Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL BICOL STATE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

Calabanga | Pasacao | Pili | Sipocot

ZOOLOGY
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Introduction
• Two systems—the nervous and
endocrine—communicate with neurotransmitters
and hormones
• This chapter is about the endocrine system
– Chemical identity
– How they are made and transported
– How they produce effects on their target cells
• The endocrine system is involved in adaptation to
stress
• There are many pathologies that result from
endocrine dysfunctions
Overview of the Endocrine System
• The body has four principal mechanisms of
communication between cells
– Gap junctions
• Pores in cell membrane allow signaling molecules, nutrients,
and electrolytes to move from cell to cell
– Neurotransmitters
• Released from neurons to travel across synaptic cleft to
second cell
– Paracrine (local) hormones
• Secreted into tissue fluids to affect nearby cells
– Hormones
• Chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstream to other
tissues and organs
Overview of the Endocrine System
• Endocrine system—glands,
tissues, and cells that secrete
hormones
• Endocrinology—the study of this
system and the diagnosis and
treatment of its disorders
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Endocrine glands—organs that Endocrine

cells
Target cells

are traditional sources of

hormones
• Hormones—chemical Hormone in
bloodstream
messengers that are transported (b) Endocrine system

by the bloodstream and stimulate

physiological responses in cells of Figure 17.2b
another tissue or organ, often a
considerable distance away
 Communication by the Nervous
and Endocrine Systems
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Neurotransmitter

Nerve impulse

Neuron

Target cells

(a) Nervous system

Endocrine Target cells

cells

Hormone in
bloodstream
(b) Endocrine system

Figure 17.2a,b
Major Organs of the Endocrine System
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Pineal gland

Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
Thymus

Adrenal gland
Pancreas

Parathyroid
glands

Trachea
Posterior
view

Gonads:
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)

Figure 17.1
 Comparison of Endocrine and
Exocrine Glands
• Exocrine glands
– Have ducts carry secretion to an epithelial surface or the mucosa of
the digestive tract: “external secretions”
– Extracellular effects (food digestion)

• Endocrine glands
– No ducts
– Contain dense, fenestrated capillary networks which allow easy
uptake of hormones into bloodstream
– “Internal secretions”
– Intracellular effects such as altering target cell metabolism

• Liver cells defy rigid classification—releases hormones,

releases bile into ducts, releases albumin and blood-
clotting factors into blood (not hormones)
 Comparison of the Nervous and
Endocrine Systems
• Both serve for internal communication
– Nervous: both electrical and chemical
– Endocrine: only chemical
• Speed and persistence of response
– Nervous: reacts quickly (1 to 10 ms), stops quickly
– Endocrine: reacts slowly (hormones release in
seconds or days), effect may continue for weeks
• Adaptation to long-term stimuli
– Nervous: response declines (adapts quickly)
– Endocrine: response persists (adapts slowly)
• Area of effect
– Nervous: targeted and specific (one organ)
– Endocrine: general, widespread effects (many organs)
 Comparison of the Nervous and
Endocrine Systems
• Several chemicals function as both hormones and
neurotransmitters
– Norepinephrine, cholecystokinin, thyrotropin-releasing
hormone, dopamine, and antidiuretic hormone

• Some hormones secreted by neuroendocrine cells

(neurons) that release their secretion into the bloodstream
– Oxytocin and catecholamines

• Both systems with overlapping effects on same target

cells
– Norepinephrine and glucagon cause glycogen
hydrolysis in liver
 Comparison of the Nervous and
Endocrine Systems

• Systems regulate each other

– Neurons trigger hormone secretion
– Hormones stimulate or inhibit neurons

• Target organs or cells—those organs or cells

that have receptors for a hormone and can
respond to it
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Anatomy
• The hypothalamus is shaped like a flattened
funnel
• Forms floor and walls of third ventricle of the
brain
• Regulates primitive functions of the body from
water balance and thermoregulation to sex
drive and childbirth
• Many of its functions carried out by pituitary
gland
 Anatomy
• The pituitary gland (hypophysis) is suspended
from
hypothalamus by a stalk—infundibulum

• Location and size

– Housed in sella turcica of sphenoid bone
– Size and shape of kidney bean
• Composed of two structures with independent
origins and separate functions
– Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)
• Arises from hypophyseal pouch (outgrowth of pharynx)
– Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)
• Downgrowth from brain
 Embryonic Development
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Telencephalon of brain

Future hypothalamus

Neurohypophyseal bud

Hypophyseal pouch

Pharynx

Tongue

Future thyroid
gland

Mouth

(a) 4 weeks
Figure 17.3a–c
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

Optic chiasm
Neurohypophyseal Pituitary stalk
bud
Posterior lobe
Hypophyseal pouch Anterior lobe

Sphenoid bone

Pharynx Pharynx

(b) 8 weeks (c) 16 weeks

 Anatomy
• Adenohypophysis constitutes anterior three-quarters
of pituitary
– Has two segments
• Anterior lobe (pars distalis)
• Pars tuberalis—small mass of cells adhering to stalk
– Linked to hypothalamus by hypophyseal portal
system
• Primary capillaries in hypothalamus connected to
secondary capillaries in adenohypophysis by portal
venules
• Hypothalamic hormones regulate adenohypophysis cells
 Anatomy
• Neurohypophysis constitutes the posterior one-
quarter of the pituitary
– Three parts
• Median eminence, infundibulum, and the posterior
lobe (pars nervosa)
– Nerve tissue, not a true gland
• Nerve cell bodies in hypothalamus pass down the
stalk as hypothalamic–hypophyseal tract and
end in posterior lobe
• Hypothalamic neurons secrete hormones that are
stored in neurohypophysis until released into blood
 Anatomy
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for
reproduction or display.

Axons to Neuron
primary cell body
capillaries

Superior hypophyseal
artery

Hypophyseal
Hypothalamic hormones portal system:
Gonadotropin-releasing
Primary capillaries
hormone Thyrotropin-releasing
hormone Corticotropin-releasing
hormone Prolactin-inhibiting Portal venules
hormone
Growth hormone–releasing hormone Secondary
Somatostatin capillaries

Anterior lobe hormones

Anterior lobe
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone Posterior lobe

Figure 17.4b (thyrotropin) Adrenocorticotropic

hormone
Prolactin
(b) Growth hormone

• Hypothalamic-releasing and -inhibiting hormones travel in

hypophyseal portal system from hypothalamus to anterior
pituitary
• Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary
Histology of Pituitary Gland
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Chromophobe
Basophil

Acidophil

(a) Anterior pituitary

Unmyelinated
nerve fibers

Glial cells
(pituicytes)

(b) Posterior pituitary Figure 17.5a,b

a: © Dr. John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; b: © Science VU/Visuals Unlimited
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones

• Anterior lobe of the pituitary synthesizes and secretes six

principal hormones

• Two gonadotropin hormones that target gonads

– Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates secretion of ovarian sex hormones,
development of ovarian follicles, and sperm production

– Luteinizing hormone (LH)

• Stimulates ovulation, stimulates corpus luteum to secrete
progesterone, stimulates testes to secrete testosterone
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone

• Released from tyrothrophs.

• Rising blood levels of thyroid hormones act on both the
pituitary and the hypothalamus to inhibit TSH secretion. The
hypothalamus, in response, releases GHIH, which reinforces
the blockade of TSH release.
• Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
– Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids.
• Secreted by corticothrops.
• Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones,
most importantly glucocorticoids that help the body to resist
stressors.
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Prolactin (PRL)
– After birth, stimulates mammary glands to synthesize milk;
enhances secretion of testosterone by testes.

• Produced by the lactotrophs.

• A brief rise in prolactin levels just before the menstrual period partially
accounts for breast swelling and tenderness some women experience
at that time, but because this PRL stimulation is so brief, the breasts
do not produce milk.
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Growth hormone (GH)
– Stimulates mitosis and cellular differentiation
• produced by the cells in the anterior lobe called somatothrops.
Main target are the bones and skeletal muscles. Stimulates
growth.
• Hypersecretion results to gigantism in children as the still active
epiphyseal plates are targeted by GH.
• Hyposecretion results to dwarfism resulting in slow bone growth.
Such individuals attain a maximum height of 1.2 meters (4 ft) but
usually have fairly normal body proportions.
 Pituitary Disorders
• Hypersecretion of growth hormone (GH)
– Acromegaly: thickening of bones and soft tissues in adults
• Especially hands, feet, and face
– Problems in childhood or adolescence
• Gigantism if hypersecretion
• Pituitary dwarfism if hyposecretion—rare since growth hormone is
now made by genetically engineered bacteria
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display.

Age 9 Age 16 Age 33 Age 52

Figure 17.26 From Clinical Pathological Conference Acromegaly, Diabetes, Hypermetabolism, Protein Use and Heart Failure in American
Journal of Medicine, 20:133, 1986. Copyright © 1986 by Excerpta Media, Inc.
Hypothalamo–Pituitary–Target
Organ Relationships
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Hypothalamus

TRH
GnRH
CRH
GHRH
Figure 17.6

Liver
PRL GH

IGF
Mammary Fat,
gland muscle,
bone

TSH ACTH

Thyroid Adrenal cortex

LH
FSH

Figure 17.6
Testis Ovary

• Principle hormones and target organs

 The Pars Intermedia

• Present in fetus; absent in adult

• Produces melanocyte-stimulating hormone in

animals influencing pigmentation of skin, hair, or
feathers
– Not apparently present nor functioning in humans
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Anterior Posterior

Third ventricle of brain

Floor of
hypothalamus Pineal gland

Nuclei of hypothalamus:
Paraventricular nucleus
Supraoptic nucleus Cerebral aqueduct

Mammillary body

Optic chiasm

Neurohypophysis: Median
Adenohypophysis: eminence
Pars tuberalis
Hypothalamo–hypophyseal tract
Anterior lobe
Stalk (infundibulum)
Posterior lobe

Oxytocin

(a) Antidiuretic hormone

Figure 17.4a
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones

• Produced in hypothalamus
– Transported by hypothalamic–hypophyseal tract to
posterior lobe
– Releases hormones when hypothalamic neurons are
stimulated

• ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

– Increases water retention, thus reducing urine volume,
and prevents dehydration
– Also called vasopressin because it can cause
vasoconstriction
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones

• Oxytocin (OT)
– Surge of hormone released during sexual arousal and
orgasm
• Stimulate uterine contractions and propulsion of semen
– Promotes feelings of sexual satisfaction and emotional
bonding between partners
– Stimulates labor contractions during childbirth
– Stimulates flow of milk during lactation
– Promotes emotional bonding between lactating mother
and infant
 Control of Pituitary Secretion
• Rates of secretion are not constant
– Regulated by hypothalamus, other brain
centers, and feedback from target organs

• Hypothalamic and cerebral control:

– Anterior lobe control: releasing hormones and
inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus
• In cold weather, pituitary stimulated by hypothalamus to
release TSH, leads to generation of body heat
 Control of Pituitary Secretion
Cont.
• Neuroendocrine reflex—hormone release in
response to nervous system signals
• Suckling infant stimulates nerve endings 
hypothalamus  posterior lobe  oxytocin  milk
ejection
• Hormone release in response to higher brain centers
• Milk ejection reflex can be triggered by a baby's cry
• Emotional stress can affect secretion of gonadotropins,
disrupting ovulation, menstruation, and fertility
 Control of Pituitary Secretion
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Negative feedback—
1
increased target organ
hormone levels inhibit

TRH 6
Negative feedback
inhibition

release of hormones
+
 4
5
Target organs

2
+
• Positive feedback—
stretching of uterus
TSH

+
Thyroid hormone
increases OT release,
3
causes contractions,
causing more stretching of
+
Stimulatory effect
uterus, etc. until delivery
Inhibitory effect
–
Figure 17.7
Feedback Mechanisms
• Negative Feedback mechanisms:
• Act like a thermostat in a home
• As the temperature cools, the thermostat detects the change and
triggers the furnace to turn on and warm the house
• Once the temperature reaches its thermostat setting, the furnace
turns off
• Example: Body sugar increases after a meal, so the pancreas secretes insulin,
which tells the body’s cells to take in glucose. Once blood sugar levels reach
normal, the pancreas stops making insulin.
• Often used to maintain homeostasis
Negative Feedback
• Homeostasis is often maintained by two hormones who have
antagonistic effects
• Each hormone does the opposite of the other.
• For example, if the blood pressure drops too low, the pituitary releases ADH,
which causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water.
• If it the blood pressure increases too much, then the heart will release ANH,
which will cause the kidneys to reabsorb less water.
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
• Positive Feedback mechanisms control events that can be
out of control and do not require continuous adjustment
• Rarely used to maintain homeostasis
• Example of positive feedback found in childbirth
• Oxytocin stimulates and enhances labor contractions
• As labor continues, more oxytocin is produced
• Intensifies contractions until the baby is outside birth canal
• Oxytocin production stops and labor contractions stop
 A Further Look at Growth Hormone
• GH has widespread effects on the body tissues
– Especially cartilage, bone, muscle, and fat

• Induces liver to produce growth stimulants

– Insulin-like growth factors (IGF-I) or somatomedins
(IGF-II)
• Stimulate target cells in diverse tissues
• IGF-I prolongs the action of GH
• Hormone half-life—the time required for 50% of the
hormone to be cleared from the blood
– GH half-life: 6 to 20 minutes
– IGF-I half-life: about 20 hours
 A Further Look at Growth Hormone
• Induces liver to produce growth stimulants (cont.)
– Protein synthesis increases: boosts transcription of
DNA, production of mRNA, amino acid uptake into cells,
suppresses protein catabolism

– Lipid metabolism increased: fat catabolized by

adipocytes (protein-sparing effect), which provides
energy for growing tissues
 A Further Look at Growth Hormone
Cont.
– Carbohydrate metabolism: glucose-sparing effect,
mobilizes fatty acids, reduces the dependence of most
cells on glucose. Will not compete with the brain and
makes these electrolytes available to the growing
tissues.

– Electrolyte balance: promotes Na+, K+, and Cl−

retention by kidneys, enhances Ca2+ absorption in
intestine
 A Further Look at Growth Hormone
• Bone growth, thickening, and remodeling influenced,
especially during childhood and adolescence
• Secretion high during first 2 hours of sleep
• Can peak in response to vigorous exercise
• GH levels decline gradually with age
• Average 6 ng/mL during adolescence, 1.5 ng/mg in old
age
– Lack of protein synthesis contributes to aging of tissues and
wrinkling of the skin
– Age 30, average adult body is 10% bone, 30% muscle, 20% fat
– Age 75, average adult body is 8% bone, 15% muscle, 40% fat
 Other Endocrine Glands
The Pineal Gland
• Pineal gland—attached to roof of third ventricle
beneath the posterior end of corpus callosum

• After age 7, it undergoes involution (shrinkage)

– Down 75% by end of puberty
– Tiny mass of shrunken tissue in adults

• May synchronize physiological function with 24-hour

circadian rhythms of daylight and darkness
– Synthesizes melatonin from serotonin during the night
• Fluctuates seasonally with changes in day length
 The Pineal Gland

• May regulate timing of puberty in humans

• Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) occurs in winter

or northern climates
– Symptoms: depression, sleepiness, irritability, and
carbohydrate craving
– Two to 3 hours of exposure to bright light each day
reduces the melatonin levels and the symptoms
(phototherapy)
 The Thymus
• Thymus plays a role in three systems: endocrine, lymphatic, immune
• Bilobed gland in the mediastinum superior to the heart
– Goes through involution after puberty
• Site of maturation of T cells important in immune defense
• Secretes hormones (thymopoietin, thymosin, and thymulin) that
stimulate development of other lymphatic organs and activity of
T lymphocytes

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or

display.

Thyroid

Trachea

Thymus
Lung

Heart

Diaphragm

Liver
(a) Newborn

Figure 17.8a,b (b) Adult

 The Thyroid Gland

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or

display.

• Largest endocrine gland

Superior thyroid
artery and vein
Thyroid
cartilage – Composed of two lobes and
an isthmus below the larynx
– Dark reddish brown color due
Thyroid
gland to rich blood supply
Isthmus
• Thyroid follicles—sacs that
compose most of thyroid
Inferior thyroid vein Trachea
– Contain protein-rich colloid
– Follicular cells: simple
(a)
cuboidal epithelium that lines
follicles
Figure 17.9a
 The Thyroid Gland
• Secretes thyroxine (T4
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
because of four iodine atoms)
and triiodothyronine (T3)—T4
display.

Superior thyroid Thyroid which is converted to T3

artery and vein cartilage
– Increases metabolic rate, O2
consumption, heat production
Thyroid
gland
(calorigenic effect), appetite,
growth hormone secretion,
Isthmus alertness, quicker reflexes
• Parafollicular (C or clear)
cells secrete calcitonin with
Inferior thyroid vein Trachea

rising blood calcium

(a)
– Stimulates osteoblast activity
and bone formation
Figure 17.9a
 The Thyroid Gland
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display.

Follicular
cells
Colloid of
thyroglobulin

C (parafollicular)
cells

Follicle

(b)
© Robert Calentine/Visuals Unlimited
Figure 17.9b

Thyroid follicles are filled with colloid and lined with

simple cuboidal epithelial cells (follicular cells).
 Thyroid Disorders
• Congenital hypothyroidism (decreased TH)
– Hyposecretion present a birth (formerly cretinism)
– Treat with oral thyroid hormone

• Myxedema (decreased TH)

– Adult hypothyroidism
– Treat with oral thyroid hormone

• Goiter—any pathological enlargement of the thyroid gland

– Endemic goiter
• Dietary iodine deficiency, no TH, no feedback, increased TSH
stimulates hypertrophy
– Toxic goiter (Graves disease)
• Autoantibodies mimic the effect of TSH on thyroid, causing
hypersecretion
• Overgrown thyroid produces functional TH
 Endemic Goiter
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Figure 17.27
© CNR/Phototake
Congenital goiter in sheep
 The Parathyroid Glands Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display.

• Usually four glands partially Pharynx

(posterior view)

embedded in posterior surface

of thyroid gland Thyroid gland

– Can be found from as high as

Parathyroid
hyoid bone to as low as aortic glands

arch
Esophagus

• Secrete parathyroid hormone Trachea

(PTH) (a)

– Increases blood Ca2+ levels

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display.

• Promotes synthesis of calcitriol Adipose tissue

Parathyroid
• Increases absorption of Ca2+ capsule
Parathyroid gland
• Decreases urinary excretion cells
Adipocytes
• Increases bone resorption
Figure 17.10a,b (b)
© John Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited
 Parathyroid Disorders
• Hypoparathyroidism
– Surgical excision during thyroid surgery
– Fatal tetany in 3 to 4 days due to rapid decline in
blood calcium level

• Hyperparathyroidism: excess PTH secretion

– Parathyroid tumor
– Bones become soft, fragile, and deformed
– Ca2+ and phosphate blood levels increase
– Promotes renal calculi formation
 The Adrenal Glands
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Adrenal gland
Suprarenal vein
Kidney
Connective
Adrenal cortex tissue capsule
Zona
Adrenal medulla glomerulosa

Adrenal cortex Zona

fasciculata

(a)
Zona

Figure 17.11 reticularis

Adrenal medulla

(b)

• Small gland that sits on top of each kidney

• They are retroperitoneal like the kidney
• Adrenal cortex and medulla formed by merger of two
fetal glands with different origins and functions
 The Adrenal Medulla
• Adrenal medulla—inner core, 10% to 20% of gland

• Has dual nature acting as an endocrine gland and

sympathetic ganglion of sympathetic nervous
system
– Innervated by sympathetic preganglionic fibers
– Consists of modified sympathetic postganglionic
neurons called chromaffin cells
– When stimulated release catecholamines
(epinephrine and norepinephrine) and a trace of
dopamine directly into the bloodstream
 The Adrenal Medulla
• Effect is longer lasting than neurotransmitters
– Increases alertness and prepares body for physical
activity
• Mobilizes high-energy fuels, lactate, fatty acids, and
glucose
• Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis boost glucose
levels
• Glucose-sparing effect because inhibits insulin
secretion
– Muscles use fatty acids, saving glucose for brain
– Increases blood pressure, heart rate, blood flow to
muscles, pulmonary airflow, and metabolic rate
– Decreases digestion and urine production
 The Adrenal Cortex

• Surrounds adrenal medulla and produces

more than 25 steroid hormones called
corticosteroids or corticoids
 The Adrenal Cortex
• Secretes five major steroid hormones from three
layers of glandular tissue
– Zona glomerulosa (thin, outer layer)
• Cells are arranged in rounded clusters
• Secretes mineralocorticoid—regulate the body’s
electrolyte balance
– Zona fasciculata (thick, middle layer)
• Cells arranged in fascicles separated by capillaries
• Secretes glucocorticoids
– Zona reticularis (narrow, inner layer)
• Cells in branching network
• Secretes sex steroids
 The Adrenal Cortex

• Mineralocorticoids—zona glomerulosa
– Regulates electrolyte balance
– Aldosterone stimulates Na+ retention and K+ excretion,
water is retained with sodium by osmosis, so blood
volume and blood pressure are maintained
 The Adrenal Cortex

• Glucocorticoids—zona fasciculata
– Regulate metabolism of glucose and other fuels
– Especially cortisol, stimulates fat and protein
catabolism, gluconeogenesis (glucose from amino
acids and fatty acids) and release of fatty acids and
glucose into blood
– Helps body adapt to stress and repair tissues
– Anti-inflammatory effect becomes immune
suppression with long-term use
 The Adrenal Cortex

• Sex steroids—zona reticularis

– Androgens: sets libido throughout life; large role in
prenatal male development (includes DHEA which
other tissues convert to testosterone)
– Estradiol: small quantity, but important after
menopause for sustaining adult bone mass; fat
converts androgens into estrogen
 The Pancreatic Islets
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Tail of pancreas

Bile duct

(c) Pancreatic islet

Exocrine acinus

Pancreatic Duodenum Head of

(a)
ducts pancreas Beta cell
Alpha cell Figure 17.12a–c
Delta cell
(b) Pancreatic islet
c: © Ed Reschke

• Exocrine digestive gland and endocrine cell clusters (pancreatic

islets) found retroperitoneal, inferior and posterior to stomach
 The Gonads
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display. display.

Blood vessels

Granulosa cells
(source of Seminiferous
estrogen) tubule

Germ cells

Egg nucleus Connective tissue

wall of tubule
Egg
Sustentacular
cells

Interstitial cells
Theca (source of
testosterone)

50 µm
Testis
100 µm

Ovary Figure 17.13b

(a) Figure 17.13a
(b)
© Manfred Kage/Peter Arnold, Inc. © Ed Reschke

• Follicle—egg surrounded by granulosa cells and a capsule (theca)

 The Gonads
• Ovary
– Theca cells synthesize androstenedione
– Converted to mainly estradiol by theca and granulosa cells

• After ovulation, the remains of the follicle becomes the

corpus luteum
– Secretes progesterone for 12 days following ovulation
– Follicle and corpus luteum secrete inhibin

• Functions of estradiol and progesterone

– Development of female reproductive system and physique including
adolescent bone growth
– Regulate menstrual cycle, sustain pregnancy
– Prepare mammary glands for lactation

• Inhibin suppresses FSH secretion from anterior pituitary

 The Gonads
• Testes
– Microscopic seminiferous tubules produce sperm
– Tubule walls contain sustentacular (Sertoli) cells
– Leydig cells (interstitial cells) lie in clusters between
tubules

• Testicular hormones
– Testosterone and other steroids from interstitial cells
(cells of Leydig) nestled between the tubules
• Stimulates development of male reproductive system in fetus
and adolescent, and sex drive
• Sustains sperm production

– Inhibin from sustentacular (Sertoli) cells

• Limits FSH secretion in order to regulate sperm production
 Hormone Receptors and
Mode of Action

• Hormones stimulate only those cells that have

receptors for them

• Receptors are protein or glycoprotein molecules

– On plasma membrane, in the cytoplasm, or in the
nucleus

• Receptors act like switches turning on metabolic

pathways when hormone binds to them
 Hormone Receptors and
Mode of Action

• Usually each target cell has a few thousand

receptors for a given hormone

• Receptor–hormone interactions exhibit specificity

and saturation
– Specific receptor for each hormone
– Saturated when all receptor molecules are occupied
by hormone molecules
 Hormone Receptors and
Mode of Action
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. • Hydrophobic hormones
– Penetrate plasma
Hydrophilic Receptor in Target membrane and enter
hormone plasma
membrane
cell
nucleus
Transport – Act directly on the genes
protein
changing target cell
Second- physiology
Free messenger
hormones activation – Estrogen, progesterone,
thyroid hormone act on
nuclear receptors
– Take several hours to days
Bound
to show effect due to lag for
hormone protein synthesis
Hydrophobic
hormone • Hydrophilic hormones
Receptor in
Tissue fluid nucleus – Cannot penetrate into target
Blood
cell
– Must stimulate physiology
Figure 17.19 indirectly
 Enzyme Amplification
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Hormones are
Small stimulus extraordinarily potent
chemicals
Hormone • One hormone
molecule can trigger
the synthesis of many

Reaction cascade (time)

cAMP and
protein
kinase
enzyme molecules
Activated enzymes
• Very small stimulus
can produce very
Metabolic product large effect
• Circulating
Great effect concentrations very
Figure 17.23
low
 Modulation of Target-Cell Sensitivity
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display.
• Target-cell sensitivity adjusted
Hormone
Receptor
by changing the number of
receptors

Response
• Up-regulation means number
of receptors is increased
Low receptor density Increased receptor density Stronger response
– Sensitivity is increased
Weak response Increased sensitivity
(a ) Up-regulation
• Down-regulation reduces
number of receptors
– Cell less sensitive to hormone
Response
– Happens with long-term
exposure to high hormone
concentrations
High receptor density Reduced receptor density Diminished response • Bind to other receptors
Strong response Reduced sensitivity
(b ) Down- • Converted to different
regulation
hormone
Figure 17.24
 Hormone Interactions
• Most cells sensitive to more than one hormone and
exhibit interactive effects
• Synergistic effects
– Multiple hormones act together for greater effect
• Synergism between FSH and testosterone on sperm production
• Permissive effects
– One hormone enhances the target organ’s response to a
second later hormone
• Estrogen prepares uterus for action of progesterone
• Antagonistic effects
– One hormone opposes the action of another
• Insulin lowers blood glucose and glycogen raises it
 Hormone Clearance
• Hormone signals must be turned off when they have
served their purpose

• Most hormones are taken up and degraded by liver

and kidney
– Excreted in bile or urine

• Metabolic clearance rate (MCR)

– Rate of hormone removal from the blood
– Half-life: time required to clear 50% of hormone from
the blood
– The faster the MCR, the shorter the half-life
 Stress and Adaptation
• Stress—caused by any situation that upsets
homeostasis and threatens one’s physical or
emotional well-being
– Injury, surgery, infection, intense exercise, pain, grief,
depression, anger, etc.

• General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

– Consistent way the body reacts to stress; typically
involves elevated levels of epinephrine and
glucocorticoids (especially cortisol)
– Occurs in three stages
• Alarm reaction
• Stage of resistance
• Stage of exhaustion
 The Alarm Reaction

• Initial response
– Mediated by norepinephrine from the sympathetic
nervous system and epinephrine from the adrenal
medulla
– Prepares body to fight or flight
– Stored glycogen is consumed
– Increases aldosterone and angiotensin levels
• Angiotensin helps raise blood pressure
• Aldosterone promotes sodium and water conservation
 The Stage of Resistance
• After a few hours, glycogen reserves gone, but
brain still needs glucose
• Provide alternate fuels for metabolism
• Stage dominated by cortisol
• Hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing
hormone
• Pituitary secretes an increase in ACTH
– Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol and
other glucocorticoids
– Promotes the breakdown of fat and protein into glycerol,
fatty acids, and amino acids, for gluconeogenesis
 The Stage of Resistance
• Cortisol has glucose-sparing effect—inhibits
protein synthesis leaving free amino acids for
gluconeogenesis
– Adverse effects of excessive cortisol
– Depresses immune function
– Increases susceptibility to infection and ulcers
– Lymphoid tissues atrophy, antibody levels drop, and
wounds heal poorly
 The Stage of Exhaustion
• When stress continues for several months, and fat
reserves are gone, homeostasis is overwhelmed
– Marked by rapid decline and death
• Protein breakdown and muscle wasting
• Loss of glucose homeostasis because adrenal cortex
stops producing glucocorticoids
• Aldosterone promotes water retention and
hypertension
– Conserves sodium and hastens elimination of K+ and H+
– Hypokalemia and alkalosis leads to death
• Death results from heart and kidney infection or
overwhelming infection
 Diabetes Mellitus
• Most prevalent metabolic disease in the world
– Disruption of metabolism due to hyposecretion or
inaction of insulin
– Symptoms
• Polyuria (excess urine output), polydipsia (intense
thirst), and polyphagia (hunger)
• Revealed by elevated blood glucose, glucose in
urine, and ketones in the urine

• Transport maximum—limit to how fast the glucose

transporters can work to reabsorb
– Excess glucose enters urine and water follows it
• Causes polyuria, dehydration, and thirst
 Types and Treatment
• Type 1 (IDDM*)—5% to 10% of cases in United States
– Insulin is always used to treat type 1
• Insulin injections, insulin pump, or dry insulin inhaler
• Monitoring blood glucose levels and controlled diet
– Hereditary susceptibility if infected with certain viruses
(rubella, cytomegalovirus)
– Autoantibodies attack and destroy pancreatic beta cells

*Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus

 Types and Treatment
• Type 2 (NIDDM)—90% to 95% of diabetics
– Problem is insulin resistance
• Failure of target cells to respond to insulin
– Risk factors are heredity, age (40+), obesity, and
ethnicity (Native American, Hispanic, and Asian)
– Treated with weight-loss program and exercise since:
• Loss of muscle mass causes difficulty with regulation of
glycemia
• Adipose signals interfere with glucose uptake into most
cells
– Oral medications improve insulin secretion or target cell
sensitivity
Summary
Source: McGraw-Hill