Dr.Md.

Abdur Rahman (Bijoy)

 Thyroid
gland

Endocrine
gland

 The cells, tissues, and organs are called

endocrine glands-
• They are ductless
Hormone secretion
• They use the bloodstream
Endocrine
cell • They secrete hormones
• There are also similar glands called
paracrine and autocrine glands that are
quasi-endocrine.
Blood flow
(a) Skin

 Glands that secrete substances are

Duct the exocrine glands-
• They have ducts
• They deliver their products directly to
Exocrine gland
(sweat gland)

a specific site.
Exocrine
cells

(b)
 Nerve impulse

Neuron
Neurotransmitter Post-
transmits
released into synaptic
nerve
synapse cell responds
impulse

Target cells
(cells with hormone
Glandular receptors) respond
cells secrete to hormone
Bloodstream
hormone into
bloodstream
Hormones have no
effect on other cells
Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland Pineal gland

Chemically, hormones are either:
Parathyroid gland
• Lipid-soluble Hormones
Thyroid gland
 Steroid hormones
 Thyroid hormones
Thymus

 Nitric oxide (NO)

Kidney
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
• Water-soluble Hormones
 Amine hormones
 Peptide hormones and protein
Ovary
(in female)
hormones
Testis
 Eicosanoid hormones
(in male)
1. Hormonal mechanism: for example, the hypothalamus secretes
hormones that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete
hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete
hormones.
2. Humoral mechanism: for example, capillary blood contains a low
concentration of calcium that stimulates secretion of parathyroid
hormone. Parathyroid hormone makes serum calcium go up.
3. Neural mechanism: preganglionic SNS fiber stimulates the
adrenal medulla cells to secrete catecholamines.
– Hypothalamus – Nervous system – Changing level
of substance
in plasma
– Anterior pituitary gland

Peripheral Endocrine Endocrine

endocrine gland gland
gland

Target cells Target cells Target cells

Action Action Action

ORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE

ROWTH HORMONE-RELEASING HORMONE

ONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE

ROWTH HORMONE- INHIBITORY HORMONE

HYROTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE

ROLACTIN - INHIBITING HORMONE

ELANOCYTE - STIMULATING HORMONE

 Third ventricle

Hypothalamus
Anterior cerebral
artery Optic chiasma

Optic nerve Oculomotor

nerve
Pituitary stalk Trochlear nerve
(Infundibulum)
Anterior lobe Posterior lobe
of pituitary gland of pituitary
gland
Sella turcica
Sphenoidal
sinus
Sphenoid bone Basilar artery
 ROWTH / SOMATOTROPIC HORMONE

HYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE

ROLACTIN / LACTOGENIC HORMONE

DRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE

UTEINIZING HORMONE

OLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE

ELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE
• Growth hormone (GH): controls growth and protein,
carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism. Production of growth
hormone is controlled by two other hormones:
1. Somatostatin: inhibits growth hormone.
2. Somatotropin: stimulates secretion of growth hormone.
• The majority of growth hormone is secreted during sleep. Other
factors that increase secretion of growth hormone are exercise,
stress, hypoglycemia, starvation, and hypothyroidism.
1. Prolactin: stimulates breast growth and production of milk.
2. FSH: stimulates development of egg and sperm and secretion
of sex hormones.
3. LH: stimulates the production of progesterone and regulates
ovulation in women, and regulates testicular growth,
testosterone production, and androgen production in men.

To stimulate the release of these gonadotropic

hormones, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
must be present.
Important for cervical dilatation prior to birth, and helps the uterus to
contract during labor and delivery, especially during the second and
third stages. In breast-feeding (lactating) mothers, oxytocin causes
milk to be “let down” into area of breast where baby can suckle and
receive milk.

When ADH is secreted, WATER is retained in the vascular space.

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Larynx
Colloid

Thyroid
Follicular
gland
cell

Follicular cells

Colloid Isthmus
Extrafollicular
cell
(a)

(b)
Extrafollicular
cells
© Fred Hossler/Visuals Unlimited
When thinking about thyroid hormones think energy
and metabolism!
1. Increases the metabolism of protein, fat, and glucose.
2. Increases body temperature in response to an elevated
metabolism, which produces body heat.
3. Increases the use of oxygen as metabolism increases.
4. Aids in the development of the neural and skeletal systems in
fetuses.
5. Helps regulate secretion of growth hormone.
6. Aids in production of red blood cells.
7. Affects respiratory rate: too much thyroid hormone increases
respiratory rate, and too little decreases respiratory rate.
8. Aids in normal growth and development.
• Both T3 and T4 increase metabolic rate of cells and tissues.
• T4 is the precursor to T3.
• T3 regulates the metabolic rate of all cells and all processes of cell
growth and tissue differentiation.
• T3 and T4 indirectly increase blood glucose levels.
• Being cold increases the conversion of T4 to T3.
• Things such as stress, starvation, certain dyes, and certain drugs
like steroids, beta-blockers, PTU (propylthiouracil), and
amiodarone decrease the conversion of T4 to T3.
• Targets the bones, kidneys, and epithelial cells of the intestines.
• Decreases blood/serum calcium in three ways:
1. Decreases intestines’ ability to absorb calcium.
2. Decreases osteoclast activity in the bones.
3. Decreases calcium resorption from the kidney tubules.

Bone resorption occurs when osteoclasts break down

bone and release calcium from the bone into the
blood.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Secretory cells Pharynx

Thyroid
gland
Capillaries Parathyroid
glands

© R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited
Esophagus

Trachea

Posterior view
 Foods

Cholesterol
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) makes
the serum calcium level go up!
Intestinal enzymes

Provitamin D • Too much PTH

Ultraviolet light in skin
hyperparathyroidism
Vitamin D hypercalcemia,
hypophosphatemia, bone damage,
(Cholecalciferol)

Also obtained directly

from foods
and renal damage.
Liver

Hydroxycholecalciferol • Too little PTH hypoparathyroidism,

Kidney Stimulated by PTH
hypocalcemia,
Dihydroxycholecalciferol hyperphosphatemia, hyperreflexia,
(active form of vitamin D)

Controls absorption of and cognitive changes (altered

Ca+2
calcium in intestine
sensorium).
Ca+2
Ca+2
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Parathyroid glands (on

posterior of thyroid gland)
Release into
bloodstream
Decreased blood calcium Increased blood
Stimulation stimulates parathyroid – calcium inhibits
hormone secretion PTH secretion
Inhibition

PTH

Bloodstream

PTH PTH
Ca+2 Ca+2 Ca+2
+ +

Bone Kidneys Intestine

releases Ca+2 conserve Ca+2 and absorbs Ca+2
activate Vitamin D

Active
Vitamin D
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Capsule Surface of
adrenal gland
Zona Connective
glomerulosa Adrenal gland tissue capsule
Zona
Kidney
lomerulosa
Zona
fasciculata
Cortex

Zona
Adrenal fasciculata
Adrenal cortex cortex

Adrenal
medulla
Zona
reticularis
Zona
reticularis (a)
Adrenal
Medulla

medulla
(b)
Chromaffin
cells
© Ed Reschke
Many heart attacks occur during the early morning hours when
people are coming out of REM sleep, as this is a very stressful
time for the body.
1. Stimulate gluconeogenesis (the formation of carbohydrates from
proteins and other substances by the liver).
2. Provide amino acids and glucose during times of stress.
3. Suppress the immune system due to powerful immunosuppressive
and anti-inflammatory properties.
4. Stimulate fat breakdown.
An increase in aldosterone secretion is also caused by:
• Low fluid volume levels in the vascular space as in shock or
hypovolemia.
• High blood levels of potassium.
The illnesses associated with aldosterone are:
• Hyperaldosteronism (Conn’s syndrome)
• Hypoaldosteronism
Sex hormones are usually broken down into three categories:
1. Androgens, testosterone being the main one.
2. Estrogens, estradiol being the main one.
3. Progestagens, progesterone being the main one.

Synthetic androgens (sex hormones) are referred to

as anabolic steroids.
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Pancreatic islet (Islet of Langerhans) Gallbladder Common bile duct

Pancreatic duct

Duct Pancreas

Small
intestine

Digestive enzyme-
secreting cells
Pancreatic islet
(Islet of Langerhans)
Capillary
Hormone-secreting
islet cells
From Kent M. Van De Graaff and Stuart Ira Fox, Concepts of Human Anatomy and
Physiology, 2nd ed. ©1989 W m. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. All Rights
Reserved. Reprinted with permission
Pineal Gland
• Secretes melatonin
• Regulates circadian rhythms
Thymus Gland
• Secretes thymosins
• Promotes development of certain lymphocytes
• Important in role of immunity
Reproductive Organs
• Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone
• Testes produce testosterone
• Placenta produces estrogens, progesterone, and
gonadotropin
Other organs: digestive glands, heart, and kidney
 Stress results from changes
Hormonal signals
in the external environment
Neural signals
Signals from
sensory receptors

Sympathetic impulses

Hypothalamus
CRH released

Adrenal medulla Anterior pituitary

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine ACTH released
norepinephrine released
released
Adrenal cortex
Short-term “fight or flight” or alarm stage.
Cortisol released
• Blood glucose increases.
• Blood glycerol and fatty acids increase. Long-term adjustment or resistance stage
• Heart rate increases.
• Blood pressure rises. • Increase in blood concentration of amino acids.
• Breathing rate increases. • Increased release of fatty acids.
• Air passages dilate. • Increased glucose formed from
• Pupils dilate. noncarbohydrates—amino acids (from
• Blood flow redistributes. proteins) and glycerol (from fats).
 test Normalvalues significance
Thyroid-stimulating 0.5–5.0 U/mL ↑ in primary hypothyroidism
hormone ↓in primary hyperthyroidism

Triiodothyronine (T3) 80–200 ng/100 mL ↓ in hypothyroidism

↑ in hyperthyroidism

Thyroxine (T4 ) 4–12 g/100 mL ↓ in hypothyroidism

↑ in hyperthyroidism
 test Normalvalues significance
Parathyroid 25 pg/mL ↑ in primary hyperparathyroidism
hormone ↓ in primary hypoparathyroidism,
parathyroid trauma during thyroid
surgery

Calcium 8.5–10.5 mg/100 mL ↑ in some cancers,

hyperparathyroidism
↓ in hypothyroidism

Phosphorus 2.4–4.7 mg/dL ↑ in hypoparathyroidism

↓ in hyperparathyroidism
 test Normal values significance
Growth hormone 5 ng/mL ↑ in acromegaly
↓ in small stature

Antidiuretic 2.3–3.1 pg/mL ↑ in SIADH

hormone ↓ in diabetes insipidus

Urine specific 1.010–1.025 ↓ in diabetes insipidus

gravity

Adrenocorticotropic 120 pg/mL at 6–8 a.m. ↑ in Addison’s disease

hormone ↓ in Cushing’s syndrome, long-
term corticosteroid therapy
 test Normal values significance
Cortisol 5–25 g/100 mL ↑ in Cushing’s syndrome, stress
↓ in Addison’s disease, steroid
withdrawal
Vanillylmandelic 0.7–6.8 mg/24 h ↑ in pheochromocytoma
acid (VMA)
 test Normal values significance
Fasting plasma 70–100 mg/dL in stress, Cushing’s syndrome
glucose (FPG) FPG 101–125 pre-diabetes
FPG 126 diabetes mellitus
↓ in hypoglycemia, Addison’s
disease

Oral glucose Blood glucose less BG 140–199 at 2 hours pre-

tolerance test than 140 mg/dL at 2 diabetes; BG 200 at 2 hours
hours diabetes mellitus

Glycosylated 4%–7% ↑ in poor diabetes control

hemoglobin
• A thyroid scan may be done to determine the presence of
tumors or nodules.
• A computed tomographic (CT) scan or magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) may be done to locate a tumor or identify
hypertrophy of a gland.
• Ultrasound may be done of the thyroid or parathyroid glands to
determine if they are enlarged or to find masses.
• Biopsy is done to obtain tissue to examine for possible
cancerous cells.