EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

EDEXCEL IAL BIOLOGY UNIT 5

The Kidney
• The kidneys are pair of dark reddish brown organs attached to the back
of the abdominal cavity.
• They are surrounded by a thick layer of fat which protects them from
mechanical injury.
• Renal artery – branch of aorta that carries blood to the kidney.
• Renal vein carries blood away from the kidney after the removal of urea;
excess solute and water.
• Ureter carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
• Urinary bladder stores urine before micturition.
• Micturition- the action of urinating.
• Urethra carries urine out of the body.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

Structure and function of the kidney

 Cortex – It has the rich capillary network and so very dark in colour.
Contains the malpighian bodies of all the nephrons.

Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 Medulla – contains loop of henle from nephron.

 Pelvis – central chamber where urine arrives from the collecting duct.
 Juxtamedullary nephron – Next to the medulla. It is the long
penetrating right through the medulla. The desert animals like
kangaroos have juxtamedullary to save the water. More reabsorption
will take place.
 Pyramid – a collection of tubule, collecting duct and blood vessels.
 Ureter – carries urine down to the bladder.

 The kidney performs 3 functions in its osmoregulatory role:

1) Ultrafiltration

2) Selective reabsorption

3) Tubular secretion

 Each kidney is made up of tubules called nephrons, which are 2 to 4 cm

long.
 There are about 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney.
 There are 2 main types of nephrons:
1. Cortical Nephron
• Found in the renal cortex.
• They have a loop of henle that only just reaches into the medulla.
• Most are cortical nephrons. (85% of human body)
2. Juxtamedullary nephron

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

• Have long loop of henle that penetrates right through the medulla.
• They produce concentrated urine.
Nephron

Ultrafiltration

 First stage of osmoregulation

 Ultrafiltration occurs due to high pressure in the glomerulus.
 The glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule make the malpighian body.

Q) How the high blood pressure is created in the glomerulus?

 The diameter of the blood vessels coming in to the glomerulus is having

greater diameter than the blood vessels leaving the glomerulus.
 The renal artery is a branch of aorta.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

Ornithine cycle

 The ammonia is too toxic for the mammal to excrete directly, so it

combines with CO2 in the ornithine cycle to form urea.
 A part of it happens in the mitochondria and a part of it in the
cytoplasm.
 The urea is released from the liver into the blood.
Ammonia + carbondioxide Carbamoyl phosphate

Citruline
ATP Asparate

Ornithine
AMP Water

Argininosuccinate
Liver Water
protein Arginine
metabolism and homeostasis

 Deamination takes place in the liver.

 Removal of amine group in the protein.
R O
| ||
H–––– N–––– C–––– C–––– OH
| |
H H
 Protein and amino acid cannot be stored in the body. It could be
extracted.
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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 The hepatocytes (Liver cells) deaminate the excess amino acids.

 They remove amino group and convert it first into ammonia.
 Ammonia is very toxic
 Then it is converted into urea and excreted by kidney.
 The ammonia produced in the deamination will be converted to urea by
the series of enzyme control reactions known as ornithine cycle.
 The remaining amino acids then used in the aerobic respiration.
 Urea is water soluble and less toxic.
 Urea can diffuse readily through the phospholipid bilayer of hepatocytes
and transported to the kidney.

Osmoregulation

• Brought about kidney.

• The kidney is protected by thick layer of fat which helps to protect
them from mechanical damage.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

Mammalian kidney has 2 functions:

1. Excretion
2. Osmoregulation

Kidney performs 3 functions in osmoregulation role:

1. Ultrafiltration
2. Selective reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion

• Each kidney is made up of microscopic tubules called nephron.

• The 2 main types of nephrons are:
1. Corticle nephrons –found mainly in the renal cortex.
They have loop of henle that reaches medulla.
2. Juxtamedullary nephrons – long loop of henle that penetrates
right through the medulla. They are
efficient at producing concentrated urine.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

Ultrafiltration

 Occurs in the kidney.

 The ultrafiltration occurs due to high blood pressure in the glomerulus.
Capillaries and structure of Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus are
involved.
 The glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule together make up the
malpighian body.

Q) How the high blood pressure develops in the glomerulus?

 The diameter of the blood vessels coming into the glomerulus is

greater than that of the blood vessels leaving.
 The high blood pressure squeezes the blood out through the pores in
the capillary walls.
 The size the pores allow almost all content of plasma pass out except
blood cells and plasma proteins.
 The cells of the Bowman’s capsule also act as an additional filter.
 The filtrate that enters the capsule has the same concentration of
glucose, salt and urea and amino acids, water same as in the blood
plasma.

Selective reabsorption

 Ultrafiltration is passive but not selective.

 It removes urea from the blood but it removes lot of water with
glucose, salt and other substances.
 Glucose is needed for cellular respiration and is never excreted under
normal circumstances.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 Most of the water, salt, and other inorganic ions passed into the tubule
during ultrafiltration are also needed by the body.
 After ultra-filtrate has entered the nephron the main function of kidney
tubules is to return most of what has been removed by ultrafiltration
back into the blood.

Proximal tubule

 Proximal convoluted tubule.

 Proximal convoluted tubule 80% of glomerulus filtrate back into the
blood.
 Cells lining the tubule are covered with microvilli. These greatly increase
the surface area through which substances can be absorbed.
 Cells also have large amount of mitochondria which shows that they are
involved in active transport.
 Active transport in the proximal tubule result in all glucose, amino acids,
vitamins and most hormones being return to the blood.
 About 85% of NaCl and water are reabsorbed.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 This makes it possible for the water to be reabsorbed from the distal
tubule and collecting duct.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 The water potential gradient allows mammals to produce urine

that is more concentrated than blood.
 This is created by counter current mechanism.

Counter current multiplier

• The sodium ions are actively transported and the chloride ions
and water follow passively down the concentration gradient.
• Once the substances are removed from the tubule into the
intercellular space, they pass by diffusion into the extensive
capillary network surrounding the tubule.
• Blood is constantly moving through the tubules will maintain the
concentration gradient.
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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

• By the time the fluid reaches the loop of henle it is isotonic to the
tissue fluid that surrounds the tubules.
• Amount of reabsorption in the proximal tubule is always the
same.
• The adjustment of water balance to needs of the body occurs
along the nephron in the loop of henle.

Loop of Henle

 Each loop of henle found in the medulla of the kidney in close

contact with network of capillaries together create a water
potential gradient between filtrate and the tissue fluid.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

CONTROL OF KIDNEY AND HOMEOSTASIS

Osmoregulation – Mechanism of ADH action

• The ADH does not cross the membranes of the tubule cell.
• It binds to the specific receptors, which trigger the specific
reaction resulting in the formation of CAMP.
• As the second messenger, the CAMP starts a series of reaction, it
causes the vesicles within the cells to fuse more with the
membrane.
• The vesicles contain water channels.
• Inserted into membrane and make it permeable to water.
• The water then move through the channel and they will become
permeable to water.
• Then the water move back to capillaries by osmosis, that the
amount of ADH released is controlled by the number of channels
that are involved.
• This means the permeability of the tubule can be very closely
controlled to match the water demand.
• When level of ADH falls, the level of CAMP also drops.
• The water channels are taken out of the membrane and repacked
in vesicles. This means the tubule becomes impermeable to water
again.
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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

Q) If blood flowing through the hypothalamus is increases….

 If the temperature of the blood flowing through the

hypothalamus increase, heat is increased and body temperature is
increased.
 The thermoregulatory centre is activated.
 It sends impulses along the autonomic motor nerves to effectors
that increase the blood flow through the skin and increase
sweating.
 Erector muscles relax so the hairs lie flat and stops shivering.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 The metabolic rate may be reduced to lower the amount of

warming in the body.
Q) If the blood flowing through the hypothalamus drops. (Heat
decreased or body temperature decreased)…….

 The thermoregulatory centre reacts by sending nerve impulses

through the autonomic nervous system to the skin.
 These cause reduction in the blood through the capillaries in the
skin along with the reduction in production of sweat and
contraction of the erector muscles to raise the hair.
 Impulses in the autonomic motor neurons from the
thermoregulatory centre also stimulates involuntary contraction
of muscles known as shivering and raise the amount of metabolic
warming.
 Therefore the temperature is maintained in narrow range.

ADH and negative feedback mechanism

 If water is short in supply or sweat a lot, the concentration of

inorganic ions in the blood rises. So its water potential becomes
more negative.
 So the osmotic potential of the tissue fluid is disturbed.
 Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect and increase the
plasma concentration of an inorganic ion. (ion concentration in
plasma)
 They send nerve impulses to the posterior pituitary gland which
consequently release stored ADH into the blood.
 The ADH is accepted by the receptors in the tubule.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 ADH increase the permeability as a result water leaves into the

capillary by osmosis.

If you drink large amount of water….

1) The blood plasma becomes more diluted.

2) The Osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus detect the change.
3) Falling concentration of blood plasma inhibits the release of ADH.
4) The walls of the collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule
remain impermeable to the water so little or no reabsorption
occurs.
5) The kidney therefore produces large amount of urine and the
concentration of the blood is maintained.

Extra feedback

 The changes in the blood pressure also stimulate or inhibit the

release of ADH.
 These changes are detected by baroreceptors in the aortic and
carotid bodies.
 A rise in the blood pressure will suppress the release of ADH and
increase the volume of water lost in the urine.
 Reduction in the blood volume, so blood pressure falls.
 A fall in blood pressure which may indicate a loss of blood
volume, causing an increase of the release of ADH from the
pituitary and conservation of water by kidney.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 Water is returned to the blood and small amount of concentrated

urine is produced.
 This is part of the normal dynamic equilibrium of the body.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

THERMOREGULATION AND EXRCISE

Thermoregulation in mammals

 Mammals are endotherms.

 The body temperature is higher than the ambient (air)
temperature.
 In order to maintain the body temperature against adverse
environmental condition, the metabolic rate of endotherms has to
be high.

The Skin

 Have large surface area for keeping cool. 

Largest single organ.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

Keeping Cool

 The erector pilli muscles which are attached to the hair follicles
are relaxed. The body hair lies flat against the body minimizing
any insulating air layers that is trapped next to the skin.
 The rate of sweat production from the sweat glands increases
with the increase in core temperature. More sweat is released on
to the skin surface. The cooling occurs as the sweat evaporates.

Role of skin in thermoregulation

 Heat is lost by the skin by radiation, convection and conduction.

 This is taken place by the blood passing through the skin.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 The heat is controlled by the atriovenus shunt.

 The rich blood supply of capillaries runs closer to the skin surface.

 The sphincter muscles during exercise are not stimulated to

contracts.
 So during exercise the shunt is closed.
 So more blood passes to the superficial capillaries.
 More heat is radiated known as vasodilation.
 The vessels are dilated.
 More blood passes to the surface.
 The temperature gradient between the body surface and the
environment become steeper.
 Heat is lost by the skin by radiation, convection and conduction.

Keeping warm at cold conditions

 Sphincter muscles around the atrial leading to superficial muscles

will contract.
 More blood passes through the shunt vessels.
 Less blood to the superficial capillaries.
 Temperature gradient will be less steep, so heat lost by
conduction and radiation is less.

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EDEXCEL A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 [OSMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS]

 Erector muscles are contracted, pulling hair upright. It traps

insulating layer of air.
 The metabolic rate of the body increases, warming the body
occurs in the live and muscles.
 Shivering which is an involuntary contraction of a skeletal muscle
also helps in metabolic warming.
 The energy released raises the body temperature.

Control of core blood temperature

 In a homeostasis feedback system, there need to be receptors

which are sensitive to changes in the system.

In the case of thermoregulation

 There are 2 types of receptors:

1) Receptors in the brain directly monitor the
temperature of the blood.

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2) Receptors in the skin detect changes in the

external temperature.

THERMO RECEPTORS

BRAIN SKIN

Internal changes are detected External changes detected

 Temperature receptors in the brain act as thermostat of the body

to keep at right temperature.
 The temperature of a human is controlled within a -1 o change.

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