KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

DEHRADUN REGION

MASTER CARDS

PHYSICS
CLASS – XII
SESSION 2022-23

KVS RO DEHRADUN
 MASTER CARDS
INSPIRATION
Ms. MEENAXI JAIN
(Deputy Commissioner, KVS RO DEHRADUN)

Dr. SUKRITI RAIWANI

Asstt. Commissioner, KVSRO DEHRADUN)

MENTOR
Shri C.S. BISHT
Principal, KV NO.1 BEG & C ROORKEE
RESOURCE PERSONS:-
1) Sh. Bhuwan Chandra Purohit PGT Physics K.V. Banbasa Cantt
2) Sh.Vikas Prabhakar PGT Physics K.V. No.1 Hathibarkala Dehradun

KVS RO DEHRADUN
 MATERIAL PREPARATION COMMITTEE

Name of the
Name of the PGT (PHYSICS) CHAPTER
Vidyalaya
S.No
1 Kausani Mr Bhawani Shankar Kandpal Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields

Chapter–2: Electrostatic Potential and

2 Lansdowne Ms. UZMA AKHTAR
Capacitance

3 Mirthi, ITBP Mr Naveen Singh Bhandari Chapter–3: Current Electricity

4 Mussoorie Mr. Pankaj Kumar Chapter–4: Moving Charges and Magnetism

5 Pauri Mr Manoj Kumar Chapter–5: Magnetism and Matter

6 Pithoragarh Dr. NEERAJ SINGH Chapter–6: Electromagnetic Induction

7 Rajgarhi Mrs.Neha Chauhan Chapter–7: Alternating Current

8 Ranikhet Mr Prem Prakash Pandey Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves

Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical

9 Ranikhet Mr Lakhan Kumar
Instruments

10 Roorkee, No.1 Mrs Shuchi Yadav Chapter–10: Wave Optics

Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and

11 Sourkhand Mr. Ranveer Singh Chauhan
Matter

12 Srinagar, SSB Mr Ravi Kumar Chapter–12: Atoms

13 Uttarkashi Mr. Naveen Sharma Chapter–13: Nuclei

14 Uttarkashi Mr. Arun Kumar Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics

KVS RO DEHRADUN
 CLASS XII (2022-23) PHYSICS (THEORY)

Time: 3 hrs. Max Marks: 70

No. of Marks
Periods
Unit–I Electrostatics 26 16
Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields
Chapter–2: Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
Unit-II Current Electricity 18
Chapter–3: Current Electricity
Unit-III Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism 25 17
Chapter–4: Moving Charges and Magnetism
Chapter–5: Magnetism and Matter
Unit-IV Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents 24
Chapter–6: Electromagnetic Induction
Chapter–7: Alternating Current
Unit–V Electromagnetic Waves 4 18
Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves
Unit–VI Optics 30
Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Chapter–10: Wave Optics
Unit–VII Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 08 12
Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Unit–VIII Atoms and Nuclei 15
Chapter–12: Atoms
Chapter–13: Nuclei
Unit–IX Electronic Devices 10 07
Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices
and Simple Circuits
TOTAL 160 70

KVS RO DEHRADUN
Unit I: Electrostatics 26 Periods

Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields

Electric charges, Conservation of charge, Coulomb's law-force between two-point charges,

forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous charge distribution.

Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines, electric dipole, electric
field due to a dipole, torque on a dipole in uniform electric field.

Electric flux, statement of Gauss's theorem and its applications to find field due to infinitely
long straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin
spherical shell (field inside and outside).

Chapter–2: Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole and
system of charges; equipotential surfaces, electrical potential energy of a system of two-
point charges and of electric dipole in an electrostatic field.

Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor. Dielectrics
and electric polarization, capacitors and capacitance, combination of capacitors in series and
in parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium
between the plates, energy stored in a capacitor (no derivation, formulae only).

Unit II: Current Electricity 18 Periods

Chapter–3: Current Electricity

Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity, mobility and
their relation with electric current; Ohm's law, V-I characteristics (linear and non-linear),
electrical energy and power, electrical resistivity and conductivity, temperature dependence
of resistance, Internal resistance of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination
of cells in series and in parallel, Kirchhoff's rules, Wheatstone bridge.

Unit III: Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism 25 Periods

Chapter–4: Moving Charges and Magnetism

Concept of magnetic field, Oersted's experiment.

Biot - Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop.

Ampere's law and its applications to infinitely long straight wire. Straight solenoid (only
qualitative treatment), force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields.

KVS RO DEHRADUN
 Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field, force between two
parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere, torque experienced by a current
loop in uniform magnetic field; Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole
moment, moving coil galvanometer-its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and
voltmeter.

Chapter–5: Magnetism and Matter

Bar magnet, bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid (qualitative treatment only), magnetic
field intensity due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) along its axis and perpendicular to its
axis (qualitative treatment only), torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform
magnetic field (qualitative treatment only), magnetic field lines.

Magnetic properties of materials- Para-, dia- and ferro - magnetic substances with examples,
Magnetization of materials, effect of temperature on magnetic properties.

Unit IV: Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents 24 Periods

Chapter–6: Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction; Faraday's laws, induced EMF and current; Lenz's Law, Self and
mutual induction.

Chapter–7: Alternating Current

Alternating currents, peak and RMS value of alternating current/voltage; reactance and
impedance; LCR series circuit (phasors only), resonance, power in AC circuits, power factor,
wattless current.
AC generator, Transformer.
Unit V: Electromagnetic waves 04 Periods

Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves

Basic idea of displacement current, Electromagnetic waves, their characteristics, their

transverse nature (qualitative idea only).

Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays,

gamma rays) including elementary facts about their uses.

Unit VI: Optics 30 Periods

Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Ray Optics: Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula, refraction of light, total
internal reflection and optical fibers, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens
formula, lens maker’s formula, magnification, power of a lens, combination of thin lenses
in contact, refraction of light through a prism.
KVS RO DEHRADUN
 Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and refracting)
and their magnifying powers.

Chapter–10: Wave Optics

Wave optics: Wave front and Huygen’s principle, reflection and refraction of plane wave
at a plane surface using wave fronts. Proof of laws of reflection and refraction using
Huygen’s principle. Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe
width (No derivation final expression only), coherent sources and sustained interference of
light, diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maxima (qualitative treatment only).

Unit VII: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 08 Periods

Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's observations; Einstein's
photoelectric equation-particle nature of light.

Experimental study of photoelectric effect

Matter waves-wave nature of particles, de-Broglie relation.

Unit VIII: Atoms and Nuclei 15 Periods

Chapter–12: Atoms

Alpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom; Bohr model of hydrogen

atom, Expression for radius of nth possible orbit, velocity and energy of electron in his orbit,
of hydrogen line spectra (qualitative treatment only).

Chapter–13: Nuclei

Composition and size of nucleus, nuclear force

Mass-energy relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass
number; nuclear fission, nuclear fusion.

Unit IX: Electronic Devices 10 Periods

Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits

Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only) Intrinsic
and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n junction

Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, application of

junction diode -diode as a rectifier.

KVS RO DEHRADUN
 CHAPTER 2
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
MASTER CARD
CH-3 -CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Important Figures
 Magnetism and Matter

Bar Magnet -

Magnetic dipole moment(M) of bar magnet 𝑀⃗ = m x 2𝑙⃗, where m is pole strength and 2l is the
distance between the 2 poles

Force between two magnetic poles -

𝐹 = 𝜇o /4𝜋 𝑚1𝑚2 /𝑑 2

Torque on a magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field:

τ⃗ = p ⃗ × B⃗, τ = pm B sin𝜃
Potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a Magnetic field:

U = - p ⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ , U = - pm B cos 𝜃
Stable equilibrium:
For 𝜃 = 0o, τ = 0 and U = - pm B

Unstable equilibrium:
For 𝜃 = 180o, τ = 0 and U = + pm B
Magnetic field lines - A magnetic line of force is a line along which a free isolated north pole would
travel when it is placed in the magnetic field.

Two magnetic field lines never cross each other because if they do so, there will be two possible
directions of the magnetic field.

Magnetic field at a point on the axial line of a bar magnet –

𝐵 =( 𝜇0 /4𝜋)( 2𝑀/ 𝑑 3)
 Magnetic induction at a point along the equatorial line of a bar magnet –

𝐵 =( 𝜇0 /4𝜋)( 𝑀 /(𝑑 2 + 𝑙 2) 3/2)

Magnetizing field or magnetic intensity(H) - unit is A m–1

Magnetic permeability(μ) - unitless

μr = μ /μ0, 𝜇 = 𝐵 /𝐻

Intensity of magnetization(M) - unit is A m-1

𝑀 = 𝑚/ 𝑉, 𝑀 = 𝑚 /𝐴

Magnetic induction(B) – Tesla

B = μo (H + M)

Magnetic susceptibility (𝜒𝑚) - unitless

𝜒𝑚 = 𝑀 /𝐻, 𝜇 /𝜇0 = μr = (1 + 𝜒𝑚)

Classification of magnetic materials –

(i) Diamagnetic, (ii) Paramagnetic and (iii) Ferromagnetic

Diamagnetic materials: When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field they have a tendency to move
away from the field (i.e) from the stronger part to the weaker part of the field. They get magnetized
in a direction opposite to the field.

The susceptibility has a low negative value. (For example, for bismuth χm= – 0.00017).

Relative permeability slightly less than 1.

Paramagnetic materials: Paramagnetic substances are those in which each atom or molecule has a
net non-zero magnetic moment of its own.

When placed in a non uniform magnetic field, they have a tendency to move from weaker part to
the stronger part of the field. They get magnetized in the direction of the field.

Susceptibility has a low positive value. (For example : χm for aluminium is +0.00002).

Relative permeability slightly greater than 1.

Ferromagnetic materials: Ferromagnetic substances are those in which each atom or molecule has a
strong spontaneous net magnetic moment. These substances exhibit strong paramagnetic
properties.

The susceptibility and relative permeability are very large. (For example : μr for iron = 200,000)

Relative permeability very large than 1.

When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they have a tendency to move from the weaker part
to the stronger part of the field. They get strongly magnetized in the direction of the field.

Hysteresis in ferromagnetic materials:

Magnetic Flux- The number of magnetic field Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction-
lines crossing a surface normally is called a) Whenever magnetic flux linked with a circuit (a loop of wire or a
magnetic flux (∅𝐵) linked with the surface. coil or an electric circuit in general) changes, induced e.m.f. is
Mathematically- ∅ = B. A = BAcosθ, where B produced.
𝐵
is the magnetic field, A is the area of the b) The induced e.m.f. lasts as long as the change in the magnetic flux
surface and θ is the angle, which the direction continues.
of the magnetic field makes with normal to c) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the
the surface. SI unit of magnetic flux is weber rate of change of the magnetic flux. Mathematically: Induced e.m.f.,
(Wb) 1 weber = 108 maxwell. −𝑑∅ ∅2 −∅1
𝑒= =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑡

Lenz’s law- It states that the induced current produced in a circuit

always flows in such a direction that it opposes the change or the
cause that produces it. Lenz’s law can be used to find the direction of
the induced current.

Lenz law obeys the principle of energy conservation.

 Motional e.m.f.- When a conductor of length l moves with a velocity v Self-induction- The phenomenon according to which an opposing induced
in a magnetic field B, so that magnetic field is perpendicular to both e.m.f. is produced in a coil as a result of change in current or magnetic flux
the length of the conductor and its direction of motion, the magnetic linked with it, is called self-induction.
Lorentz force on the conductor gives rise to e.m.f. across the two ends
of the conductor. Mathematically: e=Blv Coefficient of self-induction. The coefficient of self-induction or simply self-
inductance (L) of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux (∅) linked
with the coil, when a unit current flows through it. Mathematically: ∅=LI

The self-inductance of a coil is also numerically equal to the induced e.m.f.

produced in the coil, when the rate of change of current in the coil is unity.
𝑑𝐼
Mathematically: 𝑒 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡 , Unit: In SI, the unit of self-inductance is henry
(H).
The self-inductance of a coil is said to be one henry, if a rate of change of
current of 1 ampere per second induces an e.m.f. of 1 volt in it.

1
Energy stored in an inductor. When a current flows through an inductor of self-inductance L, the energy stored in the inductor is given by 𝑈 = 2 𝐿𝐼 2 , The
1 𝐵2
energy resides in the inductor in the form of magnetic field. Magnetic energy density 𝑢𝐵 = 2
μ
0

Mutual inductance of two long solenoids When over a solenoid S, of length l, area of cross-section A and number of turns per unit length n1, another
solenoid S, of same length and number of turns per unit length n2, is wound, then mutual inductance between the two solenoids is given by M = 𝝁0𝒏𝟏𝒏𝟐 𝒍 𝑨
 Reactance
Alternating Current
The opposition offered by an inductor or by a capacitor in the path of
An electric current whose magnitude changes continuously with time
flow of alternating current is called reactance.
and changes its direction periodically, is called an alternating
Reactance is of two types (i) Inductive Reactance (XL) Inductive
current.The instantaneous value of alternating current at any instant of reactance is the resistance offered by an inductor.Inductive reactance
(XL) = Lω = L2πf = L2π / T Its unit is ohm. XL ∝ f For direct current, XL
time t is given by = 0 (f = 0)

(ii) Capacitive Reactance (Xc) Capacitive reactance is the resistance

I = Io sin ωt where, 10 = peak value of alternating current. offered by an inductor

Capacitive reactance,Xc = 1 / Cω = 1 / C2πf = T / C 2π

The variation of alternating current with time is shown in graph given
Its unit is ohm Xc ∝ 1 / f For direct current, Xc = ∞ (f = 0)

Reactance
Resonance in AC Circuit
The condition in which current is maximum or impedance
is minimum in an AC circuit, is called resonance.

(i) Series Resonance Circuit

below
Power in an AC Circuit
Impedance
The power is defined as the rate at
The opposition offered by an AC circuit
which work is being in the circuit.
containing more than one out of three

components L, C and R, is called impedance In this circuit components L, C and R are connected in
The average power in an AC circuit, series. At resonance = XL = XC
(Z) of the circuit.
Resonance frequency f = 1 / 2π√LC
Pav = Vrms irms cos θ
Impedance of an AC circuit, Z = √R2 + (XL –
= V / √2 i / √2 cos θ = Vi / √2 cos θ
XC)2

Its SI unit is ohm. where, cos θ = Resistance(R) /

L – C – R Circuit Impedance (Z) is called the power

(a) Alternating emf, E = Eo sin Ωt factor 0f AC circuit.

(b) Alternating current, I = Io sin (Ωt ± θ)

(c) Alternating current lags leads behind Transformer

alternating emf by ω.
It is a device which can change a low voltage of high current into a high voltage of low current
(d) Resultant voltage, V = √V2R + (VL – VC)2 and vice-versa. There are two types of transformers. (i) Step-up Transformers It converts a
low voltage of high current into a high voltage of low current. Ns > NP, Es > EP and IP > IS
(ii) Step-down Transformer It converts a high voltage of low current into low voltage of high
current.NP > NS, EP > ES and IP < IS

(e) Impedance, Z = √R2 + (XL – XC)2

(f) Power factor, cos θ = R / Z = R / √√R2 +

(XL – XC)2
CHAPTER – 8 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Concept map
RAY OPTICS
Concept Map
 Wave Optics

Important formula
1.Snell’s law Sin i/ sin r=μ2/ μ1 =ν1/ ν2 =λ1/ λ 2
2.Imax / Imin (√I1+√I2)2/(√I1–√I2)2
=
3. FRINGE WIDTH :
λD
𝛽=
d

4. CONDITION OF MAXIMA :
∆ф=2n𝜋 (where, n=0,1,2,3,…..)
2
5. W1 = I1 = a
W2 I2 b2

6. I = I1+I2+2√𝐼1𝐼2 cos ∅
7. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT AT A SINGLE SLIT:
a) Path difference :

sin 𝜃n =nλ , (n=1,2,3,…)

a

b) Width of central maximum :

2Dλ
2y =
a

c) Angular width of central maxima :

2θ=2λ
a

8. FRESNEL’S DISTANCE :
2
zF =a
λ
∆𝑥 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, …
9. ] condition of constructive interference
∅ = 0,2𝜋, 4𝜋, …

ఒ 3ఒ 5ఒ
∆𝑥 = , , ,……
10. 2 2 2 ] condition for destructive interference

∅ = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 4𝜋, … …
11. FRINGE WIDTH :
λD
w=
d
→ {𝑤 ∝ 𝜆}

12. ANGULAR FRINGE WIDTH (θ) :

θ=w/D=(λD/d)/D =λ/d
Prepared by

Shuchi Yadav
PGT PHYSICS
KV
no.1,Roorkee
 Master card
Photon:
A packet or bundle of energy is called a photon.

Energy of a photon is E = hν = hc / λ

Properties of photons: i) The momentum of a photon is, p = h λ

Photoelectric Effect: The phenomenon of emission of electrons from mainly metal surfaces exposed to
light energy of suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect. The electrons emitted by this effect
are called photoelectrons. The current constituted by photoelectrons is known as photoelectric current.

1) Effect of Intensity of Incident Light on Photoelectric Current:

2) Effect of Potential on Photoelectric Current:

3) Effect of Frequency of Incident Light on Stopping Potential:

4) graphical representation of effect of frequency of incident radiation on

stopping potential .

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation:

de-Broglie wavelength.
 Master Card(ch-12atom)
1. Basic assumption of Rutherford’s atomic model.
(i) Atom consists of small central core, called atomic nucleus in which whole mass and
positive charge is assumed to be concentrated.
(ii) The size of nucleus is much smaller than the size of the atom.
(iii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons and atom is electrically neutral.
(iv) Electrons revolve around the nucleus and centripetal force is of electrostatic nature.
2. Distance of Closest Approach At a certain distance r0 from the nucleus, whole of the KE
of α-particle converts into electrostatic potential energy and α-particle cannot go farther
close to nucleus; this distance (r0) is called distance of closest approach.

3. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model

(i) Could not explained stability of atom clearly.
(ii) Unable to explain line spectrum.
4. Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom-
(i) Bohr’s first postulate :An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits
without the emission of radiant energy.
(ii) Bohr’s second postulate(Bohr’s quantization condition) : This postulate states
that the electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π,
mvr = nh/2π where, n = 1, 2, 3, ….

(iii) Bohr’s third postulate(Bohr’s frequency condition): when an electron jumps

from higher level to lower level, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy
difference between the initial and final states.

hv = Ei– Ef
where, Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei >Ef .

5. Important formulae related to Bohr’s model of hydrogen atoms are given below:
 CHAPTER – 13
NUCLEI

SYLLABUS: Composition and size of nucleus, nuclear force Mass-energy relation,

mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number;
nuclear fission, nuclear fusion.

REVISION NOTES

 IMPORTANT GRAPHS:
 In every atom, the positive charge and mass are densely concentrated at the centre of the
atom forming its nucleus. More than 99.9% mass of the atom is concentrated in the
nucleus.

 Atomic Mass Unit: (amu) The unit to express atomic masses is called atomic mass unit.

 It is 1/12 th of the actual mass of a carbon atom of isotope . It is denoted by

amu or just by u.
 1 amu = kg
 The energy equivalence of 1 amu is 1 amu = 931 MeV

 Nuclide: A nuclide is a specific nucleus of an atom characterized by its atomic number Z

and mass number A. It is represented as,
Where X = chemical symbol of the element, Z = atomic number and A = mass number

 Composition of Nucleus : The composition of a nucleus can be described by using the

following terms and symbols.
 Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number. It is
denoted by Z.
 Mass number: The total number of protons and neutrons present in a nucleus is called the
mass number of the element. It is denoted by A.
 Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
i.e. A=Z.+ N

 No. of Protons, Electrons, Nucleons, and Neutrons in an Atom:

1. Number of protons in an atom = Z
2. Number of electrons in an atom = Z
3. Number of nucleons in an atom = A
4. Number of neutrons in an atom = N = A – Z.

 Nuclear Mass: The total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a nucleus is called
the nuclear mass.

 Isotopes:
 The atoms of an element which have the same atomic number but different mass
number are called isotopes.
 Isotopes have similar chemical properties but different physical properties.

 Isobars: The atoms having the same mass number but different atomic number are called
isobars.

 Isotones: The nuclides having the same number of neutrons are called isotones.

 Isomers: These are nuclei with same atomic number and same mass number but in
different energy states.

 Electron Volt: It is defined as the energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated

through a potential difference of 1 volt and is denoted by eV.

 Size of the Nucleus:

 It is found that a nucleus of mass number A has a radius

Where,
 This implies that the volume of the nucleus, which is proportional to R3 is proportional to
A.

 Density of the Nucleus: Density of nucleus is constant, independent of A,

for all nuclei, density of nuclear matter is approximately
which is very large as compared to ordinary matter, say water which is 103 kg m-3.
 Mass-Energy equivalence: Einstein proved that it is necessary to treat mass as another
form of energy. He gave the mass-energy equivalence relation as, E = mc2
Where m is the mass and c is the velocity of light in vacuum.
 Mass Defect: The difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum of the rest
masses of its constituent nucleons is called its mass defect. It is given by-

 Binding Energy:
 It may be defined as the energy required to break a nucleus into its constituent protons and
neutrons and to separate them to such a large distance that they may not interact with each
other.
 It may also be defined as the surplus energy which the nucleus gives up by virtue of their
attractions which they become bound together to form a nucleus.

 The binding energy of a nucleus is-

 Binding Energy per Nucleon: It is average energy required to extract one nucleon from
the nucleus.
It is obtained by dividing the binding energy of a nucleus by its mass number.

 Nuclear Forces:
 These are the strong in attractive forces which hold protons and neutrons together in a tiny
nucleus.
 These are short range forces which operate over very short distance of about 2 – 3 fm of
separation between any two nucleons.
 The nuclear force does not depend on the charge of the nucleon.

 Nuclear Density: The density of a nucleus is independent of the size of the nucleus and is
given by-

 Nuclear Fission: It is the process in which a heavy nucleus when excited gets split into
two smaller nuclei of nearly comparable masses. For example-

 Nuclear Reactor: It is a device in which a nuclear chain reaction is initiated, maintained

and controlled.
 Nuclear Fusion: It is the process of fusion of two smaller nuclei into a heavier nucleus
with the liberation of large amount of energy.
 Critical size and Critical Mass:
 The size of the fissionable material for which reproduction factor is unity is called critical
size and its mass is called critical mass of the material.
  The chain reaction in this case remains steady or sustained.

 Nature of Binding Energy

This shows that nuclear reactions which are exothermic in nature are possible in which
when a heavy nucleus undergoes fission or two lighter nuclei fuse together to form nuclei
with medium mass.

 Atomic Fusion

Atomic Fusion

 The way toward joining two lighter cores to frame one hefty core, is called atomic
combination.
 Three deuteron cores (1H2) intertwine, 21.6 MeV is energy delivered and the core of
helium (2He4) is shaped.
 In this interaction, a lot of energy is delivered.
 Atomic combination happens at exceptionally high temperature roughly around 107 K and
at extremely high pressing factor 106 climate.
 Nuclear bomb depends on atomic combination.
 The wellspring of Sun's energy is the atomic combination occurring at sun.

Atomic Energy
 The energy delivered during atomic combination is know as nuclear energy.
 Protons are required for combination while neutrons are required for parting measure.
MIND MAP
 Master card Semiconductor
Differences between conductor, insulator and semiconductor on the basis of energy bands are
given below:

energy band in p-type,n-type

Half wave rectifier

Full wave rectifier

p-n junction diode

FB

RB V-I FB,RB