Single-Phase Power Transformers

Single-Phase Power Transformers
Electricity and New Energy
LabVolt Series
Student Manual
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Electricity and New Energy

Student Manual
579437
Order no.: 579437 (Printed version) 591954 (CD-ROM) First
Edition
Revision level: 10/2018
By the staff of Festo Didactic
© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2014

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Safety and Common Symbols
The following safety and common symbols may be used in this course and on the
equipment:
Symbol Description
DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

avoided, will result in death or serious injury.
WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which, if

not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.
CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

indicates a hazard with a potentially hazardous situation which, if not
avoided, may result in property damage.
Caution, risk of electric shock
Caution, hot surface
Caution, risk of danger. Consult the relevant user documentation.
Caution, lifting hazard
Caution, belt drive entanglement hazard
Caution, chain drive entanglement hazard
Caution, gear entanglement hazard
Caution, hand crushing hazard
Notice, non-ionizing radiation
Consult the relevant user documentation.
Direct current
© Festo Didactic 579437 III

Safety and Common Symbols
Symbol Description
Alternating current
Both direct and alternating current
Three-phase alternating current
Earth (ground) terminal
Protective conductor terminal
Frame or chassis terminal
Equipotentiality
On (supply)
Off (supply)
Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or reinforced

insulation
In position of a bi-stable push control
Out position of a bi-stable push control
IV © Festo Didactic 579437

Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................IX
About This Course.............................................................................................................XI
Introduction Single-Phase Power Transformers............................................1

COURSE OBJECTIVE........................................................................................................1
DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS...............................................................................1
Introduction to single-phase power transformers...............................1
Exercise 1 Voltage and Current Ratios........................................................3

DISCUSSION.......................................................................................................................3
Transformer voltage and current ratios..............................................3
Step-up and step-down transformers..................................................5
Determining the voltage and current ratios of a
transformer.........................................................................................7
PROCEDURE.......................................................................................................................8
Set up and connections.......................................................................8
Primary and secondary windings of the Transformer
module................................................................................................9
Electrical isolation between the primary and secondary windings....9
Voltage induction across the windings of a transformer....................9
Step-up transformer.........................................................................13
Step-down transformer (optional)....................................................15
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................18
REVIEW QUESTIONS.....................................................................................................18
Exercise 2 Transformer Winding Polarity and Interconnection...............21

DISCUSSION.....................................................................................................................21
Introduction to transformer winding polarity..................................21
Transformer winding polarity in schematic diagrams.....................22
Determining the polarity of transformer windings using an
oscilloscope......................................................................................22
Series connection of transformer windings.....................................23
Determining the polarity of transformer windings using a voltmeter
.........................................................................................................26
Parallel connection of transformer windings...................................27
PROCEDURE.....................................................................................................................28
Set up and connections....................................................................28
Determining transformer winding polarity using an oscilloscope. .29
Series connection of transformer windings.....................................32
Determining transformer winding polarity using a
© Festo Didactic 579437 V

Table of Contents
voltmeter..........................................................................................34
Parallel connection of transformer windings...................................37
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................41
Exercise 3 Transformer Losses, Efficiency, and Regulation....................43

DISCUSSION.....................................................................................................................43
Transformer losses...........................................................................43
Transformer efficiency....................................................................45
Transformer voltage regulation.......................................................46
PROCEDURE.....................................................................................................................48
Transformer no-load operation........................................................50
Transformer power losses, efficiency, and voltage
regulation.........................................................................................51
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................53
Exercise 4 Transformer Rating...................................................................55

DISCUSSION.....................................................................................................................55
Transformer rating...........................................................................55
Determining the current rating of a transformer winding................56
Transformer saturation.....................................................................56
Determining the voltage rating of a transformer winding...............59
PROCEDURE.....................................................................................................................60
Transformer saturation.....................................................................63
Saturation curve of a power transformer.........................................65
Voltage rating of transformer windings and transformer
power rating.....................................................................................66
Effect of transformer nominal voltage on the power
losses and efficiency........................................................................68
Transformer operating temperature.................................................70
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................71
Exercise 5 Effect of Frequency on Transformer Rating............................73

DISCUSSION.....................................................................................................................73
Transformer saturation versus frequency........................................73
Transformer rating versus frequency...............................................74
VI © Festo Didactic 579437

Table of Contents
Transformer operation at a frequency of 50 Hz...............................78
Effect of frequency on transformer saturation.................................78
Saturation curve of the power transformer at a frequency
of 75 Hz...........................................................................................80
Effect of frequency on the voltage rating of transformer windings
and on the transformer power rating................................................82
Transformer operating temperature (optional)................................85
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................87
Exercise 6 The Autotransformer.................................................................89

DISCUSSION.....................................................................................................................89
Autotransformer operation...............................................................89
Autotransformer circuit analysis......................................................91
Step-up autotransformer circuit analysis............................................ 91
Step-down autotransformer circuit analysis....................................... 92
Power rating of conventional transformers and autotransformers...93
PROCEDURE.....................................................................................................................96
Operation of a step-down autotransformer......................................98
Operation of a step-up autotransformer.........................................100
Comparing the power rating of an autotransformer to that
of a conventional power transformer of the same size..................102
Effect of the turns ratio on the power rating of autotransformers. 103
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................106
REVIEW QUESTIONS..................................................................................................106
Appendix A Equipment Utilization Chart....................................................109
Appendix B Glossary of New Terms...........................................................111
Appendix C Impedance Table for the Load Modules................................113
Appendix D Circuit Diagram Symbols........................................................115
Appendix E Harmonics................................................................................121
Introduction to harmonics..............................................................121
Effect of harmonics on the power factor........................................122
Index of New Terms........................................................................................................125

Bibliography....................................................................................................................127
© Festo Didactic 579437 VII

Preface
The production of energy using renewable natural resources such as wind, sunlight, rain,
tides, geothermal heat, etc., has gained much importance in recent years as it is an
effective means of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The need for innovative
technologies to make the grid smarter has recently emerged as a major trend, as the
increase in electrical power demand observed worldwide makes it harder for the actual
grid in many countries to keep up with demand. Furthermore, electric vehicles (from
bicycles to cars) are developed and marketed with more and more success in many
countries all over the world.
To answer the increasingly diversified needs for training in the wide field of electrical
energy, the Electric Power Technology Training Program was developed as a modular
study program for technical institutes, colleges, and universities. The program is shown
below as a flow chart, with each box in the flow chart representing a course.
The Electric Power Technology Training Program.
© Festo Didactic 579437 IX

Preface
The program starts with a variety of courses providing in-depth coverage of basic topics
related to the field of electrical energy such as ac and dc power circuits, power
transformers, rotating machines, ac power transmission lines, and power electronics. The
program then builds on the knowledge gained by the student through these basic courses
to provide training in more advanced subjects such as motor starters and drives, storage
of electrical energy in batteries, home energy production from renewable resources (wind
and sunlight), large-scale electricity production from hydropower, protective relaying,
and smart-grid technologies (SVC, STATCOM, HVDC transmission systems, etc.).
We invite readers to send us their tips, feedback, and suggestions for improving the course.
Please send these to

The authors and Festo Didactic look forward to your comments.
X © Festo Didactic 579437

About This Course
Power transformers are one of the most commonly used electrical components. They are
found in all types of applications, such as electrical power generation systems, electrical
power distribution lines, and home electronic products (microwave ovens,
televisions, stereos, computers, grid-tied inverters).
Power transformers are basically electrical devices that transfer electrical power from the
primary winding to the secondary winding through electromagnetic induction. While
transferring power, power transformers have the ability to either increase or decrease the
voltage from the primary winding to the secondary winding. Because of this, power
transformers can either be used as step-up transformers or step-down transformers. In
either case, the amount of power that is supplied to the power transformer is virtually
equal to the amount of power that the power transformer supplies to the load. Power
transformers also can provide electrical isolation between the primary winding and the
secondary winding, as power transfer is achieved through electromagnetic induction.
Autotransformers are a special type of power transformer whose primary and secondary
windings form a single winding. Because of this, autotransformers are smaller, lighter,
and cheaper than conventional power transformers for a same power rating.
Autotransformers, however, do not provide electrical isolation between the primary and
secondary windings.
This course, Single-Phase Power Transformers, teaches the basic concepts of power
transformers. Students are introduced to the different parameters of power transformers,
such as turns, voltage, and current ratios, winding polarity, power losses, efficiency,
voltage regulation, and operating frequency. Students learn about different transformer
connections, such as series-aiding, series-opposing, parallel, and autotransformer
connections. Finally, students verify the theory presented in each exercise by performing
circuit measurements and calculations.
Typical single-phase power transformer.
© Festo Didactic 579437 XI

About This Course
Safety considerations
Safety symbols that may be used in this course and on the equipment are listed in the
Safety and Common Symbols table at the beginning of this document.
Safety procedures related to the tasks that you will be asked to perform are indicated in
each exercise.
Make sure that you are wearing appropriate protective equipment when performing the
tasks. You should never perform a task if you have any reason to think that a
manipulation could be dangerous for you or your teammates.
Prerequisite
As a prerequisite to this course, you should have completed the following courses: DC
Power Circuits and 1-Phase AC Power Circuits.
Systems of units
Units are expressed using the International System of Units (SI) followed by units
expressed in the U.S. customary system of units (between parentheses).
XI © Festo Didactic 579437

I
Introduction
COURSE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this course, you will be familiar with the operation of single-
phase power transformers. You will be able to discuss what the turns, current, and
voltage ratios of a power transformer are, and how to calculate them. You will be able to
determine the polarity of the windings of a power transformer, and know how to connect
transformer windings in series-aiding, in series-opposing, and in parallel. You will be
familiar with the different power losses occurring in a power transformer, as well as with
the transformer efficiency and voltage regulation. You will be able to determine the
power rating of a power transformer, and know the effects of the operating frequency on
the power rating. Finally, you will also know what an autotransformer is, and what its
operating characteristics are.
The Discussion of Fundamentals covers the following points:

DISCUSSION OUTLINE
 Introduction to single-phase power transformers
Introduction to single-phase power transformers

DISCUSSION OF
FUNDAMENTALS Power transformers are magnetically operated devices that are used to change voltage,
current, and impedance values in ac circuits. In its simplest form, a power transformer
consists of two coils of wire wound around a common core of ferromagnetic material,
such as iron. One coil is called the primary winding while the other is called the
secondary winding. The primary winding is the power input winding of the
transformer and corresponds to the side that is connected to the ac power source. The
secondary winding corresponds to the side that is connected to the load and that is
physically and electrically isolated from the primary winding. Since power transformers
are bidirectional devices, both windings can either be the primary winding or the
secondary winding, depending on the direction of power transfer in the transformer.
When ac current supplied by an ac power source flows through the primary winding of a
power transformer, a varying magnetic flux is created in the iron core. This varying
magnetic flux produces a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding of the
power transformer. This varying magnetic field then induces a voltage across the
secondary winding of the transformer, which causes current to flow from the secondary
winding to the load connected to the transformer. Power is thus transferred from the
primary winding of the transformer to the secondary winding through electromagnetic
induction only, which means that there is no electrical contact between the primary and
the secondary windings. Therefore, power transformers not only perform ac power
conversion but also electrically isolate the ac power source from the load. Electrical
isolation is a very important feature of power transformers that makes them very difficult
to replace in certain applications.
© Festo Didactic 579437 X

II
Introduction – Single-Phase Power Transformers ⬥ Discussion of Fundamentals
In certain power transformers, the primary winding actually consists of two or more
individual windings. These windings can be connected in series or in parallel to form a
single primary winding that is connected to an ac power source. Similarly, the secondary
winding of certain transformers consists of several individual windings. These windings
can be connected in series or in parallel to form a single secondary winding that is
connected to a load. These windings can also be connected individually to supply ac
power to different loads.
Figure 1. Power transformers are often used in power distribution lines.1
1
Photo by [Glogger], September 11, 2004 via Wikipedia: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Polemount-
singlephase-closeup.jpg. Available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
(CC BY-SA 3.0): https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0.
2 © Festo Didactic 579437

Exercise 1
Voltage and Current Ratios
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will know the relationships between the
turns, voltage, and current ratios of a power transformer. You will be familiar with the
different characteristics of step-up and step-down power transformers. You will also
know how to determine in practice the voltage and current ratios of a power transformer.
The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:

DISCUSSION OUTLINE
 Transformer voltage and current ratios
 Step-up and step-down transformers
 Determining the voltage and current ratios of a transformer
Transformer voltage and current ratios

DISCUSSION
As mentioned in the introduction, power transformers have a primary winding and a
secondary winding. The ratio between the number of turns of wire in the primary
winding (𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) and the number of turns of wire in the secondary winding (𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.)
is called the turns ratio. This ratio sets the relationship between the input and output
values of the transformer and thus, determines the basic characteristics of the
transformer. Figure 2a shows a single-phase power
transformer having a turns ratio 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ⁄𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. of 1:1 connected to a single-phase
ac power source and a resistive load. Figure 2b represents the circuit diagram of the setup
Schematic symbol of a power transformer
shown in Figure 2a.
© Festo Didactic 579437 3

Exercise 1 – Voltage and Current Ratios ⬥ Discussion
Magnetic flux
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
AC power 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐.
source 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
(a)
Power transformer
AC power 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

source
(b)
Figure 2. Power transformer with a turns ratio of 1:1.
The ratio between the voltage across the primary winding and the voltage across the
secondary winding of a power transformer is equal to the transformer turns ratio
𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ⁄𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. , as shown by the following equation:
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (1)

𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
where 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. is the voltage across the primary winding of the transformer, in volts
(V).
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. is the voltage across the secondary winding of the transformer, in volts
(V).
𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. is the number of turns in the primary winding of the transformer.
𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. is the number of turns in the secondary winding of the
transformer.

The voltage across the secondary winding of a power transformer can thus be calculated
using the following equation:
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. × 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐 . (2)

𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. =
𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
Conversely, the ratio between the current flowing in the primary winding and the current
flowing in the secondary winding of a power transformer is inversely proportional to the
transformer turns ratio 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ⁄𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. , as shown by the following equation:
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃 . 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐 . (3)

𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. = 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
where 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. is the current flowing in the primary winding of the transformer, in
amperes (A).
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. is the current flowing in the secondary winding of the transformer, in
amperes (A).
The current flowing in the secondary winding of a power transformer can thus be
calculated using the following equation:
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. × 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃 . (4)

𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. =
𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
As you can see, the ratio between the voltage across the primary winding of a power
transformer and the voltage across the secondary winding is equal to 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ⁄𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. .
Conversely, the ratio between the current flowing in the primary winding of a
power transformer and the current flowing in the secondary winding is equal to the
reciprocal (inverse) of the turns ratio, i.e., 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. ⁄𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. .
Power transformers are highly efficient devices. Because of this, the voltage and current
measured at the secondary winding of a power transformer are virtually equal to the
values determined using the voltage and current measured at the primary windings and
the transformer voltage ratio and current ratio. Similarly, the apparent power at the
secondary winding of a transformer is virtually equal to apparent power supplied to the
primary winding of the transformer. This is true regardless of whether the primary and
secondary windings are made of a single winding or of several windings. In other words,
the total apparent power at the windings forming the secondary winding of a transformer
is virtually equal to the total apparent power at the windings forming the primary
winding.
Step-up and step-down transformers
Depending on its turns ratio, a power transformer can either be used as a step- up
transformer or a step-down transformer. In step-up transformers, the number of
turns in the transformer primary winding is lower than the number of turns in the
secondary winding, as shown in Figure 3. Consequently, step-up transformers increase
the voltage from the primary winding to the secondary winding, hence their name.
Conversely, step-up transformers decrease the current from the primary winding to the
secondary winding.

Magnetic flux
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
AC power 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. < 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.

source 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. < 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. > 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
Figure 3. Step-up power transformer.
In step-down transformers, the number of turns in the transformer primary winding is

higher than the number of turns in the secondary winding, as shown in Figure 4.
Consequently, step-down transformers decrease the voltage from the primary winding to
the secondary winding, hence their name. Conversely, step- down transformers increase
the current from the primary winding to the secondary winding.
Magnetic flux
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. > 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.

AC power 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. > 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
source 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. < 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
Figure 4. Step-down power transformer.

Power transformers are bidirectional devices. This means power in a transformer can
flow from the primary winding to the secondary winding, or from the secondary winding
to the primary winding. When power flows from the secondary winding to the primary
winding of a step-up power transformer, this transformer actually behaves as a step-down
transformer as the voltage applied to the load (i.e., the primary voltage) is lower than
the ac source voltage (i.e., the secondary voltage). Conversely, when power flows from
the secondary winding to the primary winding of a step-down power transformer, this
transformer behaves as a step-up transformer as the voltage applied to the load (i.e., the
primary voltage) is higher than the ac source voltage (i.e., the secondary voltage). For
example, if the ac power source connected to the primary winding of the step-up
transformer in Figure 3 is connected to the secondary winding instead, the transformer
operates as a step-down transformer. The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Figure 5.
The inverse is true for the step-down transformer in Figure 4, i.e., if the ac power source
is connected to the secondary winding instead of the primary winding, the transformer
operates as a step-up transformer.
Magnetic flux
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. > 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.

𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. > 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. AC power
𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. < 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. source
Figure 5. Step-up transformer of Figure 3 converted into a step-down transformer by

connecting the ac power source to the transformer’s side which is usually the secondary
winding.
Determining the voltage and current ratios of a transformer
Determining the voltage ratio of a power transformer is simple. When no load is

connected to the secondary winding of the transformer, only the small exciting current
necessary to create the magnetic flux inside the transformer flows in the primary winding
of the transformer (the transformer exciting current is discussed later in this course). The
transformer losses are thus at a minimum and the ratio of the primary voltage to the
secondary voltage is equal to the transformer turns ratio. The transformer voltage (turns)
ratio can be found by measuring with a voltmeter the voltage across the secondary
winding (without load) of the transformer when nominal voltage is applied to the primary
winding.

Exercise 1 – Voltage and Current Ratios ⬥ Procedure Outline
Determining the current ratio of a transformer can be achieved using different methods.
The safest method to avoid damaging the transformer is to connect the transformer to a
resistive load, and connect two ammeters to the circuit to measure the current flowing in
the primary winding and in the secondary winding. Nominal voltage is then applied
across the primary winding and the load resistance is adjusted so that the current
flowing in the secondary winding is close to the nominal value. The transformer
current ratio is equal to the ratio of the current flowing in the primary winding to the
current flowing in the secondary winding.
PROCEDURE OUTLINE The Procedure is divided into the following sections:
 Set up and connections

 Primary and secondary windings of the Transformer module
 Electrical isolation between the primary and secondary windings
 Voltage induction across the windings of a transformer
 Step-up transformer
 Step-down transformer (optional)
PROCEDURE
High voltages are present in this laboratory exercise. Do not make or modify any banana
jack connection with the power on unless otherwise specified.
Set up and connections

In this section, you will set up the equipment to study the operation of a power
transformer.
1. Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart in Appendix A to obtain the list of
equipment required to perform this exercise.
Install the required equipment in the Workstation.
2. Make sure that the main power switch on the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply is set to the O (off) position, then connect its Power Input to an ac power
wall outlet.
3. Connect the Power Input of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to the
Power Output of the 24 V AC Power Supply module. Turn the 24 V AC
Power Supply module on.
4. Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply on, then set the Operating
Mode switch to Power Supply. This setting allows the Four- Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply to operate as a power supply.
5. Connect the USB port of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to a USB
port of the host computer.
Connect the USB port of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to a USB

Exercise 1 – Voltage and Current Ratios ⬥ Procedure
6. Turn the host computer on then start the LVDAC-EMS software.
In the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window, make sure that the Data Acquisition and
Control Interface and the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply are detected.
Make sure that the Computer-Based Instrumentation function for the Data
Acquisition and Control Interface is available. Select the network voltage and
frequency that correspond to the voltage and frequency of your local ac power
network, then click the OK button to close the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window.
Primary and secondary windings of the Transformer module

In this section, you will observe the Transformer module and notice the ratings of
the transformer windings.
7. Observe the front panel of the Transformer module. Notice that the power
transformer in this module can be used as a step-up transformer. In this case,
the two 24 V – 5 A windings form the primary winding and are connected to the ac
power source. The two 120 V - 1 A windings form the secondary winding and can be
connected to a single load or to two separate loads.
Conversely, the power transformer in the Transformer module can also be used as a
step-down transformer. In this case, the two 120 V - 1 A windings form the primary
winding and are connected to the ac power source. The two 24 V – 5 A windings
form the secondary winding and can be connected to a single load or to two
separate loads.
Electrical isolation between the primary and secondary windings

In this section, you will use an ohmmeter to verify that a power transformer
provides isolation between its primary and secondary windings.
8. Using an ohmmeter, verify that terminals 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the primary winding of the
power transformer in the Transformer module are all isolated from terminals 5, 6, 7,
and 8 of the secondary winding.
Does this confirm that a power transformer provides electrical isolation between its
primary and secondary windings?
 Yes  No
Voltage induction across the windings of a transformer

In this section, you will calculate the voltages induced across the various
windings of the Transformer module when a voltage of 24 V is applied to
winding 1-2. You will set up the equipment to measure the voltage across each
winding of the Transformer module. You will apply a voltage of 24 V to
winding 1-2, and measure the voltages induced across each other windings. You
will compare the measured voltages with the calculated voltages. You will then
calculate the voltages induced across the various windings of the Transformer
module when a voltage of 100 V is applied to winding 5-6. You will apply a
voltage of 100 V to winding 5-6, and measure the voltages induced across each
other windings. Finally, you will compare the measured voltages with the
calculated voltages.

9. The number of turns in each of the two 24 V – 5 A windings of the power

From now on, the Trans- former moduletransformer intothe
will be referred Transformer
simply as the powermodule is 57
transformer or turns. The number of turns in each of
transformer.
the two 120 V – 1 A windings of the transformer is 285 turns. The number of turns in
each winding of the transformer is important to calculate the transformer turns ratio,
which in turn determines the transformer voltage and current ratios.
10. Using the number of turns in each winding of the power transformer specified in the
previous step, determine the voltage induced across windings 3-4, 5-6, and 7-8 of the
transformer when a voltage of 24 V is applied to winding 1-2.
Voltage 𝐸3−4 across winding 3-4 = V
11. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 6.
Transformer
1 5
E1 E3
2 6
3 7
E2 E4
4 8
Figure 6. Circuit for measuring the voltage induced across each winding of the transformer
when the ac power source is connected to winding 1-2.
12. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window,

then make the following settings:
 Set the Function parameter to AC Power Source.
 Set the Voltage (V at no load) parameter to 24 V.
 Set the Frequency parameter to the frequency of your local ac power

network.
 Start the AC Power Source.

13. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Metering window. Make the required settings to measure
the rms (ac) values of the voltage 𝐸1−2 across winding 1-2, the voltage 𝐸3−4 across
winding 3-4, the voltage 𝐸5−6 across winding 5-6, and the voltage 𝐸7−8 across
winding 7-8 (inputs E1, E2, E3, and E4, respectively).
14. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, readjust the Voltage (V

at no load) parameter so that the voltage 𝐸1−2 across winding 1-2 indicated in the
Metering window is as close as possible to 24 V.
In the Metering window, measure the voltage across each winding of the transformer
(except the one to which the ac power source is connected). Record the values below.
Compare the voltages measured across the windings of the transformer to the
voltages calculated in step 10. Are they virtually equal?
 Yes  No
15. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the

AC Power Source.
16. Using the number of turns in each winding of the transformer, determine the voltage
induced across windings 1-2, 3-4, and 7-8 of the power transformer when a voltage
of 100 V is applied to winding 5-6.

Transformer
1 5
E1 E3
2 6
3 7
E2 E4
4 8
Figure 7. Circuit for measuring the voltage induced across each winding of the transformer
when the ac power source is connected to winding 5-6.
18. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Voltage (V

at no load) parameter to 100 V, then start the AC Power Source. Readjust the
Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that the voltage 𝐸5−6 across winding 5-6
indicated in the Metering window is as close as possible to 100 V.
In the Metering window, measure the voltage across each winding of the transformer
(except the one to which the ac power source is connected). Record the values below.
Compare the voltages measured across the windings of the transformer to the
voltages calculated in step 16. Are they virtually equal?
 Yes  No
Do the above manipulations confirm the relationship between the turns ratio and the
voltage ratio?
 Yes  No


AC Power Source.
Step-up transformer
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a step-up transformer

connected to a resistive load, and calculate the step-up transformer turns ratio.
You will start the ac power source, measure the transformer primary and
secondary voltages (with the load resistance set to infinite), and calculate the
transformer voltage ratio. You will compare the transformer voltage ratio with the
calculated turns ratio, and confirm that the transformer currently operates as a
step-up transformer. You will then set the resistance of the resistive load
to 120 Ω. You will measure the transformer primary and secondary currents, and
calculate the transformer current ratio. Finally, you will measure the apparent
power at the primary and secondary of the step-up transformer, and confirm that
both values are virtually equal.
20. Set up the 120 VA step-up transformer shown in Figure 8.
In LVDAC-EMS, set the Range setting of current input I1 to high.
Transformer
40 A input
1 5
E1 24 V 120 V E2 Load
2 6
Figure 8. 120 VA step-up transformer connected to a resistive load.
21. Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load so that the resistance
value of the resistive load is infinite.
22. Calculate the turns ratio of the step-up transformer set up in the previous step.
Step-up transformer turns ratio =
23. In the Metering window, make the required settings to measure the rms (ac) values
of the power transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
(inputs E1 and I1, respectively), as well as the transformer secondary
voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. (inputs E2 and I2, respectively). Set two other meters
to measure the transformer apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at the primary and apparent
power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the secondary (from inputs E1 and I1, and inputs E2 and I2,
respectively).


Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
25. In the Metering window, measure the step-up transformer primary and secondary
voltages. Record the values below.
Step-up transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = V
Step-up transformer secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = V
Using the step-up transformer primary and secondary voltages just recorded,
calculate the transformer voltage ratio.
Step-up transformer voltage ratio =
26. Is the step-up transformer voltage ratio recorded in the previous step virtually equal
to the transformer turns ratio calculated in step 22?
 Yes  No
Considering the transformer primary and secondary voltages recorded in the previous
step, can you conclude that the transformer currently operates as a step-up
transformer? Explain briefly.
27. On the Resistive Load module, make the necessary switch settings to obtain a
resistive load value 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 of 120 Ω.
28. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, readjust the Voltage (V

at no load) parameter so that the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the
Metering window is as close as possible to 24 V. The current flowing in the
secondary winding should now be close to the nominal current (1 A).
29. In the Metering window, measure the step-up transformer primary and secondary
currents. Record the values below.
Step-up transformer primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = A
Step-up transformer secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. = A
Using the step-up transformer primary and secondary currents just recorded,
calculate the transformer current ratio.
Step-up transformer current ratio =

30. Is the step-up transformer current ratio recorded in the previous step approximately
equal to the reciprocal (inverse) of the transformer turns ratio calculated in step 22
and transformer voltage ratio recorded in step 25?
 Yes  No
31. In the Metering window, measure the step-up transformer apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
at the primary and apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the secondary. Record the values below.
Apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at the primary = VA
Apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the secondary = VA
Is the apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the secondary of the step-up transformer close to the
apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at the primary?
 Yes  No

AC Power Source.
Step-down transformer (optional)
a This section is optional as it requires the use of the load resistors available in
the Wind Turbine Generator/Controller module. These low-resistance load
resistors are necessary to ensure that the current flowing in the primary
winding of the step-down transformer is significant (in relation to the
transformer nominal current).
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a step-down transformer

connected to a resistive load, and calculate the step-down transformer turns
ratio. You will measure the transformer primary and secondary voltages (with the
load resistance set to infinite), and calculate the transformer voltage ratio. You
will compare the transformer voltage ratio with the calculated turns ratio, and
confirm that the transformer operates as a step-down transformer. You will then
set the resistance of the resistive load to 5 Ω. You will measure the transformer
primary and secondary currents, and calculate the transformer current ratio.
Finally, you will measure the apparent power at the primary and secondary of the
step-down transformer, and confirm that both values are virtually equal.
33. Set up the 120 VA step-down transformer shown in Figure 9. Do not connect the
resistive load for the moment. This makes the load resistance at the transformer
secondary infinite.
In LVDAC-EMS, set the Range setting of current input I1 to low, and the
Range setting of current input I2 to high.

Transformer
40 A input
5 1
E1 120 V 24 V E2 Load
6 2
Figure 9. 120 VA step-down transformer connected to a low-voltage resistive load.
34. Calculate the turns ratio of the step-down transformer set up in the previous step.
Step-down transformer turns ratio =

36. In the Metering window, read the step-down transformer primary and secondary
voltages on the meters. Record the values below.
Step-down transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = V
Step-down transformer secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = V
Using the step-down transformer primary and secondary voltages just

recorded, calculate the transformer voltage ratio.
Step-down transformer voltage ratio =
37. Is the step-down transformer voltage ratio recorded in the previous step virtually
equal to the transformer turns ratio calculated in step 34?
 Yes  No
Considering the transformer primary and secondary voltages recorded in the previous
step, can you conclude that the transformer currently operates as a step-down


AC Power Source.
39. On the Wind Turbine Generator/Controller module, connect all three 15 Ω

load resistors in parallel. Then, connect the resulting 5 Ω resistive load to the circuit,
as shown in Figure 9.
40. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the AC

Power Source. Adjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that the
transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the Metering window is as close as
possible to 100 V.
41. In the Metering window, measure the step-down transformer primary and secondary
currents. Record the values below.
Step-down transformer primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = A
Step-down transformer secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. = A
Using the step-down transformer primary and secondary currents just recorded,
calculate the transformer current ratio.
Step-down transformer current ratio =
42. Is the step-down transformer current ratio recorded in the previous step
approximately equal to the reciprocal (inverse) of the transformer turns ratio
calculated in step 34 and transformer voltage ratio recorded in step 36?
 Yes  No
43. In the Metering window, measure the step-down transformer apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
at the primary and apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the secondary. Record the apparent power
values below.
Apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at the transformer primary = VA
Apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the transformer secondary = VA
Is the apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the secondary of the step-down transformer close to the
apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at the primary?
 Yes  No
44. From the observations made so far, can you conclude that power transformers are
bidirectional devices? Explain briefly.

Exercise 1 – Voltage and Current Ratios ⬥ Conclusion
Can a single power transformer operate either as a step-up or a step-down transformer? Explain
briefly.

AC Power Source.
46. Close LVDAC-EMS, then turn off all the equipment. Disconnect all leads and return
them to their storage location.
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you learned what the relationships between the turns, voltage, and
current ratios of a power transformer are. You familiarized yourself with the different
characteristics of step-up and step-down transformers. You also learned how to determine
in practice the voltage and current ratios of a power transformer.
1. A power transformer has 125 turns of wire in one of its windings, and 375
REVIEW QUESTIONS turns of wire in the other. What is the transformer turns ratio when it is used as a
step-up transformer? What is the transformer turns ratio when it is used as a step-
down transformer?
2. A step-up transformer connected to a resistive load has 300 turns of wire in the
primary winding and 1000 turns of wire in the secondary winding. Determine the
current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. flowing in the secondary winding of the transformer when a current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
of 3 A flows in the primary winding.

Exercise 1 – Voltage and Current Ratios ⬥ Review Questions
3. Is it possible for a single power transformer to operate at one time as a step- up

transformer and at another time as a step-down transformer? Explain why.
4. A step-down transformer has 480 turns of wire in the primary winding and 120
turns of wire in the secondary winding. Determine the voltage across the primary
winding of the transformer when a voltage of 60 V is measured across the secondary
winding of the transformer.
5. A voltage of 60 V is measured across the primary winding of a step-up transformer

while a voltage of 300 V is measured across the secondary winding. Given that a
current of 2.5 A flows in the primary winding of the transformer, calculate the
current flowing in the secondary winding.

Exercise 2
Transformer Winding Polarity and Interconnection
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will know what the polarity of a power
transformer winding is, and how to represent it in a schematic diagram. You will be able
to determine the polarity of power transformer windings using either an oscilloscope or a
voltmeter. You will also know how to connect transformer windings in series and in
parallel, as well as the effects of each type of connection on the transformer voltage,
current, and power.
DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:
 Introduction to transformer winding polarity

 Transformer winding polarity in schematic diagrams
 Determining the polarity of transformer windings using an oscilloscope
 Series connection of transformer windings
 Determining the polarity of transformer windings using a voltmeter
 Parallel connection of transformer windings
DISCUSSION Introduction to transformer winding polarity
As seen previously, when the primary winding of a power transformer is energized by an

ac power source, an alternating magnetic flux is established in the iron core. This
alternating flux links, or couples, the turns of each winding on the transformer and
induces ac voltages in the windings. The polarity of these induced voltages might seem
to be of minor importance for power transformers since they are ac voltages. However,
when two or more transformer windings are connected together, their polarities have a
significant effect on the resulting voltage. If the voltage in one winding has a positive
polarity when it reaches its maximum value while the voltage in another winding has
a negative polarity when it reaches its maximum value, i.e., if they are 180° out of
phase, the voltages oppose each other and the resulting voltage is equal to the difference
between the two when the windings are connected in series.
The polarity of a power transformer winding refers to the polarity of the voltage at one
end of the winding relative to the voltage at the opposite end of the winding, at any given
instant. The polarity of a power transformer winding has no meaning in itself. It is only
meaningful in relation to the polarity of the other windings. When the end of a
winding is of the same polarity as the end of another winding of the transformer, it means
that the polarity of the voltage at this end of each winding, with respect to the voltage at
the other end of each winding, is the same for both windings, and thus, that the ac
voltages across these windings are in phase. Conversely, when the end of a winding is of
opposite polarity to the end of another winding, it means that the polarity of the voltage at
this end for one winding is opposite to that of the voltage at the end of the other
winding, and thus, that the ac voltages across these windings are 180° out of phase. The
polarity of transformer windings is thus crucial when connecting windings in series or in
parallel, as will be seen later in this exercise.

Exercise 2 – Transformer Winding Polarity and Interconnection ⬥ Discussion
Transformer winding polarity in schematic diagrams
Markings are generally used to identify the polarity of power transformer windings.
These markings come in a variety of types, but one of the most common practices in
schematic diagrams is to put a dot next to the ends of the transformer windings that have
the same polarity. Figure 10 shows an example in which dots are used to mark the ends of
the transformer windings that have the same polarity.
Power transformer
Secondary winding
1
4
Primary winding
5
2
Secondary winding
Figure 10. Example of the schematic diagram of a power transformer in which dots mark the
windings that have the same polarity.
In Figure 10, when the voltage at terminal 1 is positive with respect to (i.e., higher than)
the voltage at terminal 2, the voltages at terminals 3 and 6 are also positive with respect
to the voltages at terminals 4 and 5. Conversely, when the voltage at terminal 1 is
negative with respect to (i.e., lower than) the voltage at terminal 2, the voltages at
terminals 3 and 6 are also negative with respect to the voltages at terminals 4 and 5.
Determining the polarity of transformer windings using an oscilloscope
The polarity of each winding of a power transformer can be determined by applying an

ac voltage to one winding (generally the primary winding) and using an oscilloscope to
observe the phase of the voltage induced across each of the other windings of the
transformer relative to the phase of the ac source voltage. When the phase of the voltage
induced across a winding is the same as that of the voltage applied to the primary
winding, this indicates that the windings are connected to the oscilloscope with the same
polarity, as shown in Figure 11a. On the other hand, when the phase of the voltage
induced across a winding is opposite (phase shifted by 180°) to that of the voltage applied
to the primary winding, this indicates that the windings are connected to the oscilloscope
with opposite polarities, as shown in Figure 11b.

To Ch-1 input of oscilloscope

(Ch-1 probe tip) Power transformer (Ch-2 probe tip)
A C
Ch-1
𝐸𝐴−𝐵
Oscilloscope display
𝐸𝐶𝐶−𝐷𝐷
B D Ch-2
To common point of oscilloscope To common point of oscilloscope

(Ch-1 probe ground clip) (Ch-2 probe ground clip)
(a)

(Ch-1 probe tip)
Power transformer (Ch-2 probe tip)
A C
Ch-1
𝐸𝐴−𝐵
Oscilloscope display
𝐸𝐶𝐶−𝐷𝐷
B D Ch-2
To common point of oscilloscope

To common point of oscilloscope
(Ch-1 probe ground clip)
(Ch-2 probe ground clip)
(b)
Figure 11. Determining the polarity of power transformer windings using an oscilloscope.
Series connection of transformer windings
Two or more power transformer windings can be connected in series so that the total
voltage across the windings is either the sum (series-aiding connection) or difference
(series-opposing connection) of the voltages across the individual windings. As
mentioned earlier, it is important to know the polarity of each of the windings connected
in series, as this determines whether the windings are connected in series-aiding or in
series-opposing.

When two windings of a power transformer are connected in series so that the marked
end of one winding is connected to the non-marked end of the other winding, the
windings are connected in series-aiding, i.e., the voltage across both windings is equal to
the sum of the voltages across each individual winding. For example, consider the
transformer in Figure 12a. The primary winding of the transformer has a nominal voltage
of 25 V, while the secondary windings have nominal voltages of 100 V and 50 V. Since
the secondary windings of the transformer are connected in series-aiding, the total
voltage across the secondary windings is equal to 150 V (i.e., 100 V + 50 V) when the
primary winding is connected to a 25 V ac power source. The transformer thus acts as a
step-up transformer with a voltage ratio of 1:6.

Power transformer
100 V
25 V 25 V 150 V
50 V
(a) Series-aiding connection
Power transformer
100 V
25 V 25 V 50 V
50 V
(b) Series-opposing connection
Figure 12. Power transformer whose secondary windings are connected in series.

When two windings of a power transformer are connected so that the marked end of
one winding is connected to the marked end of the other winding, or the non-marked end
of one winding is connected to the non-marked end of the other winding, the windings
are connected in series-opposing, i.e., the voltage across both windings is equal to the
difference between the voltages across each individual winding. For example, consider
the transformer in Figure 12b. The primary winding of the transformer has a nominal
voltage of 25 V, while the secondary windings have nominal voltages of 100 V and 50 V
(this is in fact the same transformer as in Figure 12a. Since the secondary windings of the
transformer are connected in series-opposing, the total voltage across the secondary
windings is equal to 50 V (i.e., 100 V - 50 V) when the primary winding is connected to a
25 V ac power source. The transformer thus acts as a step-up transformer with a voltage
ratio of 1:2.
Series-opposing connections are seldom used as the windings oppose each other.
Consequently, the number of wire turns required to achieve a given ac power
conversion (i.e., to obtain a certain voltage) is much higher than when a winding with the
exact number of wire turns is used (i.e., a winding with a number of wire turns equal to
the difference between the number of wire turns in the series-connected windings that act
in one direction and the number of wire turns in the series-connected windings that act in
the opposite direction). In the example given in Figure 12b, the two secondary
windings of the transformer total 150 V but, when connected in series-opposing, only
apply a voltage of 50 V. Thus, if a single winding with the exact number of turns is used,
the transformer secondary winding requires only one third of the number of turns in two
windings connected in series-opposing.
Determining the polarity of transformer windings using a voltmeter
When an oscilloscope is not available, the polarity of power transformer windings can be
determined by connecting the primary and secondary windings in series, then applying an
ac voltage to one of the two windings (generally the primary winding), and measuring the
total voltage across the windings. When the total voltage is equal to the sum of the
voltages across the individual windings, the ends of the windings that are connected
together have opposite polarities. This is illustrated in Figure 13a. In this figure, the
primary and secondary windings of a power transformer, which have nominal voltages of
200 V and 100 V, respectively, are series connected. A 200 V ac power source is
connected to the primary winding. An ac voltmeter reads 300 V across the series-
connected windings, indicating that the transformer terminals connected together are of
opposite polarity, as the windings are connected in series-aiding (i.e., the winding
voltages add up one another). Conversely, when the total voltage is equal to the
difference between the voltages across the individual windings, the ends of the windings
that are connected together have the same polarity. This is illustrated in Figure 13b. In
this figure, the ac voltmeter reads 100 V across the series- connected windings, indicating
that the transformer terminals connected together have the same polarity (i.e., the winding
voltages subtract from each other).

Power transformer
200 V 200 V 100 V
(a)
Power transformer
200 V 200 V 100 V
(b)
Figure 13. Determining the polarity of transformer windings using a voltmeter.
When a power transformer has additional windings, the test is repeated with each of
the other windings to determine their respective polarity.
Parallel connection of transformer windings

Two windings of a power transformer having the same nominal voltage (i.e., the same
number of turns) can be connected in parallel to increase the current capability, and thus,
the power that can be delivered to a load. The polarity of each winding must be respected
when connecting transformer windings in parallel. Otherwise, a current greatly exceeding
the nominal winding current will flow in the windings, which can permanently damage
the transformer. For example, consider the power transformer in Figure 14. This power
transformer is connected to a 200 V ac power source. The transformer has a primary
winding with nominal ratings of 200 V and 1 A, as well as two secondary windings with
nominal ratings of 100 V and 1 A each that are connected in parallel. Notice that the
marked ends of the two secondary windings are connected together and that the non-
marked ends of the two secondary windings are connected together. When the ac power
source is turned on, a voltage of 100 V can be measured across the secondary windings,
and a current of 2 A flows in the 50 Ω resistive load connected to the secondary
windings.

Exercise 2 – Transformer Winding Polarity and Interconnection ⬥ Procedure Outline
Power transformer
1A 2A
100 V 100 V 50 Ω
1A
200 V 200 V 1A
1A
100 V
1A
Figure 14. Power transformer whose secondary windings are connected in parallel.

 Determining transformer winding polarity using an oscilloscope
 Series connection of transformer windings
 Determining transformer winding polarity using a voltmeter
 Parallel connection of transformer windings
PROCEDURE
High voltages are present in this laboratory exercise. Do not make or modify any banana jack
connection with the power on unless otherwise specified.
In this section, you will set up the equipment to study the operation of a power
transformer. You will observe the polarity markings on the front panel of the
Transformer module and note which terminals have the same polarity as
terminal 1.

Install the required equipment in the Workstation.

Exercise 2 – Transformer Winding Polarity and Interconnection ⬥ Procedure
wall outlet.

7. Observe the polarity markings on the front panel of the Transformer module.
Determine which ends (terminals) of windings 3-4, 5-6, and 7-8 have the same
polarity as terminal 1 of winding 1-2.
Terminals with the same polarity as terminal 1:
Determining transformer winding polarity using an oscilloscope
In this section, you will connect a circuit containing a power transformer and set
up the equipment to determine the transformer winding polarity, using the
Oscilloscope. You will start the ac power source. You will observe the waveforms
of the voltage across each transformer winding, and determine the polarity of
each transformer terminal. You will then observe in the Phasor Analyzer the
phasors of the voltages across each transformer winding, and confirm the results
obtained using the Oscilloscope. You will reverse the connections at a voltage
input of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface, and observe what happens to
the corresponding voltage waveform on the Oscilloscope. You will determine if
this inversion has any effect on the winding polarity found.

Transformer
1 5
𝑅 24 V 120 V
E1 E3
57 Ω 5A 1A
2 6
3 7
24 V 120 V
E2 E4
5A 1A
4 8
Figure 15. Circuit for determining transformer winding polarity using an oscilloscope.
a The resistive load in the circuit of Figure 15 is used to improve the appearance
of the voltage waveforms. As the resistive load is connected in parallel with the
ac power source, it has no effect on the measured voltages.
9. Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load to obtain the resistance
value required.


network.
 Start the AC Power Source.
11. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Oscilloscope and display the waveforms of the
voltages measured across each winding of the transformer.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, readjust the Voltage (V

at no load) parameter so that the rms (ac) value of the voltage 𝐸1−2 across
transformer winding 1-2 indicated in the Oscilloscope is as close as possible to 24 V.

Using the waveforms displayed on the Oscilloscope, determine the polarity of each
transformer winding, i.e., which ends of the windings have the same polarity.
Are the results obtained consistent with the polarity markings indicated on the
front panel of the Transformer module?
 Yes  No
12. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Phasor Analyzer and display the phasors of the voltages
measured across each winding of the transformer. Do the voltage phasors displayed
in the Phasor Analyzer confirm what you observed using the Oscilloscope?
 Yes  No

AC Power Source.
Reverse the connections at voltage input E3 of the Data Acquisition and Control
Interface.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the

AC Power Source.
14. On the Oscilloscope, observe the voltage waveforms. What happened to the
waveform of the voltage measured across winding 5-6 (input E3)?
Does this observation change your conclusion about the polarity of winding 5-6?
Explain briefly.

AC Power Source.

Series connection of transformer windings
In this section, you will calculate the voltages induced across the series-
connected windings of three different transformer setups. You will then set up
each series connection of windings successively, and measure the voltage
across each one. You will compare the voltages measured across the series
windings with the calculated voltages.
16. Consider the three transformer winding connections shown in Figure 16. In this
figure, winding 1-2 is considered the primary winding of the transformer and is
connected to a 24 V ac power source. Determine the voltage that should be induced
across each series-connected winding combinations.
a In all the transformer connections of Figure 16, the capacity of the transformer
is limited to 120 VA, because all power is transferred through primary
winding 1-2, which is rated 24 V and 5 A.
Voltage across windings 3-4 and 5-6 in Figure 16a = V
Voltage across windings 3-4 and 5-6 in Figure 16b = V
Voltage across windings 5-6 and 7-8 in Figure 16c = V
17. Set up the series connection of windings shown in Figure 16a. Use input E1 of the
Data Acquisition and Control Interface to measure the voltage across winding 1-2
and input E2 to measure the voltage across the series- connected windings.
In LVDAC-EMS, open the Metering window. Make the required settings to measure
the rms (ac) values of the voltage 𝐸1−2 across transformer winding 1-2 and the
voltage across the series-connected transformer windings.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the AC

Power Source. Adjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that the voltage
across transformer winding 1-2 indicated in the Metering window is as close as
possible to 24 V.
In the Metering window, measure the transformer voltage across the series-
connected windings. Record the value below.
Voltage measured across windings 3-4 and 5-6 in Figure 16a = V
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the

AC Power Source.

Transformer
1 5
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
2 6
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
(a)
Transformer Transformer
1 5 1 5
24 V 120 V 24 V 120 V
5A 1A 5A 1A
2 6 2 6
3 7 3 7
24 V 120 V 24 V 120 V
5A 1A 5A 1A
4 8 4 8
(c)
(b)
Figure 16. Different series connections of transformer windings.

18. Repeat step 17 for the series connections of windings shown in Figure 16b and
Figure 16c. Record the measured voltages below.
Voltage measured across windings 3-4 and 5-6 in Figure 16b = V
Voltage measured across windings 5-6 and 7-8 in Figure 16c = V
Compare the voltages across the series windings measured in this step and in the
previous step to the voltages calculated in step 16. Are the measured voltages
virtually equal to the calculated voltages?
 Yes  No
Determining transformer winding polarity using a voltmeter
In this section, you will connect a circuit containing a transformer with series-
connected windings (windings 1-2 and 5-6). You will measure the voltage across
the series-connected windings. Using the measured voltage, you will determine
the polarity of the transformer windings. You will compare the winding polarities
obtained using this method with the winding polarities previously determined in
this exercise. You will then connect another circuit containing a transformer with
series-connected windings (windings 1-2 and 7-8) and repeat the above
manipulations.
19. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 17. In this circuit, one of the secondary
windings (winding 5-6) of the power transformer is connected in series with the
primary winding (winding 1-2).

Transformer
1 5
24 V 120 V
E1 5A 1A
2 6
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
E2
Figure 17. Circuit for determining transformer winding polarity using a voltmeter.

possible to 24 V.
In the Metering window, measure the transformer voltage across the series- connected
windings (windings 1-2 and 5-6). Record the value below.
Voltage across transformer windings 1-2 and 5-6 = V

AC Power Source.
22. Using the voltage across the series windings measured in step 20, determine the
polarity of winding 5-6 of the transformer relative to that of winding 1-2 [i.e., which
terminal (5 or 6) of winding 5-6 has the same polarity as terminal 1 of winding 1-
2]. Explain briefly.

Are the results consistent with the polarity of the transformer windings determined
in steps 7 and 11?
 Yes  No
23. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 18. In this circuit, the other secondary
winding (winding 7-8) of the transformer is connected in series with the primary
winding (winding 1-2).
Transformer
1 5
E1 24 V 120 V
2 6
3 7
24 V 120 V
4 8
E2
Figure 18. Circuit for determining transformer winding polarity using a voltmeter.

possible to 24 V.
In the Metering window, measure the voltage across the series-connected

windings. Record the value below.
Voltage measured across windings 1-2 and 7-8 = V

AC Power Source.

26. Using the voltage across the series windings measured in the previous step,
determine the polarity of winding 7-8 of the transformer relative to that of winding 1-
2 [i.e., which terminal (7 or 8) of winding 7-8 has the same polarity as terminal 1 of
winding 1-2]. Explain briefly.
27. Are the results consistent with the polarity of the transformer windings determined
in step 7 and 11?
 Yes  No
Parallel connection of transformer windings
In this section, you will set up a step-up transformer connected to a resistive

load. You will start the ac power source and confirm that the transformer
secondary voltage is equal to 120 V. You will set the resistance of the resistive
load to 120 Ω. The secondary current should thus be virtually equal to the
nominal current (1 A). You will measure the transformer primary voltage, current,
and apparent power, as well as the secondary voltage, current, and apparent
power. You will then modify the circuit so that the secondary windings of the
transformer are connected in parallel. You will confirm that the secondary
voltage, current, and apparent power have not changed, and that the two
windings of the secondary are now sharing the secondary current equally. You
will set the resistance of the resistive load to 57 Ω. The current flowing in each
winding of the secondary should thus be virtually equal to the nominal
current (1 A). You will measure the transformer primary voltage, current and
apparent power, as well as the secondary voltage, current, and apparent power,
and analyze the results.

Transformer
40 A input
1 5
24 V 120 V
E2 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
5A 1A
2 6
E1
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
Figure 19. Step-up transformer connected to a resistive load.
29. Do the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load so that the resistance value
of the resistive load is infinite.
30. In the Metering window, make the required settings to measure the rms (ac) values
of the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐.
(inputs E1 and E2, respectively). Set four meters to measure the transformer primary
current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. , winding current 𝐼5−6 , and winding current 𝐼7−8
(inputs I1, I2, I3, and I4, respectively). Finally, set two meters to measure the
apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at the primary from inputs E1 and I1, and the apparent
power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the secondary from inputs E2 and I2.
a Inputs I3 and I4 will be connected to windings 5-6 and 7-8, respectively, later in
this section.
31. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Voltage

parameter to 48 V, then start the AC Power Source. Readjust the Voltage (V
Is the transformer secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. virtually equal to 120 V, thereby indicating
that the transformer is a step-up transformer with a voltage ratio of 48 V:120 V?
 Yes  No

32. On the Resistive Load, make the necessary switch settings to obtain a resistive load
value 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 of 120 Ω.
33. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, adjust the Voltage (V

Metering window is as close as possible to 48 V. The secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. should
now be virtually equal to the nominal current (1 A).
In the Metering window, measure the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , and
apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , as well as the secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. , current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. , and
apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐.. Record the values below.
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = V 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = V
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. A 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. = A
𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = A 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. = VA

AC Power Source.
35. Modify the circuit connections to obtain the circuit shown in Figure 20. Do not
change the resistance value of the resistive load. In this circuit, the two secondary
windings (windings 5-6 and 7-8) are connected in parallel with the resistive load.
Transformer
40 A input
1 5
24 V 120 V
E2 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
5A 1A
2 6
E1
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
Figure 20. Step-up transformer with windings connected in parallel.


possible to 48 V.
In the Metering window, measure the secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐., current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐., and
apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐.. Have these values changed with respect to the values measured
when the circuit windings were not connected in parallel?
 Yes  No
Measure the current flowing in each secondary winding (using inputs I3 and I4).
Is the current flowing in each winding virtually equal to 0.5 A, thereby indicating
that each winding is sharing the load current equally?
 Yes  No
37. On the Resistive Load, make the necessary switch settings to obtain a resistive load
value 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 of 57 Ω.

Metering window is as close as possible to 48 V. The current flowing through each
transformer secondary winding (winding currents 𝐼5−6 and 𝐼7−8) should now be
virtually equal to the nominal current (1 A).
In the Metering window, measure the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , and
apparent power 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , as well as the secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. , current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. , and
apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐.. Record the values below.
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = V 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = V
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = A 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. = A
𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = VA 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. = VA

AC Power Source.
40. What happens to the apparent power 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑐. at the transformer secondary when you
connect the secondary windings in parallel and adjust the load resistance so that the
current in each secondary winding is virtually equal to the nominal value? Explain
briefly.

Exercise 2 – Transformer Winding Polarity and Interconnection ⬥ Conclusion
What happens to the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , and apparent power
𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. when you connect the secondary windings in parallel and adjust the load
resistance so that the current in each secondary winding is virtually equal to the
nominal value? Explain briefly.
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you learned what the polarity of a power transformer winding is, and
how to represent it in a schematic diagram. You saw how to determine the polarity of
power transformer windings using either an oscilloscope or a voltmeter. You also
learned how to connect transformer windings in series and in parallel, as well as the
effects of each type of connection on the transformer voltage, current, and power.
1. Why is it important to know the polarity of each winding of a power transformer

REVIEW QUESTIONS before connecting the transformer windings in series?
2. Consider a power transformer having a single primary winding with a nominal

voltage of 50 V connected to a 25 V ac power source, as well as two secondary
windings with nominal voltages of 125 V and 225 V connected in series. Assuming
that the ends of the windings that are connected in series are of the same polarity,
calculate the total voltage induced across the secondary windings when the ac power
source is turned on.

Exercise 2 – Transformer Winding Polarity and Interconnection ⬥ Review Questions
3. How can the polarity of each winding of a power transformer be determined using
an oscilloscope?
4. How can the polarity of two transformer windings be determined using a

voltmeter?
5. What is the effect of connecting the secondary windings of a power transformer

in parallel?

Exercise 3
Transformer Losses, Efficiency, and Regulation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the equivalent circuit
diagram of a power transformer. You will know what the copper and iron losses that
occur in a power transformer are, as well as their causes. You will also know how
efficient power transformers are, and how to calculate their efficiency. You will be
introduced to the concept of voltage regulation in power transformers. You will know
how to determine the voltage regulation of a power transformer.
The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:

DISCUSSION OUTLINE
 Transformer losses
 Transformer efficiency
 Transformer voltage regulation
Transformer losses
DISCUSSION
In an ideal power transformer, there are no losses of energy. Consequently, the power
transferred to a load by an ideal transformer is equal to the power that the ac power
source delivers to the transformer. In other words, the power at the secondary winding of
the transformer is equal to the power at the primary winding of the transformer.
Like all other electric devices, however, actual power transformers are not perfect, i.e.
some energy is lost in the transformer during the voltage and current conversion process.
In the case of actual power transformers, power is even lost when no load is connected to
the transformer. The origin of the various losses in an actual power transformer can be
explained by using the equivalent circuit of an actual transformer. The equivalent circuit
of an actual power transformer is shown in Figure 21.
Ideal power transformer
𝑅1 X𝑓𝑓1 X𝑓𝑓2 𝑅2
Primary winding terminals Secondary winding terminals

X𝑀 𝑅𝑀 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. Load
Figure 21. Equivalent circuit of an actual power transformer.

Exercise 3 – Transformer Losses, Efficiency, and Regulation ⬥ Discussion
The equivalent circuit of an actual power transformer consists of an ideal

transformer with a turns ratio 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ⁄𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. plus several resistors and inductors
connected in series and parallel with the primary and secondary windings of the ideal
transformer. All these additional resistors and inductors represent the various
imperfections of an actual transformer with respect to an ideal transformer. Resistors 𝑅1
and 𝑅𝑀 , inductors X𝑓𝑓1 and X𝑀 , and winding 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. of the ideal transformer represent the
equivalent circuit of the primary winding of an actual power transformer. Similarly,
resistor 𝑅2, inductor X𝑓𝑓2, and winding 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. of the ideal transformer represent the
equivalent circuit of the secondary winding of an actual power transformer.
Resistor 𝑅𝑀 represents the energy losses in the iron core of an actual power transformer.
These losses, which are of two different natures, are referred to as hysteresis losses and
eddy-current losses. Since hysteresis losses and eddy- current losses both occur in the
iron core of an actual power transformer, they are referred to as iron losses.
Resistor 𝑅1 represents the resistance of the copper wire forming the primary winding of
an actual power transformer. Similarly, resistor 𝑅2 represents the resistance of the copper
wire forming the secondary winding of an actual power transformer.
Inductors X𝑀 and X𝑓𝑓1 represent the inductive reactance at the primary winding of an
actual power transformer. Similarly, inductor X𝑓𝑓2 represents the inductive reactance at
the secondary winding of an actual power transformer. Since these three inductors are
considered ideal, they dissipate no power, and thus, cause no power losses in an actual
power transformer.
The equivalent circuit in Figure 21 reveals that current flows through the primary
winding as soon as ac voltage is applied to the primary winding terminals of an actual
power transformer, even with no load connected to the secondary winding. This current
produces the magnetic field required for the operation of the transformer, and is
commonly referred to as the magnetizing current or the exciting current. It is
represented by the symbol 𝐼𝑂𝑂. The magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 flows through resistor 𝑅1,
while a fraction of this current flows through resistor 𝑅𝑀. Consequently, some
power is dissipated as heat in these resistors. In other words, some power is lost as heat
in an actual power transformer even with no load connected to the secondary winding.
The power dissipated in resistor 𝑅1 is included in the copper losses since this resistor
represents the resistance of the copper wire making the primary winding. On the other
hand, the power dissipated in resistor 𝑅𝑀 is referred to as the iron losses since this resistor
represents all the energy lost in the iron core of the transformer.
When a load is connected to the secondary winding of a power transformer, current flows
in this winding. This current also flows through resistor 𝑅2 in the equivalent circuit of an
actual power transformer. Consequently, some power is dissipated as heat in this resistor.
Furthermore, the current flowing through the secondary winding causes an increase in the
current flowing through the primary winding. This increases the current flowing through
resistor 𝑅1 in the equivalent circuit of an actual power transformer and, thus, the power
which this resistor dissipates. The power losses in resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are generally
referred to as copper losses because these resistors represent the resistance of the
copper wire that makes the transformer windings. The higher the load, the higher the
primary and secondary currents, and thus, the higher the copper losses in the transformer.

A certain amount of power is lost (in the form of iron losses and copper losses) in an
actual power transformer even with no load connected to the secondary winding. The
power losses in an actual power transformer increase when a load is connected to the
secondary winding because the copper losses increase. Figure 22 shows the typical curve
of the power losses in a low power transformer as a function of the load (secondary)
current.
10
Power losses (% of nominal power)

8
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load current (% of full-load current)
Figure 22. Typical curve of the power losses in a low-power transformer as a function of the
load current.
Transformer efficiency
As mentioned in the previous section of this discussion, some power is lost in actual
power transformers, the value of the power losses increasing as the load current
increases. The efficiency of a power transformer is a measure of the ability of the
transformer to transfer power from the ac power source to the load with minimal power
losses. Transformer efficiency thus represents the amount (generally expressed as a
percentage) of power from the ac power source that is actually delivered to the load.
The efficiency 𝜂𝜂 of power transformers is generally determined by measuring the power

𝑃𝑆 that the ac power source delivers to the transformer and the power 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
supplied by the transformer to a load when the load current is equal to the secondary
winding nominal current (full-load current). The efficiency 𝜂𝜂 of the power transformer
can then be calculated using Equation (5). Note that the load power 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 and source
power 𝑃𝑆 are sometimes referred to as the output power 𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑢𝑡 and input power 𝑃𝐼𝑛 .
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜂𝜂 = × 100% (5)
𝑃𝑆
where 𝜂𝜂 is the efficiency of the transformer, expressed in percentage (%).

𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 is the amount of active power delivered to the load by the
transformer, expressed in watts (W).
𝑃𝑆 is the amount of active power supplied to the transformer by the ac
power source, expressed in watts (W).

The difference in percentage between the transformer efficiency and 100% represents the
different power losses occurring in the transformer. For instance, when the efficiency 𝜂𝜂
of a power transformer is 96%, the power losses in the transformer correspond to 4% of
the power the ac source delivers to the transformer.
Since the power losses in a power transformer vary with the load current, the efficiency
of the transformer also varies with the load current. Transformer efficiency is generally
determined using power measurements made when the nominal current (full-load current)
flows in the secondary winding, as mentioned previously in this discussion. However, it
is common practice to determine the efficiency of a power transformer at various
percentage values of the nominal current (full-load current) to provide information about
the variation of the transformer efficiency with the load. Figure 23 shows the typical
curve of the efficiency of a low-power transformer as a function of the load current.
100
90
80
70
Efficiency (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 23. Typical curve of the efficiency of a low-power transformer as a function of the load
current.
The efficiency of power transformers operating at full load is generally at least 90%
for small units, above 98% for medium-sized units (e.g., transformers used for energy
distribution), and close to 100% for large units (transformers with power ratings
expressed in MVA).
Transformer voltage regulation
In an actual power transformer (such as the one represented by the equivalent circuit in
Figure 21), the higher the load, the higher the increase in load (secondary)
current and the greater the voltage drops across resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2. Consequently, the
higher the load, the greater the decrease in load (secondary) voltage. This is
illustrated in Figure 24, which shows the graph of the voltage across a resistive load as
the load current increases. The curve in this graph is commonly referred to as the
transformer voltage regulation curve.

110
100
Load voltage (% of nominal voltage)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 24. Typical voltage regulation curve of a low-power transformer.
There are two ways to define the voltage regulation of a power transformer: regulation
down and regulation up. Regulation down indicates the extent of the variation in the load
(secondary) voltage of the power transformer as the load current increases. Regulation
up, on the other hand, indicates the extent of the variation in the load (secondary) voltage
of the power transformer when the load is lost. In the case of power transformers,
regulation down is more commonly used as it expresses the ability of a power
transformer to maintain the load (secondary) voltage constant as the load current
increases. The better the voltage regulation down of a transformer, the lower the
decrease in load (secondary) voltage as the load current increases.
The voltage regulation down of a power transformer can be calculated using Equation
(6). As this equation shows, the lower the value of the voltage regulation down of a
power transformer, the better the regulation, i.e., the lower the decrease in load
(secondary) voltage as the load current increases.
𝐸𝑁𝐿 − 𝐸𝐹𝐿
Voltage regulation down (%) = × 100% (6)
𝐸𝑁𝐿
where 𝐸𝑁𝐿 is the no-load voltage across the secondary winding of the
transformer, expressed in volts (V).
𝐸𝐹𝐿 is the full-load voltage across the secondary winding of the
transformer, expressed in volts (V).
Since the load on power transformers used for electrical energy transmission and
distribution generally varies greatly depending on the time of the day, it is necessary that
these transformers have good voltage regulation down value (i.e., a value as low as
possible) in order to minimize the voltage fluctuations occurring during the day. This is
important since many electric devices (e.g. motors, incandescent lamps, etc.) are quite
sensitive to voltage variations.

Exercise 3 – Transformer Losses, Efficiency, and Regulation ⬥ Procedure Outline

 Transformer no-load operation
 Transformer power losses, efficiency, and voltage regulation
PROCEDURE
connections with the power on unless otherwise specified.
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a power transformer connected
to a resistive load. You will then set the measuring equipment required to study
the transformer power losses, efficiency, and voltage regulation.

Record below the serial number of the Transformer module that you are using.
Serial number:
2. Install the required equipment in the Workstation.
wall outlet.


Exercise 3 – Transformer Losses, Efficiency, and Regulation ⬥ Procedure
Transformer
40 A input
1 5
24 V 120 V E2 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
5A 1A
2 6
E1
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
Figure 25. Transformer circuit used for studying transformer losses, efficiency, and voltage
regulation.
9. Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load so that the resistance
value of the resistive load is infinite.

 Set the Frequency parameter to 50 Hz.
a Most power transformers are generally designed to operate at frequencies

of 50 Hz and 60 Hz. Because transformer design requirements are more
stringent at 50 Hz, most transformer designs are based on operation at 50 Hz,
hence the setting of the AC Power Source frequency to 50 Hz.
Do not start the AC Power Source for now. This will be done in the next section
of this exercise.

the rms (ac) values of the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
(inputs E1 and I1, respectively), as well as the secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and
current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. (inputs E2 and I2, respectively). Set two other meters to measure the
primary active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. from inputs E1 and I1, as well as the secondary active
power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. from inputs E2 and I2.
Transformer no-load operation
In this section, you will start the ac power source, measure the current and active
power at the transformer primary during no-load operation, and explain why they
are not equal to zero.

possible to 48 V.
13. In the Metering window, measure the transformer primary (source) current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. .
Record the value below.
Primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = A
Explain why the transformer primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. is not zero during no-load
operation.
14. In the Metering window, measure the active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. supplied to the
primary winding of the transformer. Record the value below.
Primary active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = W
Explain why the active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at the primary is not zero even though no power
is supplied to the load.

Transformer power losses, efficiency, and voltage regulation
In this section, you will decrease the resistance of the load connected to the
secondary so that the secondary current increases to 2.0 A (nominal full-load
current) by steps of about 0.2 A. For each step, you will record in the Data Table
the transformer primary voltage, current, and active power, as well as the
secondary voltage, current, and active power. You will export the data to a
spreadsheet, and calculate the transformer power losses and efficiency using the
recorded transformer parameters. You will plot a graph of the transformer power
losses as a function of the secondary current, and analyze the results. You will
also plot a graph of the transformer efficiency as a function of the secondary
current, and analyze the results. Finally, you will plot the transformer voltage
regulation curve (i.e., a graph of the transformer secondary voltage as a function
of the secondary current), and analyze the results.
15. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Data Table window.
Set the Data Table to record the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , current
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , and active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , as well as the secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. , current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.,
and active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. indicated in the Metering window.
16. In the Data Table, click on the Record Data button to record the current values (i.e.,
the no-load values) of the transformer parameters.
17. On the Resistive Load, decrease the load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 so that the transformer
secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. increases to 2.0 A (nominal secondary current or full-
load current of the transformer) by steps of about 0.2 A. For each step, adjust
the Voltage (V at no load) parameter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply window so that the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the Metering window is
as close as possible to 48 V, then record the transformer parameters in the Data
Table.

AC Power Source.
19. In the Data Table window, save the recorded data, then export it to a spreadsheet
application.
In the spreadsheet application, add a new parameter to the results: the transformer
power losses 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠. Calculate the transformer power losses 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 by
subtracting the secondary active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. (i.e., the active power delivered to the
load by the transformer) from the primary active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (i.e., the active power
supplied to the transformer by the ac power source).
Also, add another parameter to the results: the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂. Calculate
the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂, by dividing the secondary active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. by the
primary active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , then multiply the result by 100 to obtain the efficiency
𝜂𝜂 in percentage.
a Make sure to keep a copy of the data recorded in this exercise, as you will
need it for the next exercise.

20. Plot a graph of the transformer power losses 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 as a function of the
secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐..
Observe the graph. Describe the relationship between the transformer power losses
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 and the transformer secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.. Briefly explain.
21. Plot a graph of the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂 as a function of the secondary

(load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐..
Observe the graph. What happens to the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂 at low values
of the secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.? Briefly explain why.
Are power transformers high-efficiency devices? Explain briefly.
22. Plot the transformer voltage regulation curve, i.e., a graph of the transformer
secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. as a function of the secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐..
Observe the graph. Describe the relationship between the transformer secondary
(load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and the secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.. Briefly explain why.
23. Calculate the voltage regulation down of the power transformer, using the values
recorded in this section.
Voltage regulation down = %

Exercise 3 – Transformer Losses, Efficiency, and Regulation ⬥ Conclusion
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you familiarized yourself with the equivalent circuit diagram of a power
transformer. You learned what the copper and iron losses occurring in a power
transformer are, as well as their causes. You also learned how efficient power
transformers are, and how to calculate their efficiency. You were introduced to the
concept of voltage regulation in power transformers. You learned how to determine the
voltage regulation of a power transformer.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is the magnetizing current of a power transformer? Explain briefly.
2. What is the difference between copper losses and iron losses in a power
transformer?
3. What is the relationship between the power losses and the load current of a power
4. Are power transformers ideal devices, i.e., is their efficiency equal to 100%?
Explain briefly.

Exercise 3 – Transformer Losses, Efficiency, and Regulation ⬥ Review Questions
5. Explain what the voltage regulation down of a power transformer is.

Exercise 4
Transformer Rating
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the voltage, current,
and power ratings of a power transformer, and know how these ratings can be
determined. You will also know the effects of saturation on the magnetizing current and
no-load power losses of a power transformer.
 Transformer rating
 Determining the current rating of a transformer winding
 Transformer saturation
 Determining the voltage rating of a transformer winding
DISCUSSION Transformer rating
Each winding of a power transformer has a voltage rating and a current rating. The
product of the voltage rating and current rating of a winding, which is sometimes referred
to as the volt-ampere (VA) product, determines the power rating of the winding.
Since power transformers are high efficiency devices, the power rating of the secondary
winding is generally considered equal to that of the primary winding. The power rating of
a power transformer is thus the same as the power rating of the primary winding and
secondary winding. This is shown in Figure 26.
Primary
Secondary
winding
winding
600 V 240 V
10 A 25 A
6 kVA 6 kVA
Transformer power rating = 6 kVA
Figure 26. Power rating of a power transformer with a single primary winding and a single
secondary winding.

Exercise 4 – Transformer Rating ⬥ Discussion
When a power transformer has multiple primary windings and multiple secondary
windings, the power rating of the transformer is equal to the sum of the power ratings of
the primary windings (this sum is equal to the sum of the power ratings of the secondary
windings). Figure 27 shows an example of a transformer having two primary windings
and two secondary windings.
Primary
Secondary
winding
winding
300 V 120 V
10 A 25 A
3 kVA 3 kVA
300 V 120 V
10 A 25 A
3 kVA 3 kVA
Transformer power rating = 6 kVA
Figure 27. Power rating of a power transformer with more than one primary winding and more
than one secondary winding.
Determining the current rating of a transformer winding
The current rating of any winding in a power transformer mainly depends on the size
(gauge) of the copper wire used to make the winding. The relationship between the
current rating of a transformer winding and the size of the wires in the winding is direct:
the larger the wire, the higher the current rating of the winding. This is because the larger
the wire size used to make a winding, the lower the wire resistance and, thus, the lower
the copper losses, i.e., the lower the power dissipated as heat due to the current flowing
in the winding.
The current rating of any transformer winding is set to a value that results in copper
losses producing an acceptable warming of the transformer core and windings, and thus,
an operating temperature that ensures maximum service life of the wire insulation (and,
thus, of the power transformer).
The wire insulation used in transformer windings consists of a thin coat of varnish. This
varnish dries when it is subjected to heating over a long period of time, and this may
cause cracks to appear in the coat of varnish. This may ultimately lead to a short-circuit
in a winding and prevent normal operation of the power transformer. Since the
deterioration of the wire insulation varnish is faster at high operating temperatures, the
current rating of any winding of a power transformer must be carefully determined to
prevent excessive operating temperatures.
Transformer saturation
The magnetic properties of the material used to build the core of a power transformer are
best described by the saturation curve of the material. The saturation curve of any
magnetic material is a plot of the flux density 𝐵 as a function of the magnetic field
intensity 𝐻. Figure 28 shows the typical saturation curve of an iron-core power
transformer (most power transformers have an iron core).

2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
(proportional to 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. )
Flux density 𝐵 (T)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Magnetic field intensity 𝐻 (A/m)

(proportional to 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. )
Figure 28. Typical saturation curve of an iron-core power transformer.
The letter T is the symbol for teslas, the unit of measurement of flux density.
As you can see from Figure 28, the flux density 𝐵 in the iron core increases rapidly when
the intensity 𝐻 of the magnetic field in the transformer increases. However, when the flux
density 𝐵 reaches about 1.2 T, it starts to increase less and less as the magnetic field
intensity 𝐻 continues to increase. This phenomenon is called saturation, hence the name
of the curve in Figure 28.
At a given frequency of the ac power source, the maximum value of the flux density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥.
in the iron core of the transformer is directly proportional to the rms value of the
voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. applied to the winding (usually the primary winding). Also, the maximum
value of the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. is directly proportional to the magnetic field
intensity 𝐻. When a voltage is applied to a transformer winding, a magnetizing current
𝐼𝑂𝑂 flows in the winding, and a magnetic field appears in the transformer core. The values
of the resulting flux density 𝐵 and magnetic field intensity 𝐻, and thus the peak value of
the winding current (peak value of the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ), all depend on the
rms value of the voltage applied to the winding.
As long as the voltage applied to the transformer winding results in a maximum flux
density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. of about 1.2 T or less (see saturation curve in Figure 28), there is virtually
no saturation and the magnetic field intensity 𝐻 remains relatively low. Consequently, the
peak value of the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. is also relatively low. However, when the
voltage applied to the transformer winding increases in a way that causes the maximum
flux density to significantly exceed 1.2 T (this corresponds to values of 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. higher than
about 1.5 T), significant saturation starts to occur in the transformer. Consequently, both
the magnetic field intensity 𝐻 and the peak value of the magnetizing current
𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. increase sharply.
Figure 29a shows the waveforms of the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 of a power transformer when the transformer core is not saturated. Figure 29b
shows the same waveforms when the transformer core is saturated. Both figures also
show the maximum operating point on the transformer saturation curve.

Primary voltage
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (V) 0
(𝖺 to 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. )
𝑦
𝐵 (T)
Maximum operating point
−𝑦
𝑥 𝐻 (A/m) (𝖺 to 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. )
Magnetizing current 0
𝐼𝑂𝑂 (A) −𝑥
(a) When the transformer core is not saturated
Primary voltage
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (V) 0
𝑦
Maximum
(𝖺 to 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.)
𝐵 (T)
−𝑦 operating point
𝑥
𝑥 𝐻 (A/m)
(𝖺 to 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. )
Magnetizing current
0
𝐼𝑂𝑂 (A)
−𝑥
(b) When the transformer core is saturated
Figure 29. Waveforms of a power transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑷𝑷. and magnetizing current 𝐼𝑜 ,
as well as transformer maximum operating point on the saturation curve.

As can be seen in Figure 29, the waveform of the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 is distorted
whether or not the transformer is saturated. Therefore, the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 always
contains some harmonics. However, as shown in Figure 29b, saturation causes large
spikes to appear in the waveform of the magnetizing current. In other words, saturation
significantly increases the harmonic content in the magnetizing current of a power
transformer. The large spikes appearing in the magnetizing current waveform when
saturation occurs also increase the rms value of the magnetizing current, and thus,
increase the no-load power losses in the power transformer.
Since the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 is provided by the ac power source, harmonics are
produced in the ac power network when saturation occurs in a power transformer.
Harmonics are highly undesirable in any ac power network because they can affect the
operation of other equipment connected to the network. Also, harmonics decrease the
power factor of the network, and thus, its efficiency. For more information about
harmonics, refer to Appendix E.
To summarize, saturation of the transformer core results in an increase in the rms

value of the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂, which leads to the two following undesirable
effects:
1. An increase in the no-load power losses in the transformer that reduces the
transformer efficiency.
2. An increase in the harmonic content of the primary current (i.e., the sum of the
magnetizing current and the current due to the load connected to the transformer
secondary).
Determining the voltage rating of a transformer winding
Due to its undesirable effects on transformer operation, saturation of the iron core in
a power transformer is the main factor determining the nominal voltage (or voltage
rating) of transformer windings. The amount of saturation accepted in a power
transformer is the result of a design trade-off that depends on the application
requirements. For instance, when high efficiency is crucial, the nominal voltage is
generally set to some rather conservative value so that the maximum flux density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. is
1.2 T or less. This results in little or no saturation (see saturation curve in Figure 28).
This minimizes the rms value of the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 and the resulting no-load
power losses, and thus provides maximal transformer efficiency. Furthermore, this
minimizes the harmonic content in the primary current. However, this choice also limits
the power rating of the transformer since a conservative winding voltage rating is used.
Therefore, for a given power rating, this results in a larger and heavier transformer.
On the other hand, if the transformer size and weight must be minimized, then a maximal
power rating is desirable. Consequently, the nominal voltage is set to the maximum
value producing acceptable transformer saturation. This generally corresponds to a
voltage resulting in a maximum flux density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. of about 1.6 T (see saturation
curve in Figure 28). This, however, significantly increases the rms value of the
magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂. Consequently, the no-load power losses increase, thereby
resulting in a lower transformer efficiency (especially at low load currents). Also,
the harmonic content in the primary current is increased because the transformer core is
severely saturated.

Exercise 4 – Transformer Rating ⬥ Procedure Outline

 Transformer saturation
 Saturation curve of a power transformer
 Voltage rating of transformer windings and transformer power rating
 Effect of transformer nominal voltage on the power losses and efficiency
 Transformer operating temperature
PROCEDURE
In this section, you will observe the current ratings of the transformer windings
indicated on the front panel of the Transformer module and record their value.
You will observe the power transformer in the Transformer module and
determine which terminals correspond to the transformer primary windings and
which terminals correspond to the transformer secondary windings. You will set
up a circuit containing a step-up power transformer without load. You will then set
the measuring equipment required to measure and analyze the transformer
voltage, current, and power ratings, as well as the transformer saturation curve.

a Make sure that you are using the same Transformer module as in Exercise 3
of this course by confirming that this module’s serial number is the same as the
serial number recorded in step 1 of Exercise 3.
wall outlet.

Exercise 4 – Transformer Rating ⬥ Procedure

8. Observe the current ratings indicated on the front panel of the Transformer module.
Record below the current ratings of the transformer primary and secondary windings.
Current rating of each of the two primary windings = A
Current rating of each of the two secondary windings = A
9. Observe the power transformer in the Transformer module. Determine which

terminals of the power transformer are used for the primary windings and which
terminals are used for the secondary windings. Explain your reasoning by referring
to the transformer current ratings recorded in the previous step.
a The two terminals of the power transformer with the thinnest wires are used for
the thermistor in the transformer. Do not take these terminals into account to
answer the question.
10. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 30. In this circuit, the two 24 V primary
windings of the Transformer module are connected in series to form a primary
winding rated 48 V and 5 A. Also, the two 120 V secondary windings are connected
in parallel to form a secondary winding rated 120 V and 2 A.

Transformer
1 5
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
2 6
𝑅 E1
57 Ω
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
Figure 30. Step-up transformer operating without load.
of the voltage waveforms. Since the resistive load is connected in parallel with
the ac power source, it has no effect on the measured voltages.

a Most power transformers are generally designed to operate at frequencies

of 50 Hz and 60 Hz. Because transformer design requirements are more
stringent at 50 Hz, most transformer designs are based on operation at 50 Hz,
hence the setting of the AC Power Source frequency to 50 Hz.
Do not start the AC Power Source for now. This will be done in the next
section of this exercise.
the rms (ac) values of the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
(inputs E1 and I1, respectively). Set another meter to measure the primary active
power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. from inputs E1 and I1.

Transformer saturation
In this section, you will measure the transformer primary voltage, current, and
active power when the transformer is not saturated, and analyze the results. You
will use the Oscilloscope to observe the waveform of the transformer magnetizing
current. You will measure the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the magnetizing
current using the Harmonic Analyzer. You will then increase the transformer
primary voltage to 56 V and observe what happens to the waveform of the
magnetizing current displayed on the Oscilloscope. You will measure the
transformer primary voltage, current, and active power when the transformer is
saturated, and compare the results with those obtained when the transformer is
not saturated. You will measure the THD of the magnetizing current using the
Harmonic Analyzer, and compare the result with the THD value measured when
the transformer is not saturated.

possible to 28 V.
14. In the Metering window, measure the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ,
current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , and active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. . Record the values below.
Primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = V
15. What conclusion can you draw regarding the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
recorded in the previous step in relation to the voltage rating of the transformer
primary winding? Explain briefly.
What does the primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. recorded in the previous step correspond to?
Explain briefly why.
What does the primary active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. recorded in the previous step correspond
to?

16. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Oscilloscope, and display the waveforms of the
transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 (i.e., the primary
current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ).
Is the waveform of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 distorted, even though
the transformer is not saturated (i.e., even though the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. is well
below the nominal voltage of the transformer primary winding)?
 Yes  No
17. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Harmonic Analyzer. Set the fundamental frequency to
50 Hz and the number of harmonics to 15, then display the harmonic content of the
transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂. Record below the value of the total harmonic
distortion (THD) of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂.
THD of magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 = %
a The total harmonic distortion (THD) of a waveform indicates the amount of

harmonic distortion present in the waveform. The higher the THD value, the
more distorted the waveform is due to the presence of harmonics.
Does the THD value just recorded confirm that the waveform of the transformer
magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 is distorted even when the transformer is not saturated?
 Yes  No
18. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, gradually increase the

Voltage (V at no load) parameter value so that the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
indicated in the Metering window is close to 56 V. While doing so, observe the
waveform of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 on the Oscilloscope.
a The transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. is now equal to 56 V, which is

nearly 20% above the nominal voltage of the transformer primary windings.
The transformer is thus saturated.
Describe what happens to the waveform of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂
when you increase the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. . Explain briefly why it is so.

19. In the Metering window, measure the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ,
current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , and active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. when the transformer is saturated. Record the
values below.
Primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = V
20. Compare the transformer parameter values recorded in the previous step to the
parameter values recorded in step 14. Describe the effects that transformer
saturation has on the rms value of the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 (i.e., the
primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) and on the no-load power losses (i.e., the primary
active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ).
21. In the Harmonic Analyzer, notice the value of the total harmonic distortion
(THD) of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 when the transformer is saturated.
THD of magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 = %
Compare the THD value just recorded with the THD value recorded in step 17.
Does transformer saturation increase the amount of harmonic distortion in the
transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 significantly?
 Yes  No
Saturation curve of a power transformer
In this section, you will reduce the power transformer primary voltage to 12 V,
then you will increase the transformer primary voltage to 56 V by steps. For each
voltage step, you will record in the Data Table the transformer primary voltage,
current (magnetizing current), and active power (no-load power losses), as well
as the peak magnetizing current. You will use the measured values to plot the
saturation curve of the power transformer.

On the Oscilloscope, set a horizontal cursor to measure the peak value of the
transformer magnetizing current (𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ), which corresponds to the peak value
of the primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. .

𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 ), and active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (transformer no- load power
losses) indicated in the Metering window.
Also, set the Data Table to record the peak value of the transformer magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. measured using one of the horizontal cursors of the Oscilloscope.
24. In the Data Table window, click on the Record Data button to record the parameter
values.
25. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, increase the Voltage (V

Metering window increases by steps of 4 V up to 28 V. For each voltage step, adjust
the horizontal cursor on the Oscilloscope to measure the peak value of the
magnetizing current (𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ) then record the transformer parameters in the Data
Table.
26. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, continue to increase the

indicated in the Metering window increases by steps of 2 V up to 56 V. For each
voltage step, adjust the horizontal cursor on the Oscilloscope to measure the peak
value of the magnetizing current (𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ), then record the transformer parameters in
the Data Table.

AC Power Source.
In the Data Table window, save the recorded data, then export it to a spreadsheet
application.
28. Using the recorded values, plot the saturation curve of the power transformer (i.e.,
a graph of the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. as a function of the peak
magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ).
Voltage rating of transformer windings and transformer power rating

In this section, you will determine at which point on the saturation curve the
power transformer operates when the nominal voltage of 48 V is applied to the
primary, and analyze the result. You will record the transformer magnetizing
current, no-load power losses, and power rating when the nominal voltage
of 48 V is applied to the primary. Using the saturation curve, you will determine at
which primary voltage value the transformer should operate for maximal
efficiency, and determine the corresponding transformer magnetizing current, no-
load power losses, and power rating. You will compare these results to the
transformer parameters measured at the nominal voltage of 48 V.

29. On the transformer saturation curve plotted in step 28, indicate the point at which the
power transformer operates when the nominal voltage (48 V) is applied to the
primary winding.
Considering your results, can you conclude that the transformer is designed for
maximal efficiency or maximal power output? Explain why.
30. Using the measured values, record below the values of the transformer magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 and no-load power losses when the transformer operates at the nominal
voltage (48 V). Also, calculate the power rating of the transformer when operating at
the nominal voltage and current values.
Magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 = A
No-load power losses = W
Power rating = VA
31. Using the transformer saturation curve plotted in step 28, evaluate what would the
nominal primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. be if the transformer were designed for maximal
efficiency (i.e., to operate with little or no saturation).
For maximal efficiency, the nominal primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. of the transformer
should be close to V.
32. Using the measured values, determine the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂
and the no-load power losses at the nominal primary voltage recorded in the previous
step. Also, calculate the power rating of the transformer when operating at this
nominal voltage value.
Magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 = A
No-load power losses = W
Power rating = VA
33. Compare the transformer parameter values recorded in the previous step to the
parameter values recorded in step 30. What happens to the transformer magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑂𝑂, no-load power losses, and power rating when the transformer is designed
for maximal efficiency instead of maximal power?

Effect of transformer nominal voltage on the power losses and efficiency
In this section, you will connect a resistive load to the step-up transformer. You
will start the ac power source and set the transformer primary voltage to the
value determined in the previous section of the exercise (for maximizing
transformer efficiency). By varying the resistance of the resistive load, you will
increase the transformer secondary (load) current by steps of 0.1 A up
to 1.2 A (60% of the nominal load current). For each load current, you will record
the transformer primary voltage, current, and active power, as well as the
secondary voltage, current, and active power in the Data Table. You will export
the results to a spreadsheet application and, for each load current, you will
calculate the corresponding transformer power losses and efficiency. On the
same graph, you will plot the transformer power losses as a function of the load
current, at the nominal voltage (using the values recorded in the previous
exercise) and at a voltage maximizing efficiency, and analyze the results. You
will do the same for the transformer efficiency as a function of the load current,
and analyze the results. Finally, you will compare the transformer load voltage at
the nominal voltage and at the voltage determined for maximizing transformer
efficiency, and analyze the results.
Transformer
40 A input
1 5
24 V 120 V 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
E2
5A 1A
2 6
E1
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
35. Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load so that the resistance of
the resistive load is infinite.

36. In the Metering window, make the required settings on additional meters to measure
the rms (ac) values of the transformer secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. (inputs
E2 and I2, respectively). Set another meter to measure the secondary active power
𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. from inputs E2 and I2.

possible to the value for maximizing transformer efficiency recorded in step 31.
38. Set the Data Table to record, in addition to the parameters already selected (i.e.,
the primary voltage, current, and active power), the transformer secondary voltage
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐., current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐., and active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. indicated in the Metering window.
In the Data Table window, click on the Record Data button to record the parameter
values.
39. On the Resistive Load, decrease the load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 so that the secondary (load)
current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. increases to about 1.2 A (60% of nominal secondary current or full-load
current of the transformer) by steps of about 0.1 A. For each step, adjust the
Voltage (V at no load) parameter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply window so that the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the
Metering window remains constant, then record the transformer parameters in the
Data Table.

AC Power Source.
41. In the Data Table window, save the recorded data, then export it to a spreadsheet
application.
In the spreadsheet application, add a new parameter to the results: the transformer
power losses 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠. Calculate the transformer power losses 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 by
subtracting the secondary active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. (i.e., the active power delivered to the
load by the transformer) from the primary active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (i.e., the active power
supplied to the transformer by the ac power source).
Also, add another parameter to the results: the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂. Calculate
the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂 by dividing the transformer secondary active power
𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. by the primary active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , then multiply the result by 100 to obtain
the efficiency 𝜂𝜂 as a percentage.
a When the load resistance is infinite, the secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. may not
be 0 A due to measurement error. When this occurs, the active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. is
also not 0 W and thus, the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂 is not 0%.

42. Plot in a same graph curves of the transformer power losses 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 as a function of
the secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. when the transformer operates at the nominal
primary voltage (48 V) and when the transformer operates at the primary voltage
maximizing transformer efficiency. To do so, use the results recorded in Exercise 3
and those recorded in this exercise.
Observe the graph. Does operating at a lower primary voltage have any effect
on the transformer power losses 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠? If so, explain why.
43. Plot in a same graph curves of the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂 as a function of the
secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. when the transformer operates at the nominal primary
voltage (48 V) and when the transformer operates at the primary voltage maximizing
transformer efficiency. To do so, use the results recorded in Exercise 3 and those
recorded in this exercise.
Observe the graph. Does operating at a lower primary voltage have any effect
on the transformer efficiency 𝜂𝜂? If so, explain why.
44. Compare the transformer secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. measured at 50% of the
nominal full-load current, i.e., at 50% of the nominal secondary current (1 A),
when the transformer operates at the nominal primary voltage (48 V) and when
the transformer operates at the primary voltage maximizing transformer efficiency.
Use the results recorded in Exercise 3 and those recorded in this exercise to do the
comparison.
What happens to the secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. when operating at a lower
primary voltage? Does this have any effect on the transformer power rating?
Transformer operating temperature
In this section, you will measure the initial temperature of the transformer. You
will start the ac power source and set the load resistance so that the load current
is equal to about 75% of the nominal full-load current. You will let the ac power
source operate for 20 minutes. You will then record the transformer temperature
and calculate the transformer temperature increase. These results will be used in
the next exercise.

Exercise 4 – Transformer Rating ⬥ Conclusion
45. Connect the Thermistor Input of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to

the Thermistor Output of the Transformer module.
a You can also use an external thermometer to achieve the same results if your
Transformer module is not equipped with a thermistor input. If so, attach the
thermometer probe to the transformer core to measure the transformer core
temperature.
46. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Thermistor

Type parameter to LV Type 2, then observe the transformer temperature indicated
by the temperature meter. Record the value below.
Initial transformer temperature =
47. On the Resistive Load, set the load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 to 80 Ω.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Voltage

parameter to 48 V, then start the AC Power Source. Readjust the Voltage (V
48. On the Resistive Load, adjust the resistance so that the transformer secondary (load)
current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. increases to about 1.5 A (75% of the transformer nominal full-load
current).
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, readjust the Voltage (V

49. Let the ac power source operate for 20 minutes.
After 20 minutes of operation, observe the transformer temperature indicated by the

temperature meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window.
Transformer temperature after 20 minutes of operation =
50. Calculate the transformer temperature increase using the two transformer
temperatures recorded in steps 46 and 49. Record your result below.
Transformer temperature increase =
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you saw what the voltage, current, and power ratings of a power
transformer are, and how they can be determined. You also saw the effects of saturation
on the magnetizing current and no-load power losses of a power transformer.

Exercise 4 – Transformer Rating ⬥ Review Questions
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. A power transformer has two primary windings connected in series: one whose
voltage and current ratings are 50 V and 1 A, respectively, and the other whose
voltage and current ratings are 100 V and 1 A, respectively. Calculate the power
rating of the transformer.
2. What factor limits the current rating of a power transformer? Explain briefly.
3. What happens to the waveform of the magnetizing current of a power transformer as

the transformer primary voltage is increased and the transformer becomes more and
more saturated? What is the effect on the harmonic content of the transformer
magnetizing current?
4. What are the effects of saturation on the magnetizing current, no-load power losses,
and efficiency of a power transformer?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of operating a power transformer

with little or no saturation?

Exercise 5
Effect of Frequency on Transformer Rating
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will know the effects of the ac
power source frequency on the saturation of a power transformer, as well as on the
voltage and power ratings of the transformer.
 Transformer saturation versus frequency

 Transformer rating versus frequency
DISCUSSION Transformer saturation versus frequency
Equation (7) relates the rms value of the voltage across a power transformer winding to
the number of turns in the winding, the surface area of the transformer core, the flux
density in the transformer core, and the frequency of the ac power source.
2𝜋
𝐸= ∙𝑁∙𝐴∙𝐵 ∙ 𝑓𝑓 (7)
𝑀𝑎𝑥.
√2
where 𝐸 is the voltage across the transformer winding, expressed in volts

(V).
𝑁 is the number of turns in the transformer winding.
𝐴 is the surface area of the transformer core, expressed in square meters
(m2).
𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. is the maximum flux density in the transformer core, expressed in
teslas (T).
𝑓𝑓 is the frequency of the ac power source to which the transformer is
connected, expressed in hertz (Hz).
Parameters 𝑁 and 𝐴 in Equation (7) are constants whose values depend on the
transformer construction. When a fixed-frequency ac power source is used, the frequency
parameter is also a constant. Consequently, as was stated in Exercise 4, for a given
power transformer operating at a fixed frequency, the maximum value of the flux density
𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. in the transformer core is directly proportional to the rms value of the voltage 𝐸
across the transformer winding.
Equation (7) also reveals that for a given winding voltage 𝐸, the maximum flux density
𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. increases when the frequency 𝑓𝑓 is decreased. Therefore, at a lower operating
frequency 𝑓𝑓, a lower voltage 𝐸 is required across a transformer winding to produce a
certain maximum flux density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. and consequently, transformer saturation occurs at a
lower voltage 𝐸. Conversely, for a given winding voltage 𝐸, the maximum flux density
𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. decreases when the frequency 𝑓𝑓 is increased. Therefore, at a higher operating
frequency 𝑓𝑓, a higher voltage 𝐸 is required across a transformer winding to produce
a certain maximum flux density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥.,

Exercise 5 – Effect of Frequency on Transformer Rating ⬥ Discussion
and consequently, transformer saturation occurs at a higher voltage 𝐸. This is illustrated

in Figure 32, which shows the saturation curves, i.e., curves of the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
as a function of the magnetic field intensity 𝐻 (proportional to the peak magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ) of a power transformer operating at various frequencies.
600
100 Hz
500
400
Primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (V)
300
50 Hz
200
25 Hz
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Magnetic field intensity 𝐻 (A/m)

(proportional to 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. )
Figure 32. Saturation curves of a power transformer operating at various frequencies.
At the operation points shown on the three saturation curves in Figure 32, the magnetic
field intensity 𝐻, and thus the peak magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. , has the same value for
the three frequencies. Similarly, the maximum flux density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. has the same value at all
three frequencies. However, the value of the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. differs, the primary
voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. increasing in direct proportion to the operating frequency 𝑓𝑓.
Transformer rating versus frequency
Equation (7) in the previous section can be rearranged as follows:

𝐸 2𝜋
= ∙𝑁∙𝐴∙𝐵 (8)
𝑀𝑎𝑥.
𝑓𝑓 √2

Exercise 5 – Effect of Frequency on Transformer Rating ⬥ Procedure Outline
Since parameters 𝑁 and 𝐴 are constants, Equation (8) reveals that the ratio of the
Since voltage can also be symbolizedwinding voltage
by the letter 𝐸 over
𝑉, the 𝐸⁄𝑓𝑓 thecan
ratio acalso
power source frequency
be designated as the 𝑉⁄𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 determines the maximum flux
ratio.
density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥., and thus, the amount of saturation of the transformer core (i.e., the
operating point on the saturation curve of the transformer). Consequently, when the
frequency 𝑓𝑓 is decreased, the winding voltage 𝐸 must be decreased in the same
proportion to keep the 𝐸⁄𝑓𝑓 ratio constant, and thus, to keep the same operating point
on the saturation curve of the transformer. On the other hand, when the frequency 𝑓𝑓 is
increased, the winding voltage 𝐸 must be increased in the same proportion to
keep the
𝐸 ⁄𝑓𝑓 ratio constant, and to keep the same operating point on the saturation curve
of the transformer.
This means that increasing the operating frequency 𝑓𝑓 of a power transformer allows the
winding voltage 𝐸 to be increased without changing the operating point on the
saturation curve of the transformer. In other words, increasing the operating frequency 𝑓𝑓
allows the voltage rating of transformer windings to be increased without changing the
values of the maximum flux density 𝐵𝑀𝑎𝑥. and magnetic field intensity 𝐻 in the
transformer (i.e., without moving the point of operation on the saturation curve of the
transformer).
Since the operating frequency 𝑓𝑓 does not affect the current rating of transformer
windings, increasing the frequency 𝑓𝑓 allows the power rating of a given transformer to
be increased. For instance, doubling the operating frequency 𝑓𝑓 doubles the voltage rating
of the transformer windings, while the current rating remains unchanged. The transformer
power rating thus also doubles. This, however, remains true up to a certain frequency for
reasons that are beyond the scope of this course.

 Transformer operation at a frequency of 50 Hz
 Effect of frequency on transformer saturation
 Saturation curve of the power transformer at a frequency of 75 Hz
 Effect of frequency on the voltage rating of transformer windings and on the
transformer power rating
 Transformer operating temperature (optional)
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a step-up transformer without
load. You will then set the measuring equipment required to study the effect of
the operating frequency on the transformer voltage and power ratings.


a Make sure that you are using the same Transformer module as in Exercise 3
and Exercise 4 by confirming that this module’s serial number is the same as
the serial number recorded in step 1 of Exercise 3.
wall outlet.

8. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 33. In this circuit, the two 24 V primary
windings of the Transformer module are connected in series to form a primary
winding rated 48 V and 5 A. Also, the two 120 V secondary windings are connected
in parallel to form a secondary winding rated 120 V and 2 A. These ratings are
for an operating frequency of either 50 Hz or 60 Hz.

Transformer
40 A input
1 5
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
2 6
𝑅
E1
57 Ω
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
Figure 33. Step-up transformer without load.
of the voltage waveforms. As the resistive load is connected in parallel to the
ac power source, it has no effect on the measured voltages.

 Do not start the AC Power Source yet. This will be done in the next
the rms (ac) values of the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and primary
current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (inputs E1 and I1, respectively). Set another meter to measure the
active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at the transformer primary from inputs E1 and I1.

Transformer operation at a frequency of 50 Hz
In this section, you will start the ac power source and display on the Oscilloscope
the waveforms of the transformer primary voltage and magnetizing current. You
will then measure the transformer primary voltage and magnetizing current when
operating at an ac power source frequency of 50 Hz.

possible to 48 V.
12. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Oscilloscope and display the waveforms of the
transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. . (this current
corresponds to the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 since the transformer is operating without
load.)
The waveform of the magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 should be virtually symmetrical.
13. In the Metering window, measure the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and
magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 (primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ). Record the values below.
Primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. at a frequency of 50 Hz = V
Magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 at a frequency of 50 Hz = A
Effect of frequency on transformer saturation
In this section, you will gradually decrease the ac power source frequency
to 35 Hz. While doing this, you will observe on the Oscilloscope what happens to
the waveforms of the transformer primary voltage and magnetizing current. You
will measure the transformer primary voltage and magnetizing current when
operating at an ac power source frequency of 35 Hz. You will set the ac power
source frequency back to 50 Hz, and then increase it gradually to 75 Hz. While
doing this, you will observe on the Oscilloscope what happens to the waveforms
of the transformer primary voltage and magnetizing current. You will measure the
transformer primary voltage and magnetizing current when operating at an
ac power source frequency of 75 Hz, and compare the values to those obtained
at an ac power source frequency of 35 Hz.
14. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, gradually decrease the

Frequency parameter of the AC Power Source to 35 Hz. While doing this, slightly
readjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
remains constant (48 V), and observe the waveform of the transformer magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 on the Oscilloscope.

What happens to the waveform of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 when the
ac power source frequency is decreased while the primary voltage remains constant?
Explain briefly why it is so.
What happens to the rms value of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 when the
ac power source frequency is decreased while the primary voltage remains constant?
Briefly explain why.
16. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Frequency

parameter back to 50 Hz, then adjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that
the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the Metering window is as close as possible to
48 V.

AC Power Source.
On the Data Acquisition and Control Interface, disconnect all leads from the high
current (40 A) terminal of input I1 and connect them to the low current (4 A)
terminal of input I1.
In LVDAC-EMS, set the Range setting of current input I1 to low.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the

AC Power Source.
18. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, gradually increase the

Frequency parameter to 75 Hz. While doing this, slightly readjust the Voltage (V
at no load) parameter so that the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. remains constant (48 V), and
observe the waveform of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 on the
Oscilloscope.

What happens to the waveform of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 when the
ac power source frequency is increased while the primary voltage remains constant?
Explain briefly why it is so.
What happens to the rms value of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 when the
ac power source frequency is increased while the primary voltage remains constant?
Briefly explain why.
Saturation curve of the power transformer at a frequency of 75 Hz
In this section, you will decrease the transformer primary voltage to 18 V, then
you will increase the transformer primary voltage to 81 V by steps. For each
voltage step, you will record in the Data Table the transformer primary voltage,
current (magnetizing current), and active power (no-load power losses), as well
as the peak magnetizing current. You will plot in a same graph the power
transformer saturation curves for ac power source frequencies of 50 Hz (from the
results recorded in the previous exercise) and 75 Hz, and compare the two
saturation curves.

On the Oscilloscope, set a horizontal cursor to measure the peak value of the
transformer magnetizing current (𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ), which corresponds to the peak value
of the primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. .

𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 ), and active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (transformer no- load power
losses) indicated in the Metering window.
Also, set the Data Table to record the peak value of the transformer magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. measured using one of the horizontal cursors of the Oscilloscope.
In the Data Table window, click on the Record Data button to record the values of
the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 ), and
active power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (transformer no-load power losses), as well as the peak
magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. .
22. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, increase the Voltage (V

Metering window increases by steps of 6 V up to 42 V. For each voltage step, adjust
the horizontal cursor on the Oscilloscope to measure the peak value of the
magnetizing current (𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ), then record the transformer parameters in the Data
Table.
23. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, continue to increase the

indicated in the Metering window increases by steps of 3 V up to 81 V. For each
voltage step, adjust the horizontal cursor on the Oscilloscope to measure the peak
value of the magnetizing current (𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ), then record the transformer parameters in
the Data Table.

AC Power Source.
In the Data Table window, save the recorded data, then export it to a spreadsheet
application.
25. Plot in a same graph the transformer saturation curves (i.e., curves of the primary
voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. as a function of the peak magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂,𝑚𝑎𝑥. ) measured at
ac power source frequencies of 50 Hz and 75 Hz. Use the results recorded in
Exercise 4 and those recorded in this exercise to do so.
Observe the graph. What is the effect of increasing the ac power source frequency on
the saturation of the power transformer?

Effect of frequency on the voltage rating of transformer windings and on

the transformer power rating
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a step-up transformer

connected to a resistive load. You will make the transformer operate at the
nominal voltage and at an ac power source frequency of 50 Hz. You will measure
the transformer magnetizing current. You will decrease the resistance of the
resistive load so that a current of 1.5 A (75% of the nominal full-load current)
flows in the secondary winding. While doing so, you will maintain the transformer
primary voltage constant. You will measure the transformer secondary voltage
and active power. You will set the resistive load back to infinite. You will then
make the transformer operate at an ac power source frequency of 75 Hz, and
adjust the primary voltage so that the transformer magnetizing current is virtually
equal to the magnetizing current value you recorded at an ac power source
frequency of 50 Hz. You will measure the transformer primary voltage, and
compare the value with the nominal voltage at an ac power source frequency
of 50 Hz. You will decrease the resistance of the resistive load so that a current
of 1.5 A flows in the secondary winding. While doing so, you will maintain the
transformer primary voltage constant. You will measure the transformer
secondary voltage and active power, and compare the values with those
obtained at an ac power source frequency of 50 Hz.
Transformer
40 A input
1 5
24 V 120 V E2 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
5A 1A
2 6
E1
3 7
24 V 120 V
5A 1A
4 8
27. On the Resistive Load, make the necessary switch settings so that the resistance of

28. In the Metering window, make the required settings on additional meters to measure
the rms (ac) values of the transformer secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. (inputs
E2 and I2, respectively). Set another meter to measure the secondary active power
𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. from inputs E2 and I2.

at no load) parameter to 48 V and the Frequency parameter to 50 Hz, then
start the AC Power Source. Readjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter so
that the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the Metering window is as
close as possible to 48 V.
30. In the Metering window, measure the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂
(primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) when operating at the nominal primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
of 48 V and at an ac power source frequency of 50 Hz. Record the value below.
31. On the Resistive Load, gradually decrease the load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 so that the
secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. indicated in the Metering window increases to 1.5 A
(75% of the transformer nominal secondary current or full-load current). While
doing this, readjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter of the AC Power
Source so that the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. remains as close as possible to 48 V.
32. In the Metering window, measure the transformer secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and
active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. when operating at the nominal primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. of 48 V
and at an ac power source frequency of 50 Hz. Record the values below.
Secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. at a frequency of 50 Hz = V
Secondary active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. at a frequency of 50 Hz = W
33. On the Resistive Load, make the necessary switch settings so that the load resistance
𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 is infinite.
34. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Frequency

parameter to 75 Hz. Adjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that the rms
(ac) value of the transformer magnetizing current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 (primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) indicated
in the Metering window is as close as possible to the transformer magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑂𝑂 recorded in step 30. This makes the transformer operate at the same point
on the saturation curve (i.e., at the same level of saturation) as when the transformer
operates at a primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. of 48 V and an ac power source frequency of 50
Hz.

35. In the Metering window, measure the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. when
operating without load and at an ac power source frequency of 75 Hz. Record the
value below.
36. Compare the transformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. recorded in the previous step when
operating at an ac power source frequency of 75 Hz to the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (48
V) when operating at an ac power source frequency of 50 Hz. What do you
observe?
What can you conclude concerning the effect of the ac power source frequency on
the nominal voltage of a transformer winding?
In the next manipulation, the voltage and power ratings of the Resistive Load module are
significantly exceeded. Therefore, perform the next manipulation in less than 2 minutes, then
immediately turn the three-phase ac power source off to avoid damaging the
Resistive Load module.
37. On the Resistive Load, gradually decrease the load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 so that the
secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. value indicated in the Metering window increases to 1.5 A
(75% of the nominal secondary current or full-load current of the transformer).
While doing this, adjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter of the AC Power
Source so that the primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. remains constant (i.e., as close as possible
to the voltage value recorded in step 35).
In the Metering window, measure the transformer secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and
active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. when operating at 75% of the full-load current and at an ac power
source frequency of 75 Hz. Record the values below, then immediately stop the AC
Power Source in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window.
Secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = V
Secondary active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. = W

38. Compare the transformer secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and active power 𝑃𝑆𝑒𝑐. recorded in
the previous step when operating at an ac power source frequency of 75 Hz to the
values recorded in step 32 when operating at an ac power source frequency of 50
Hz. What do you observe?
What can you conclude concerning the effect of the ac power source
frequency on the nominal power of a transformer?
Transformer operating temperature (optional)
a This section can be performed only if a second Resistive Load module is

available. For this reason, it is considered optional.
In this section, you will connect a second Resistive Load module in series with
the one in the circuit you set up in the previous section to allow continuous
operation at higher voltages. You will measure the initial temperature of the
transformer. You will start the ac power source. You will make sure that the
transformer primary voltage is equal to the nominal primary voltage determined
when operating at an ac power source frequency of 75 Hz and that the load
current is equal to about 75% of the nominal load current. You will let the
ac power source operate for 20 minutes. You will record the transformer
temperature, and calculate the transformer temperature increase. You will then
compare the transformer temperature increase when the transformer operates at
ac power source frequencies of 50 Hz and 75 Hz using the results recorded in
Exercise 4 and in this exercise.
39. Connect the Thermistor Input of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to

the Thermistor Output of the Transformer module.
You can also use an external thermometer to achieve the same results if your
Transformer module is not equipped with a thermistor input. If so, attach the
thermometer probe to the transformer core to measure the transformer core
temperature.
40. Using two Resistive Load modules, modify the resistive load in the circuit of Figure
34 so that it consists of two resistors in series. This doubles the voltage that can be
applied to the resistive load, as well as the power which the resistive load can
dissipate. To do so, connect the three resistor sections on each Resistive Load in
parallel, then connect the two Resistive Load modules in series, and then set the
resistance on each Resistive Load to 60 Ω. The total resistance of the
resistive load 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 is thus equal to 120 Ω.

41. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Thermistor

Type parameter to LV Type 2. Notice the transformer temperature indicated by the
temperature meter in this window. Record this temperature below.
Initial transformer temperature =

possible to the transformer nominal primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. measured at an ac power
source frequency of 75 Hz (i.e., the voltage recorded in step 35). The transformer
secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. should now be close to 1.5 A (about 75% of the
transformer nominal full-load current). If required, adjust the resistance of the
resistive load so that the transformer secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. is as close as possible to
1.5 A while maintaining the primary voltage constant.
43. Let the AC Power Source operate for 20 minutes.
After 20 minutes of operation, notice the transformer temperature indicated by the

temperature meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window.
Record this temperature below.
Transformer temperature after 20 minutes of operation =
Calculate the transformer temperature increase using the two transformer

temperature values measured. Record your result below.
Transformer temperature increase =
44. Compare the transformer temperature increase recorded in the previous step when
operating at an ac power source frequency of 75 Hz to the temperature increase
recorded in step 50 of Exercise 4 when operating at an ac power source frequency of
50 Hz. In both cases, the transformer was loaded at 75% of the nominal full-
load current. What do you observe? Explain briefly.

Exercise 5 – Effect of Frequency on Transformer Rating ⬥ Conclusion
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you learned the effects of the ac power source frequency on the
saturation of a power transformer, as well as on the voltage and power ratings of the
transformer.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Explain why transformer saturation occurs at a lower voltage value when the
frequency of the ac power source is decreased.
2. What are the effects of decreasing the frequency of the ac power source on the
waveform and the rms value of the magnetizing current of a power transformer?
3. What are the effects of increasing the frequency of the ac power source on the
waveform and the rms value of the magnetizing current of a power transformer?
4. What does the 𝐸⁄𝑓𝑓 (or 𝑉⁄𝑓𝑓) ratio of a power transformer determine?
5. What is the effect of increasing the frequency of the ac power source on the voltage
and power ratings of a power transformer?

Exercise 6
The Autotransformer
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will know what an autotransformer is. You
will be able to connect an autotransformer so that it operates as either a step-up or a step-
down unit. You will also be able to determine the primary and secondary voltages and
currents of an autotransformer. You will know how the power rating of an
autotransformer compares with the power rating of a similarly sized conventional power
transformer.
 Autotransformer operation
 Autotransformer circuit analysis
 Power rating of conventional transformers and autotransformers
DISCUSSION Autotransformer operation
An autotransformer is a special type of transformer in which only one winding serves

as both the primary and the secondary windings. Autotransformers operate according to
the same principles as conventional power transformers. Like conventional power
transformers, autotransformers can be used either as step-up or step-down transformers.
Figure 35 shows the autotransformer connections that are necessary for step-up and step-
down operation. When an autotransformer is used as a step-up transformer, only part of
the single winding acts as the primary winding, while the complete winding serves as the
secondary winding, as Figure 35a shows. On the other hand, when an autotransformer is
used as a step-down transformer, the whole winding is used as the primary winding,
while only part of the single winding is used as the secondary winding, as Figure 35b
shows. This means that the whole winding is used as the primary winding, while only
part of the single winding is used as the secondary winding.

Exercise 6 – The Autotransformer ⬥ Discussion
Autotransformer Autotransformer
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
A A
B B
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. Load 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. Load
C C
(a) Step-up autotransformer (b) Step-down autotransformer
Figure 35. Autotransformer step-up and step-down operation.
To determine the turns ratio of an autotransformer, each winding is considered as

separate, even though a certain proportion of the turns are common to both the primary
and the secondary windings. The primary and secondary voltages and currents of an
autotransformer are related through the same equations as those presented for
conventional power transformers (see Exercise 1 of this course). Using the circuits shown
in Figure 35, it is thus possible to determine that, in step-up operation, the relationship
between the voltage ratio, the current ratio, and the turns ratio of an autotransformer is
equal to:
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐 . 𝑁𝐵 −𝐶 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
= = =
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝐴−𝐶 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
In step-down operation, on the other hand, the relationship between the voltage ratio,
the current ratio, and the turns ratio of an autotransformer is equal to:
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐 . 𝑁𝐴−𝐶 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
= = =
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝐵−𝐶 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
These relationships are true only when voltages 𝐸𝐵−𝐶 and 𝐸𝐴−𝐶 of the autotransformer are
in phase (which is usually the case in any autotransformer), and thus, add together. As for
conventional power transformers, the relationship between the current ratio and the turns
ratio of an autotransformer is the reciprocal (inverse) of the relationship between the
voltage ratio and the turns ratio of the autotransformer. Furthermore, the apparent power
at the primary winding of an autotransformer is virtually equal to the apparent power at
the secondary winding of the autotransformer, as for any conventional power
transformer.
Autotransformers, however, have a major disadvantage when compared to conventional

power transformers: the lack of electrical isolation between the primary and secondary
windings. This is because, in autotransformers, the primary and the secondary windings
are not separate. Because of this, autotransformers cannot be used in applications
requiring electrical isolation between the primary and the secondary windings.

Autotransformer circuit analysis
The rules that apply to the operation of conventional power transformers also apply to
autotransformers. This means that:
1. The voltage ratio (i.e., the ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary
voltage) of an autotransformer is equal to its turns ratio 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ⁄𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐. .
2. The voltage-current product at the primary winding of an autotransformer is

equal to the voltage-current product at the secondary winding.
These two rules allow the operation of autotransformers to be analyzed.
Step-up autotransformer circuit analysis
Figure 36 shows an example of a step-up autotransformer.
Autotransformer
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
1500 turns 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
500 turns 25 Ω
𝐸𝑆 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
100 V
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛
Figure 36. Step-up autotransformer.
The circuit of the autotransformer shown in Figure 36 can be resolved as follows:
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
=
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝐸 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃 . × 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐 . 100 V × 1500 turns

𝑆𝑒𝑐. = 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = = 300 V
500 turns
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 300 V
𝐼 = = = 1.00 A
𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 300 Ω
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. × 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. × 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. × 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. 300 V × 1.00 A

𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = = 3.00 A
100 V
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. − 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. = 3.00 A − 1.00 A = 2.00 A

As the calculations show, the current (i.e., the primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) flowing in the
autotransformer winding tap is equal to the sum (𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. + 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛) of the currents flowing in
the two sections of the autotransformer winding. Consequently, the value of the current
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 flowing in the turns of the winding that is common to the primary and secondary
is equal to the difference (𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. − 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. ) between the primary and secondary currents.
This must be taken into account when selecting the size of the wire used for this
section of the autotransformer winding. The lower the turns ratio, the greater the
difference between the primary and secondary current values, and thus, the higher the
value of current 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛.
Step-down autotransformer circuit analysis
Figure 37 shows an example of a step-down autotransformer.
Autotransformer
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝐸𝑆 2000 turns
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
400 V 500 turns
𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐.
300 Ω
Figure 37. Step-down autotransformer.
The circuit of the autotransformer shown in Figure 37 can be resolved as follows:
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
=
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝐸 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃 . × 𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐 . 400 V × 500 turns

𝑆𝑒𝑐. = 𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = = 100 V
2000 turns
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 100 V
𝐼 = = = 4.00 A
𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 25 Ω
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. × 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. × 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. × 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. 100 V × 4.00 A

𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = = 1.00 A
400 V
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. − 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 4.00 A − 1.00 A = 3.00 A

As the calculations show, the current flowing in the autotransformer winding tap
(i.e., the secondary current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. ) is equal to the sum (𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑃𝑃. + 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 ) of the currents
flowing in the two sections of the autotransformer winding. Consequently, the value of
the current flowing in the turns of the winding that is common to the primary and
secondary is equal to the difference (𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. − 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) between the primary and secondary
currents, as in step-up autotransformers. This time, however, the higher the turns ratio,
the greater the difference between the primary and secondary current values, and thus, the
higher the value of current 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛.
Power rating of conventional transformers and autotransformers
Figure 38 represents a conventional power transformer with a power rating of 100

VA.
Turns ratio = 1:1
Power transformer
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.100 V 100 V𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐.

1A 1A
Power rating = 100 VA
Figure 38. Conventional power transformer with a power rating of 100 VA.
A step-up or step-down autotransformer can be built using the primary and secondary
windings of the conventional power transformer in Figure 38. This is shown in Figure 39.

Autotransformer
Turns ratio = 1:2 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. (max. = 1 A)
100 V
1A
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (max. = 2 A)
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = 200 V
100 V
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 100 V 1A
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 (max. = 1 A)
(a) Step-up autotransformer
Autotransformer
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (max. = 1 A) Turns ratio = 2:1
100 V
1A
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. (max. = 2 A)
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = 200 V
100 V 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = 100 V

1A
(b) Step-down autotransformer
Figure 39. Step-up and step-down autotransformers built using the conventional power
transformer in Figure 38.
As Figure 39 shows, the power rating of each autotransformer is higher than

(twice in this case) that of the conventional power transformer in Figure 38. This is an
advantage that all autotransformers have over conventional power transformers.
Consequently, for a given power rating, autotransformers are always smaller, lighter, and
cheaper than conventional power transformers. However, autotransformers do not
provide electrical isolation between the primary and secondary windings.

The difference between the power rating of a conventional power transformer and
that of an autotransformer built with the same windings depends on the turns ratio of the
autotransformer. The power rating of the autotransformer is twice that of the conventional
power transformer when the turns ratio of the autotransformer is 2:1 or 1:2, as
demonstrated above. Both these turns ratios allow for a maximum increase in the power
rating of the autotransformer. The difference between the power rating of the
autotransformer and that of the conventional transformer decreases as the turns ratio of
the autotransformer diverges from the optimal values of 2 and 0.5 (voltage ratios of 2:1
and 1:2, respectively). This is illustrated in Figure 40. Using the conventional power
transformer with a power rating of 600 VA in Figure 40a, an autotransformer with a turns
ratio of 1:3 can be built, as illustrated in Figure 40b. Because the turns ratio of the
resulting autotransformer is not optimal, the power rating of the autotransformer is less
than two times the power rating of the conventional transformer, i.e., only 150% that of
the conventional transformer.
Turns ratio = 1:2

Power transformer
𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.100 V 200 V 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐.

6A 3A
(a) Conventional power transformer
Autotransformer
Turns ratio = 1:3 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. (max. = 3 A)
200 V
3A
𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. (max. = 9 A)
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = 300 V
100 V
𝐸= 100 V
𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. 6A
(b) Autotransformer built using the conventional power transformer in (a)
Figure 40. Autotransformer with a power rating of 900 VA built using a conventional power
transformer with a power rating of 600 VA.

Exercise 6 – The Autotransformer ⬥ Procedure Outline

 Operation of a step-down autotransformer
 Operation of a step-up autotransformer
 Comparing the power rating of an autotransformer to that of a
conventional power transformer of the same size
 Effect of the turns ratio on the power rating of autotransformers
PROCEDURE
High voltages are present in this laboratory exercise. Do not make or modify any banana
jack connections with the power on unless otherwise specified.
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a step-down autotransformer

connected to a resistive load. You will determine the autotransformer turns ratio
and the secondary voltage when a voltage of 100 V is applied to the primary. You
will then set the measuring equipment required to study the operation of
autotransformers.

wall outlet.


Exercise 6 – The Autotransformer ⬥ Procedure
8. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 41. In this circuit, the two 120
V - 1 A windings are connected in series-aiding configuration to form the single
winding of the autotransformer.
Transformer
120 V
1A
E1
120 V
1A
8 E2 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Figure 41. Step-down autotransformer connected to a resistive load.
9. Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load so that the resistance of

10. Determine the turns ratio of the autotransformer just set up, as well as the voltage at
the secondary winding when a voltage of 100 V is applied to the primary.
a The number of turns in each of the two 24 V – 5 A windings of the power

transformer in the Transformer module is 57 turns. The number of turns in
each of the two 120 V – 1 A windings of the transformer is 285 turns.
Turns ratio =
Secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = V
Do your calculations confirm that the autotransformer is currently in step- down

operation?
 Yes  No


network.
 Do not start the AC Power Source yet. This will be done in the next
the rms (ac) values of the autotransformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
(inputs E1 and I1, respectively), secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and current
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. (inputs E2 and I2, respectively), and current
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 (input I3) flowing in the lower portion of the autotransformer winding.
Operation of a step-down autotransformer
In this section, you will start the ac power source. You will set the resistance of
the resistive load to 57 Ω. You will measure the autotransformer voltages and
currents, and analyze the results. You will determine the autotransformer
maximum secondary (load) voltage and current, as well as its power rating.

autotransformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the Metering window is as close
as possible to 100 V.

14. On the Resistive Load, decrease the resistance to 57 Ω. In the Four- Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply window, readjust the Voltage (V at no load)
parameter so that the autotransformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the
15. In the Metering window, measure the autotransformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and
current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. , secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. , and current
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 flowing in the lower portion of the autotransformer winding. Record the
values below.
Primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. =
V Primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. = A
Secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. = A
Current 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 = A
16. Is the autotransformer secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. measured in the previous step
approximately equal to the voltage calculated in step 10?
 Yes  No
Is the secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. measured in the previous step virtually equal to
the sum of the currents (𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. and 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 ) flowing in the two portions of the
autotransformer winding?
 Yes  No
Do your measurements confirm that the autotransformer is currently in step- down

operation?
 Yes  No
17. Determine the power rating of the autotransformer by calculating the

autotransformer maximum secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and maximum secondary
(load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐..
Maximum secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = V
Maximum secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. = A
Power rating = VA

AC Power Source.

Operation of a step-up autotransformer
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a step-up autotransformer

and the secondary voltage when a voltage of 50 V is applied to the primary. You
will start the ac power source. You will set the resistance of the resistive load
to 200 Ω. You will measure the autotransformer voltages and currents, and
analyze the results. You will determine the autotransformer maximum
secondary (load) voltage and current, as well as its power rating.
Transformer
120 V
1A
E2 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1
120 V
1A
E1 8
Figure 42. Step-up autotransformer connected to a resistive load.
20. Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load so that the resistance of the
resistive load is infinite.
the secondary winding when a voltage of 50 V is applied to the primary.
Turns ratio =

Do your calculations confirm that the autotransformer is currently in step-up

operation?
 Yes  No

Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that the autotransformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
23. On the Resistive Load, decrease the resistance to 200 Ω. In the Four- Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply window, adjust the Voltage (V at no load) parameter
so that the autotransformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the Metering window
is as close as possible to 50 V.
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 flowing in the lower portion of the autotransformer winding. Record the
values below.
 Yes  No
Is the primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. measured in the previous step virtually equal to the sum of
the currents (𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. and 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛) flowing in the two portions of the autotransformer
winding?
 Yes  No
Do your measurements confirm that the autotransformer is currently in step- up
operation?
 Yes  No

1
26. Determine the power rating of the autotransformer by calculating the

autotransformer maximum secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. and maximum secondary (load)
current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐..
Maximum secondary (load) voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. = V
Power rating = VA

AC Power Source.
Comparing the power rating of an autotransformer to that of a conventional

power transformer of the same size
In this section, you will calculate the power rating of a conventional transformer
built using the same windings of the transformer module used to implement the
step-down and step-up autotransformers studied in the previous sections. You
will compare the power rating of these autotransformers with the power rating of
the conventional transformer built using the same windings.
28. Determine what would be the power rating of a conventional 120 V:120 V power
transformer implemented with the same two 120 V - 1 A windings used to build the
step-down and step-up autotransformers in Figure 41 and Figure 42, respectively.
Power rating = VA
29. Compare the power ratings of the step-down and step-up autotransformers calculated
in steps 17 and 26, respectively, to the power rating of the conventional power
transformer calculated in the previous step. What conclusions can you draw?
What size would the 120 V:120 V conventional transformer need to be to have a
power rating similar to the power rating of the autotransformers used in the previous
sections of this exercise? Briefly explain why.

Effect of the turns ratio on the power rating of autotransformers
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a step-up autotransformer

and the secondary (load) voltage when a voltage of 24 V is applied to the
primary. You will start the ac power source and set the resistance of the resistive
load to 257 Ω. You will measure the autotransformer voltages and currents, and
analyze the results. You will determine the autotransformer maximum
secondary (load) current, as well as its power rating. You will calculate the power
rating of a conventional transformer built using the same windings as the
autotransformer. You will confirm that the power rating of the autotransformer is
still higher than that of the conventional transformer built with the same windings.
Finally, you will compare the increase in the power rating for autotransformers
with turns ratios of 2:1, 1:2, and 1:6 in comparison to a conventional transformer
built using the same respective windings.
30. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 43. Notice that the resistive load consists
of two resistors (𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1 and 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2) connected in series. Connect two resistor
banks of the Resistive Load in parallel to implement resistor 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2.
In LVDAC-EMS, set the Range setting of current inputs I1 and I3 to high.
Transformer
120 V
1A
𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1
40 A input 6
E2
24 V
5A
E1 4
𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2
40 A input
Figure 43. Step-up autotransformer connected to two resistive loads.

3
31. Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load so that the resistance of the
resistive load is infinite.
the secondary winding when the nominal voltage of 24 V is applied to the primary.
Turns ratio =

Voltage (V at no load) parameter so that the autotransformer primary voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
34. On the Resistive Load, set the resistance values of 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1 and 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2 to 171
Ω and 86 Ω, respectively. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
window, readjust the (V at no load) parameter so that the autotransformer primary
voltage 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. indicated in the Metering window is as close as possible to 24 V.
𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 flowing in the lower portion of the autotransformer winding.
 Yes  No
Is the primary current 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. measured in the previous step virtually equal to the sum of
the currents (𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. and 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛) flowing in the two portions of the autotransformer
winding?
 Yes  No

37. Determine the maximum secondary (load) current 𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐. which the autotransformer can
provide, as well as the resulting power rating of the autotransformer.
a Use the secondary voltage 𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. determined in step 32 to determine the power
rating of the autotransformer.
Power rating = VA

AC Power Source.
39. Determine what would be the power rating of a conventional 24 V:120 V or

120 V:24 V power transformer implemented with the same two windings as those
used to build the step-up autotransformer in Figure 43.
Power rating = VA
40. Compare the power rating of the step-up autotransformer calculated in step 37 to
the power rating of the conventional transformer calculated in the previous step.
Is the power rating of the autotransformer still higher than the power rating of the
conventional transformer built with the same windings?
 Yes  No
41. Compare the increase in power rating obtained using the autotransformer with a 1:6
turns ratio to that obtained using the autotransformers with 2:1 and 1:2 turns ratios.
What conclusions can you draw?

5
Exercise 6 – The Autotransformer ⬥ Conclusion
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you learned what an autotransformer is, and how to connect an
autotransformer so that it operates as either a step-up or a step-down unit. You saw how
to determine the primary and secondary voltages and currents of an autotransformer. You
also saw how the power rating of an autotransformer compares with the power rating of a
similarly sized conventional power transformer.
1. What is the main difference between conventional power transformers and

REVIEW QUESTIONS
autotransformers?
2. What is the main advantage of autotransformers over conventional power

transformers? Explain briefly.
3. What is the main drawback of autotransformers in comparison to conventional

power transformers? Explain briefly.
4. Consider the step-up autotransformer shown in Figure 44. Assuming that this
autotransformer has 300 turns of wire in the primary winding and 900 turns of wire
in the secondary winding, calculate the value of the current 𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 flowing in the
lower part of the autotransformer winding.

Exercise 6 – The Autotransformer ⬥ Review Questions
Transformer
𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.
𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.
900 turns
𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
300 turns 120 Ω
𝐸𝑆 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃.
80 V
Figure 44. Step-up autotransformer.
5. What are the two turns ratios which maximize the power rating increase of an
autotransformer in comparison to a conventional power transformer built using the
same windings? Explain briefly.

Appendix A
Equipment Utilization Chart
The following equipment is required to perform the exercises in this course.
Equipment Exercise
Model Description 1 2 3 4 5 6
30004-2 24 V AC Power Supply 1 1 1 1 1 1
8134(1) Workstation 1 1 1 1 1 1
8216(2) Wind Turbine Generator/Controller 1
8311(3) Resistive Load 1 1 1 1 2(4) 1
8353 Transformer 1 1 1 1 1 1
8946-2 Multimeter 1
8951-L Connection Leads 1 1 1 1 1 1
8960-C(5) Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply 1 1 1 1 1 1
8990 Host Computer 1 1 1 1 1 1
9063-B(6) Data Acquisition and Control Interface 1 1 1 1 1 1

(1) Workstation model 8110 can also be used.
(2) This model is optional.
(3) Resistive Load unit with low (120 V) voltage rating. Use model variant -00, -01, -02, or
-A0.
(4) The second Resistive Load is optional as it is only required to perform an optional section
of this exercise.
(5) Model 8960-C consists of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply,
Model 8960-2, with the Standard Functions (manual control) set, Model 8968-1, and the
Standard Functions (computer-based control) set, Model 8968-2.
(6) Model 9063-B consists of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface, Model 9063, with the
Computer-Based Instrumentation function set, Model 9069-1.

Appendix B
Glossary of New Terms
autotransformer An autotransformer is a special type of power transformer in which only one winding
serves as both the primary and the secondary windings, instead of two separate windings
as in conventional power transformers. Because of this, autotransformers are smaller,
lighter, and cheaper than conventional transformers for the same power rating.
Autotransformers, however, do not provide electrical isolation between their windings.
copper losses The copper losses in a power transformer are the power losses occurring in the
transformer wires (typically made of copper). Copper losses are dissipated as heat.
current ratio The current ratio of a power transformer represents the proportion between the current
flowing in the transformer primary winding (𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) and the current flowing in the
transformer secondary winding (𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.). The current ratio of a power transformer is
inversely proportional to its turns ratio.
efficiency The efficiency 𝜂𝜂 of a power transformer is a measure of the ability of the transformer to
transfer power from the ac power source to the load with minimum power losses. The
efficiency of a transformer thus expresses the percentage of power supplied by the ac
power source to the transformer that is delivered to the load connected to the
transformer.
exciting current See magnetizing current.
harmonics The harmonics of a waveform are the frequency components of the signal. The
frequency of each harmonic is a multiple of the fundamental frequency. Harmonics are
highly undesirable in any ac power network because they can affect the operation of
other equipment connected to the network. Also, harmonics decrease the power factor of
the network, and thus, its efficiency.
iron losses The iron losses in a power transformer are the power losses occurring in the transformer
iron core. Iron losses primarily consist of hysteresis and eddy- current losses. They are
mostly dissipated as heat.
magnetizing current The magnetizing current (or exciting current) of a power transformer corresponds to the
current that produces the magnetic field required for the operation of the transformer.
Magnetizing current flows in the primary winding of a power transformer as soon as a
voltage is applied to the primary winding, whether or not the transformer is connected to
a load. Magnetizing current is generally represented by the symbol 𝐼𝑂𝑂.

Appendix B Glossary of New
Terms
polarity The polarity of a power transformer winding refers to the polarity of the voltage at one
end of the winding relative to the voltage at the opposite end of the winding, at any
given instant. It has no meaning in itself and is only meaningful in relation to the
polarity of the other windings. When one end of two windings of a transformer are of the
same polarity, the polarity of the voltage at this end, with respect to the voltage at the
other end of the winding, is the same for both windings, and thus, the ac voltages across
these windings are in phase. Conversely, when one end of two windings of a transformer
are of opposite polarity, the polarity of the voltage at this end for one winding is opposite
to that of the voltage at the end of the other winding, and thus, the ac voltages across
these windings are 180° out of phase. Transformer winding polarity is especially
important when connecting transformer windings in series or in parallel.
primary winding The primary winding of a power transformer is the winding to which the ac power source
supplying power to the transformer is connected.
secondary winding The secondary winding of a power transformer is the winding that is connected to a load
and that supplies power to it.
step-down transformer A step-down power transformer is a transformer whose voltage across the secondary
winding is lower than the voltage across the primary winding. Conversely, the current
flowing in the secondary winding of a step-down transformer is higher than the current
flowing in the transformer primary winding.
step-up transformer A step-up power transformer is a transformer whose voltage across the secondary
winding is higher than the voltage across the primary winding. Conversely, the current
flowing in the secondary winding of a step-up transformer is lower than the current
flowing in the transformer primary winding.
turns ratio The turns ratio of a power transformer is the ratio between the number of turns of wire
in the primary winding of the transformer (𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) and the number of turns of wire in the
secondary winding of the transformer (𝑁𝑆𝑒𝑐.). The turns ratio of a power transformer
determines the transformer voltage and current ratios.
voltage ratio The voltage ratio of a power transformer represents the proportion between the voltage
across the transformer primary winding (𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑃. ) and the voltage across the transformer
secondary winding (𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐.). The voltage ratio of a power transformer is directly
proportional to its turns ratio.
voltage regulation The voltage regulation of a power transformer expresses its ability to maintain the load
voltage (𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑐.) constant as the load current (𝐼𝑆𝑒𝑐.) varies. There are two ways to define the
voltage regulation of a power transformer: regulation down and regulation up.
Regulation down is more commonly used for power
transformers and indicates the extent of the variation in the load voltage of the power
transformer as the load current increases.

Appendix C
Impedance Table for the Load Modules
The following table gives impedance values which can be obtained using either the
Resistive Load, Model 8311, the Inductive Load, Model 8321, or the Capacitive Load,
Model 8331. Figure 45 shows the load elements and connections. Other parallel
combinations can be used to obtain the same impedance values listed.
Table 1. Impedance table for the load modules.
Impedance (Ω) Position of the switches
120 V 220/230 V 240 V

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
60 Hz 50 Hz/60 Hz 50 Hz
1200 4400 4800 I
600 2200 2400 I
300 1100 1200 I
400 1467 1600 I I
240 880 960 I I
200 733 800 I I
171 629 686 I I I
150 550 600 I I I I
133 489 533 I I I I
120 440 480 I I I
109 400 436 I I I I
100 367 400 I I I I I
92 338 369 I I I I I
86 314 343 I I I I I I
80 293 320 I I I I I I I
75 275 300 I I I I I I I
71 259 282 I I I I I I
67 244 267 I I I I I I I
63 232 253 I I I I I I I I
60 220 240 I I I I I I I I
57 210 229 I I I I I I I I I

Appendix C Impedance Table for the Load
Modules
Figure 45. Location of the load elements on the Resistive Load, Inductive Load, and Capacitive
Load, Models 8311, 8321, and 8331, respectively.

Appendix D
Circuit Diagram Symbols
Various symbols are used in the circuit diagrams of this manual. Each symbol is a
functional representation of a particular electrical device that can be implemented using
the equipment. The use of these symbols greatly simplifies the number of
interconnections that need to be shown in the circuit diagram, and thus, makes it easier to
understand the circuit operation.
For each symbol other than those of power sources, resistors, inductors, and capacitors,
this appendix gives the name of the device which the symbol represents, as well as the
equipment and the connections required to properly connect the device to a circuit.
Notice that the terminals of each symbol are identified using circled letters. The same
circled letters identify the corresponding terminals in the Equipment and Connections
diagram. Also notice that the numbers (when present) in the Equipment and Connections
diagrams correspond to terminal numbering used on the actual equipment.
Symbol
Equipment and Connections
E1 Data Acquisition and
Control Interface (9063)
Current
Voltage inputs
E2 inputs
40 A
E1
E3
E4
E2 40 A
E3
40 A
E4
40 A
Isolated voltage and

current measurement inputs
a When current at inputs I1, I2, I3, or I4 exceeds 4 A (either permanently or

momentarily), use the corresponding 40 A input terminal and set the Range
parameter of the corresponding input to High in the Data Acquisition and
Control Settings window of LVDAC-EMS.

Appendix D Circuit Diagram Symbols
Symbol Equipment and Connections

Four-Pole Squirrel-Cage Induction
Motor (8221-0)
Three-phase
induction machine
Four-Pole Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor (8221-2)
Three-phase induction machine
Synchronous
Motor/Generator (8241-2)
Three-phase synchronous
motor


Synchronous
Motor/Generator (8241-2)
Three-phase synchronous
generator
Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Induction Machine (8231-B)
Three-phase wound-rotor
induction machine

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (8245)
Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Machine
Rectifier and Filtering

Capacitors (8842-A)
Power diode three-phase

full-wave rectifier
Power Thyristors
(8841)
Power thyristor
three-phase bridge


IGBT Chopper / Inverter
(8837-B)
Three-phase inverter
a The representation of an electronic power switch used in the three-phase

inverter symbol above is neither an IEC symbol nor an ANSI symbol.

Appendix E
Harmonics
Introduction to harmonics
It is possible to demonstrate that any non-sinusoidal periodic signal consists of an

The fundamental componentinfinite number
of a periodic ofissine-wave
signal a sine-wave components, the fre-
component whose frequency
quency isofequal
each sine-wave
to the frequencycomponent
of the periodic signal.
being equal to a whole multiple of the frequency of the fundamental component. The
sine-wave components are referred to as harmonics and they are identified in accordance
with their multiple number.
For example, consider the distorted current waveform shown in Figure 46.
𝐼𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑓𝑓 = 60 Hz
Figure 46. Distorted current waveform.
Even though the distorted current waveform in Figure 46 is not sinusoidal, it is possible
to reproduce it by using only sinusoidal waveforms. This current waveform can thus be
decomposed into the harmonics shown in Figure 47.
𝐼5 𝐼4 𝐼3 𝐼2 𝐼1
𝑓𝑓 = 840 Hz 𝑓𝑓 = 420 Hz 𝑓𝑓 = 300 Hz 𝑓𝑓 = 180 Hz 𝑓𝑓 = 60 Hz

14th harmonic 7th harmonic 5th harmonic 3rd harmonic 1st harmonic or
fundamental
Figure 47. Harmonic composition of the distorted current waveform in Figure 46.
At first sight, nothing is gained by changing a source of non-sinusoidal current into

many sources of sinusoidal current. The advantage of doing this, however, resides in the
fact that it allows very complex circuits to be analyzed, since it is much easier to analyze
these circuits with sinusoidal signals rather than with distorted signals. Furthermore, high
frequency signals can be disregarded when solving practical circuits.
The amplitude of the harmonics in any non-sinusoidal periodic signal can be determined
by using instruments such as the LVDAC-EMS Harmonic Analyzer.

Appendix E Harmonics
Effect of harmonics on the power factor
Consider a source of sinusoidal voltage operating at a frequency of 60 Hz and supplying

a square-wave current to a non-linear load, as shown in Figure 48a. Figure 48b shows the
sinusoidal waveform representing the voltage across the load, while Figure 48c shows the
square wave representing the current flowing in the load. Figure 48d shows the resulting
waveform of the power supplied to the load (𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑). By determining the power
factor 𝑃𝐹 of the circuit, it is possible to demonstrate that the harmonics in the current
waveform limit the power factor to a value lower than unity.
𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 Non-linear load
(a) AC power source connected to a non-linear load
𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (V)
√2 × 120
(b) Voltage sine wave across the non-linear load
𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (A)
(c) Current square wave flowing in the non-linear load

𝑃 (W)
𝑡
𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
(d) Resulting waveform of the power supplied to the non-linear load
Figure 48. Determining the power factor of a circuit containing harmonics.

Appendix E Harmonics
To determine the power factor 𝑃𝐹, it is necessary to calculate the active power 𝑃 and the
apparent power 𝑆 supplied to the load. The active power 𝑃 is the average value of the
product of the instantaneous values of the current 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 flowing through the load and the
voltage 𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 across the load. It is calculated using the following equation:
2
𝑃= × √2 × 𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜋
2
𝑃= × √2 × 120 V × 1 A = 108 W
𝜋
a The average value of a rectified sine wave is equal to (2⁄𝜋) × 𝐴, where 𝐴 is

the amplitude of the signal.
The apparent power 𝑆 supplied to the load is the product of the rms values of the load
voltage 𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 and load current 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑. The apparent power 𝑆 is calculated using the
following equation:
𝑆 = 𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑆 = 120 V × 1 A = 120 VA
The power factor 𝑃𝐹 is the ratio of the active power 𝑃 to the apparent power 𝑆:
𝑃
𝑃𝐹 =
𝑆
108 W
𝑃𝐹 = = 0.90
120 VA
The calculated power factor is less than unity even if the voltage and current waveforms
are in phase. This is caused by the presence of harmonics in the current waveform, and
clearly demonstrates that the presence of harmonics lowers the power factor in a circuit.

Index of New Terms
a The bold page number indicates the main entry. Refer to the Glossary of
New Terms for definitions of new terms.
autotransformer.....................................................................1, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95
copper losses........................................................................................................44, 45, 56

current ratio..............................................................................................................5, 8, 90
efficiency............................................................................................1, 43, 45, 46, 55, 59

exciting current.............................................................................................................7, 44
harmonics..........................................................................................................................59
iron losses.............................................................................................................43, 44, 45
magnetizing current................................................................................44, 55, 57, 59, 74
polarity...............................................................................................1, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27

primary winding . 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 43, 44, 55, 57, 89, 90, 91
secondary winding....................1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 26, 43, 44, 45, 46, 55, 89, 90, 91
step-down transformer..............................................................................................5, 7, 89
step-up transformer.....................................................................................5, 7, 24, 26, 89
turns ratio.......................................................................3, 4, 5, 7, 44, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95
voltage ratio..........................................................................................5, 7, 24, 26, 90, 91

voltage regulation............................................................................................1, 43, 46, 47

Bibliography
Boylestad, Robert L., Introductory Circuit Analysis, 11th ed., Upper Saddle River: Prentice
Hall, 2006, ISBN 978-0131730441.
Wildi, Theodore, Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, 6th ed., Upper Saddle
River: Prentice Hall, 2005, ISBN 978-0131776913.

Single-Phase Power Transformers

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Single-Phase Power Transformers

Electricity and New Energy

675, rue du Carbone

Québec (Québec) G2N 2K7

Electricity and New Energy

Single-Phase Power Transformers

By the staff of Festo Didactic

© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2014

DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which, if

CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

Caution, risk of electric shock

Caution, hot surface

Caution, risk of danger. Consult the relevant user documentation.

Caution, lifting hazard

Caution, belt drive entanglement hazard

Caution, chain drive entanglement hazard

Caution, gear entanglement hazard

Caution, hand crushing hazard

Notice, non-ionizing radiation

Consult the relevant user documentation.

© Festo Didactic 579437 III

Both direct and alternating current

Three-phase alternating current

Earth (ground) terminal

Protective conductor terminal

Frame or chassis terminal

Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or reinforced

In position of a bi-stable push control

Out position of a bi-stable push control

IV © Festo Didactic 579437

Introduction Single-Phase Power Transformers............................................1

Exercise 1 Voltage and Current Ratios........................................................3

Exercise 2 Transformer Winding Polarity and Interconnection...............21

© Festo Didactic 579437 V

Exercise 3 Transformer Losses, Efficiency, and Regulation....................43

Exercise 4 Transformer Rating...................................................................55

Exercise 5 Effect of Frequency on Transformer Rating............................73

VI © Festo Didactic 579437

Exercise 6 The Autotransformer.................................................................89

Appendix A Equipment Utilization Chart....................................................109

Appendix B Glossary of New Terms...........................................................111

Appendix C Impedance Table for the Load Modules................................113

Appendix D Circuit Diagram Symbols........................................................115

Index of New Terms........................................................................................................125

© Festo Didactic 579437 VII

The Electric Power Technology Training Program.

© Festo Didactic 579437 IX

Please send these to

X © Festo Didactic 579437

Typical single-phase power transformer.

© Festo Didactic 579437 XI

XI © Festo Didactic 579437

Single-Phase Power Transformers

The Discussion of Fundamentals covers the following points:

Introduction to single-phase power transformers

© Festo Didactic 579437 X

Figure 1. Power transformers are often used in power distribution lines.1

2 © Festo Didactic 579437