginary worlds, or may arise from storytelling.
 Halliday’s Functions of Language

The evidence then indicates that children do acquire a large number of sentences and
phrases, but instead of repeating them, they abstract rules from them and develop their
own grammar, which they then use to produce new utterances that they have never
heard before. When youngsters master language between the ages of 2 and 6, they
constantly alter their grammar until it matches that of adult speakers.

This important period between the ages of 2 and 6 implies that, like walking, initial
language learning is an innate potential of humans activated by a degree of
development rather than environmental feedback. Is it possible to have it? That is, as
long as a youngster hears a language–any language–they will acquire it properly when
they reach this vital phase. If this is the case, any youngster who does not hear
language during this time should not only not learn to speak, but should also not be able
to learn to speak.

Summary

Functionalism is a linguistic theory that emphasizes the link between language structure
and social meaning. That is, language is a way of executing specific socially
communicative purposes, rather than a system of rules as proposed by Chomsky. The
communicative environment, according to functionalists, motivates, constrains, or
otherwise defines grammatical structure, implying that a child's language choices during
development are highly influenced by the functional purpose they serve.

Learning Exercises / Activities.

I. Multiple Choice: Answer the following questions:

1. Which of these is one of Halliday's functions of speech?

A. Instrumental
B. Social
C. Action
D. Personal

2. What do Halliday's functions help us to understand about child language?

A. Lexis
B. Semantics
C. Pragmatics
D. Grammar

3. Which of the following is NOT an example of language acquisition from a

behaviorist perspective?
A. Babies learn language by repeatedly associating the object 'dog' with the word
 'dog.'
B. Babies learn language by imitating adult patterns of speech.
C. Babies are born with an innate ability to learn language.
D. Babies are rewarded for attempts at speech when their caregivers smile and
applaud their efforts.

4. Noam Chomsky argues that babies acquire language

A. because humans are born with the ability to learn language.
B. when caregivers speak softly to infants.
C. by watching adults interact.
D. by repeated exposure to sounds that have meaning.

5. Which theorist places the most importance on social interaction in the

development of language?
A) Chomsky
B) Piaget
C) Skinner
D) Vygotsky

6. In the nature-nurture debate as it applies to language acquisition, Chomsky

emphasizes ______.
A. the ‘harmony and mutual dependence’ of nature and nurture
B. the fundamental antagonism of nature and nurture
C. the importance of nature over nurture
D. the importance of nurture over nature

7. Every time young Haley says the word 'teddy,' she is given her favorite stuffed
bear, which reinforces her understanding and continued use of the word for getting
the toy. According to behaviorist theory, this is an example of:
A. Operant conditioning
B. Information processing
 C. Conditioned stimulus
D. Repetitive-style language learning

8. Regardless of culture, children begin to learn language around the same time all
over the world. At about what age is this?
A. between 6 and 8 months
B. between 8 and 28 months
C. between 2 and 4 years
D. between 5 and 7 years

9. Susie and Jen, identical twins, appear to speak and understand their own "secret
language"; however, upon listening to them, their mother is unable to discern any
consistency in the words and grammar they use. When she asks the girls, they
reply that they change it whenever they feel like it. What characteristic of language
does their "language" violate?.
A. The language code is conventional.
B. Language is a representational tool.
C. Language is socially shared.
D. Language is a code that uses a system of arbitrary symbols.

10.While studying for your upcoming Language Development test, you ask your
friend to define the term speech. He tells you that it is the process of sharing
information among individuals. Your friend gave you the definition for:
A. Communication
B. Hearing
C. Language
D. Speech

Recommended Learning Materials and Resources

Clark, E. V. (2016). First language acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 7: First combinations, first constructions.
 Flege, James E. (2009). Give input a chance! In Piske, Thorsten & Young-Scholten,
Martha (eds.) Input matters in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. 175–190.

Kirk, E., Howlett, N., Pine, K. J. & Fletcher, B (C). 2013. To Sign or Not to Sign? The
impact of encouraging infants to gesture on infant language and maternal mind-
mindedness. Child Development, 84(2), 574–590.

Langdridge, D. & Hagger-Johnson, G. (2013). Introduction to research methods and

data analysis in psychology (3rd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall. (Specific pages
are indicated in the Module Information Sheet).

McCune, L., & Vihman, M. M. (2001). Early phonetic and lexical development: A
productivity approach. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 670–
684.

Sperry, D. E., Sperry, L. L., Miller, P. J. (In press). Reexamining the verbal
environments of children from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Child
Development.

REFERENCES

A. Books
Principles of Language and Learning Douglas Brown
Principles and Practice in second Language Acquisition
by Krashen Stephen
Cruz, Neal. “As I See It: Philippine mythological monsters”. Philippine Daily
Inquirer. 2008.

B. Electronic Research
https://edtechbooks.org/pdfs/print/language_acquisition/_language_acquisiti
on.pdf
http://angol.uni-miskolc.hu/wpcontent/
media/2016/10/Principles_of_language_learning.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299657306_language_acquisi tion_theories
https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~ycharles/klnl.pdfs
https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-24-s-2017.pdf