General informations

Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few
exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce
sexually, and go through an ontogenetic stage in which their body consists of a hollow sphere of
cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Over 1.5 million living animal species have
been described—of which around 1 million are insects—but it has been estimated there are over
7 million animal species in total. Animals range in length from 8.5 micrometres (0.00033 in) to
33.6 metres (110 ft). They have complex interactions with each other and their environments,
forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology.

Most living animal species are in Bilateria, a clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric
body plan. The Bilateria include the protostomes, containing animals such as nematodes,
arthropods, flatworms, annelids and molluscs, and the deuterostomes, containing the
echinoderms and the chordates, the latter including the vertebrates. Life forms interpreted as
early animals were present in the Ediacaran biota of the late Precambrian. Many modern animal
phyla became clearly established in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian
explosion, which began around 539 million years ago. 6,331 groups of genes common to all
living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that
lived 650 million years ago.

Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus
created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema
Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel
divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous for Animalia) and
the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the
biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular
phylogenetics, which are effective at demonstrating the evolutionary relationships between taxa.

Humans make use of many animal species, such as for food (including meat, milk, and eggs), for
materials (such as leather and wool), as pets, and as working animals including for transport.
Dogs have been used in hunting, as have birds of prey, while many terrestrial and aquatic
animals were hunted for sports. Nonhuman animals have appeared in art from the earliest times
and are featured in mythology and religion.

Etymology

The word "animal" comes from the Latin animalis, meaning 'having breath', 'having soul' or
'living being'. The biological definition includes all members of the kingdom Animalia.In
colloquial usage, the term animal is often used to refer only to nonhuman animals. The term
"metazoa" is from Ancient Greek μετα (meta, used to mean "later") and ζῷᾰ (zōia, plural of ζῷον
zōion"animal").

Animals are unique in having the ball of cells of the early embryo evelop into a hollow ball or
blastula.

Characteristics

Animals are unique in having the ball of cells of the early embryo develop into a hollow ball or
blastula .

Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are
eukaryotic and multicellular. Unlike plants and algae, which produce their own nutrients, animals
are heterotrophic, feeding on organic material and digesting it internally. With very few
exceptions, (example; Henneguya zschokkei) animals respire aerobically. All animals are motile
(able to spontaneously move their bodies) during at least part of their life cycle, but some
animals, such as sponges, corals, mussels, and barnacles, later become sessile. The blastula is a
stage in embryonic development that is unique to animals, allowing cells to be differentiated into
specialised tissues and organs.
Structure

All animals are composed of cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed
of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. During development, the animal extracellular matrix forms
a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganised, making the
formation of complex structures possible. This may be calcified, forming structures such as
shells, bones, and spicules. In contrast, the cells of other multicellular organisms (primarily
algae, plants, and fungi) are held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth.
Animal cells uniquely possess the cell junctions called tight junctions, gap junctions, and
desmosomes.

With few exceptions—in particular, the sponges and placozoans—animal bodies are
differentiated into tissues. These include muscles, which enable locomotion, and nerve tissues,
which transmit signals and coordinate the body. Typically, there is also an internal digestive
chamber with either one opening (in Ctenophora, Cnidaria, and flatworms) or two openings (in
most bilaterians).

Reproduction and development

Nearly all animals make use of some form of sexual reproduction. They produce haploid gametes
by meiosis; the smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are
ova. These fuse to form zygotes, which develop via mitosis into a hollow sphere, called a
blastula. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location, attach to the seabed, and develop
into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated
rearrangement. It first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber and two separate
germ layers, an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. In most cases, a third germ layer,
the mesoderm, also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues
and organs.

Repeated instances of mating with a close relative during sexual reproduction generally leads to
inbreeding depression within a population due to the increased prevalence of harmful recessive
traits. Animals have evolved numerous mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding.

Some animals are capable of asexual reproduction, which often results in a genetic clone of the
parent. This may take place through fragmentation; budding, such as in Hydra and other
cnidarians; or parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, such as in
aphids.

Ecology

Predators, such as this ultramarine flycatcher (Ficedula superciliaris), feed on other animals.

Animals are categorised into ecological groups depending on how they obtain or consume
organic material, including carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, detritivores, and parasites.
Interactions between animals form complex food webs. In carnivorous or omnivorous species,
predation is a consumer–resource interaction where a predator feeds on another organism (called
its prey). Selective pressures imposed on one another lead to an evolutionary arms race between
predator and prey, resulting in various anti-predator adaptations. Almost all multicellular
predators are animals. Some consumers use multiple methods; for example, in parasitoid wasps,
the larvae feed on the hosts' living tissues, killing them in the process, but the adults primarily
consume nectar from flowers. Other animals may have very specific feeding behaviours, such as
hawksbill sea turtles primarily eating sponges.

Most animals rely on the biomass and energy produced by plants through photosynthesis.
Herbivores eat plant material directly, while carnivores, and other animals on higher trophic
levels typically acquire it indirectly by eating other animals. Animals oxidize carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and other biomolecules, which allows the animal to grow and to sustain
biological processes such as locomotion. Animals living close to hydrothermal vents and cold
seeps on the dark sea floor consume organic matter of archaea and bacteria produced in these
locations through chemosynthesis (by oxidizing inorganic compounds, such as hydrogen
sulfide).

Animals originally evolved in the sea. Lineages of arthropods colonised land around the same
time as land plants, probably between 510 and 471 million years ago during the Late Cambrian
or Early Ordovician. Vertebrates such as the lobe-finned fish Tiktaalik started to move on to land
in the late Devonian, about 375 million years ago. Animals occupy virtually all of earth's habitats
and microhabitats, including salt water, hydrothermal vents, fresh water, hot springs, swamps,
forests, pastures, deserts, air, and the interiors of animals, plants, fungi and rocks. Animals are
however not particularly heat tolerant; very few of them can survive at constant temperatures
above 50 °C (122 °F). Only very few species of animals (mostly nematodes) inhabit the most
extreme cold deserts of continental Antarctica.

Diversity

The blue whale is the largest animal that has ever lived.

The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is the largest animal that has ever lived, weighing up to
190 tonnes and measuring up to 33.6 metres (110 ft) long.The largest extant terrestrial animal is
the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), weighing up to 12.25 tonnes and measuring up
to 10.67 metres (35.0 ft) long. The largest terrestrial animals that ever lived were titanosaur
sauropod dinosaurs such as Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed as much as 73 tonnes.
Several animals are microscopic; some Myxozoa (obligate parasites within the Cnidaria) never
grow larger than 20 µm, and one of the smallest species (Myxobolus shekel) is no more than 8.5
µm when fully grown.
Numbers and habitats

The following table lists estimated numbers of described extant species for the animal groups
with the largest numbers of species, along with their principal habitats (terrestrial, fresh water,
and marine), and free-living or parasitic ways of life. Species estimates shown here are based on
numbers described scientifically; much larger estimates have been calculated based on various
means of prediction, and these can vary wildly. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of
nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode
species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million. Using patterns within the
taxonomic hierarchy, the total number of animal species—including those not yet described—
was calculated to be about 7.77 million in 2011.

Evolutionary origin

Animals are found as long ago as the Ediacaran biota, towards the end of the Precambrian, and
possibly somewhat earlier. It had long been doubted whether these life-forms included animals,
but the discovery of the animal lipid cholesterol in fossils of Dickinsonia establishes their nature.
Animals are thought to have originated under low-oxygen conditions, suggesting that they were
capable of living entirely by anaerobic respiration, but as they became specialized for aerobic
metabolism they became fully dependent on oxygen in their environments.
Many animal phyla first appear in the fossil record during the Cambrian explosion, starting about
539 million years ago, in beds such as the Burgess shale. Extant phyla in these rocks include
molluscs, brachiopods, onychophorans, tardigrades, arthropods, echinoderms and hemichordates,
along with numerous now-extinct forms such as the predatory Anomalocaris. The apparent
suddenness of the event may however be an artefact of the fossil record, rather than showing that
all these animals appeared simultaneously.That view is supported by the discovery of
Auroralumina attenboroughii, the earliest known Ediacaran crown-group cnidarian (557–562
mya, some 20 million years before the Cambrian explosion) from Charnwood Forest, England. It
is thought to be one of the earliest predators, catching small prey with its nematocysts as modern
cnidarians do.

Some palaeontologists have suggested that animals appeared much earlier than the Cambrian
explosion, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago. Early fossils that might represent animals
appear for example in the 665-million-year-old rocks of the Trezona Formation of South
Australia. These fossils are interpreted as most probably being early sponges. Trace fossils such
as tracks and burrows found in the Tonian period (from 1 gya) may indicate the presence of
triploblastic worm-like animals, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as
earthworms. However, similar tracks are produced today by the giant single-celled protist
Gromia sphaerica, so the Tonian trace fossils may not indicate early animal evolution. Around
the same time, the layered mats of microorganisms called stromatolites decreased in diversity,
perhaps due to grazing by newly evolved animals. Objects such as sediment-filled tubes that
resemble trace fossils of the burrows of wormlike animals have been found in 1.2 gya rocks in
North America, in 1.5 gya rocks in Australia and North America, and in 1.7 gya rocks in
Australia. Their interpretation as having an animal origin is disputed, as they might be
waterescape or other structures.
Dickinsonia costata from the Ediacaran biota (c. 635–542 mya) is one of the earliest animal
species known.

Auroralumina attenboroughii, an Ediacaran predator (c. 560 mya)

Anomalocaris canadensis is one of the many animal species that emerged in the Cambrian
explosion, starting some 539 mya, and found in the fossil beds of the Burgess shale.

Phylogeny

Animals are monophyletic, meaning they are derived from a common ancestor. Animals are
sister to the Choanoflagellata, with which they form the Choanozoa. The most basal animals, the
Porifera, Ctenophora, Cnidaria, and Placozoa, have body plans that lack bilateral symmetry.
Their relationships are still disputed; the sister group to all other animals could be the Porifera or
the Ctenophora, both of which lack hox genes, important in body plan development.

These genes are found in the Placozoa and the higher animals, the Bilateria 6,331 groups of
genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single
common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian. 25 of these are novel core
gene groups, found only in animals; of those, 8 are for essential components of the Wnt and
TGF-beta signalling pathways which may have enabled animals to become multicellular by
providing a pattern for the body's system of axes (in three dimensions), and another 7 are for
transcription factors including homeodomain proteins involved in the control of development.

The phylogenetic tree (of major lineages only) indicates approximately how many millions of
years ago (mya) the lineages split.

Non-Bilateria

Non-bilaterians include sponges (centre) and corals (background).

Several animal phyla lack bilateral symmetry. Among these, the sponges (Porifera) probably
diverged first, representing the oldest animal phylum.Sponges lack the complex organization
found in most other animal phyla;their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organised
into distinct tissues. They typically feed by drawing in water through pores.

The Ctenophora (comb jellies) and Cnidaria (which includes jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals)
are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both
mouth and anus. They are sometimes placed together in the group Coelenterata because of
common traits, not because of close relationships. Animals in both phyla have distinct tissues,
but these are not organised into organs. They are diploblastic, having only two main germ layers,
ectoderm and endoderm. The tiny placozoans are similar, but they do not have a permanent
digestive chamber.

Bilateria

Idealised bilaterian body plan. With an elongated body and a direction of movement the animal
has head and tail ends. Sense organs and mouth form the basis of the head. Opposed circular and
longitudinal muscles enable peristaltic motion.

The remaining animals, the great majority—comprising some 29 phyla and over a million
species—form a clade, the Bilateria, which have a bilaterally symmetric body plan. The Bilateria
are triploblastic, with three well-developed germ layers, and their tissues form distinct organs.
The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is an internal body
cavity, a coelom or pseudocoelom. These animals have a head end (anterior) and a tail end
(posterior), a back (dorsal) surface and a belly (ventral) surface, and a left and a right side.

Having a front end means that this part of the body encounters stimuli, such as food, favouring
cephalisation, the development of a head with sense organs and a mouth. Many bilaterians have a
combination of circular muscles that constrict the body, making it longer, and an opposing set of
longitudinal muscles, that shorten the body; these enable soft-bodied animals with a hydrostatic
skeleton to move by peristalsis. They also have a gut that extends through the basically
cylindrical body from mouth to anus. Many bilaterian phyla have primary larvae which swim
with cilia and have an apical organ containing sensory cells. However, over evolutionary time,
descendant spaces have evolved which have lost one or more of each of these characteristics. For
example, adult echinoderms are radially symmetric (unlike their larvae), while some parasitic
worms have extremely simplified body structures.

Genetic studies have considerably changed zoologists' understanding of the relationships within
the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to two major lineages, the protostomes and the
deuterostomes. The basalmost bilaterians are the Xenacoelomorpha.

Idealised bilaterian body plan. With an elongated body and a direction of movement the animal
has head and tail ends. Sense organs and mouth form the basis of the head. Opposed circular
and longitudinal muscles enable peristaltic motion.

Protostomes and deuterostomes

Further information: Embryological origins of the mouth and anus

The bilaterian gut develops in two ways. In many protostomes, the blastopore develops into the
mouth, while in deuterostomes it becomes the anus.

Protostomes and deuterostomes differ in several ways. Early in development, deuterostome

The main deuterostome phyla are the Echinodermata and the Chordata. Echinoderms are
exclusively marine and include starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. The chordates are
dominated by the vertebrates (animals with backbones), which consist of fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals. The deuterostomes also include the Hemichordata (acorn worms).

Ecdysozoa

Ecdysis: a dragonfly has emerged from its dry exuviae and is expanding its wings. Like other
arthropods, its body is divided into segments.

The Ecdysozoa are protostomes, named after their shared trait of ecdysis, growth by moulting.
They include the largest animal phylum, the Arthropoda, which contains insects, spiders, crabs,
and their kin. All of these have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired
appendages. Two smaller phyla, the Onychophora and Tardigrada, are close relatives of the
arthropods and share these traits. The ecdysozoans also include the Nematoda or roundworms,
perhaps the second largest animal phylum. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in
nearly every environment where there is water; some are important parasites. Smaller phyla
related to them are the Nematomorpha or horsehair worms, and the Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, and
Loricifera. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom.

Spiralia

The Spiralia are a large group of protostomes that develop by spiral cleavage in the early
embryo.The Spiralia's phylogeny has been disputed, but it contains a large clade, the
superphylum Lophotrochozoa, and smaller groups of phyla such as the Rouphozoa which
includes the gastrotrichs and the flatworms. All of these are grouped as the Platytrochozoa,
which has a sister group, the Gnathifera, which includes the rotifers.

The Lophotrochozoa includes the molluscs, annelids, brachiopods, nemerteans, bryozoa and
entoprocts.The molluscs, the second-largest animal phylum by number of described species,
includes snails, clams, and squids, while the annelids are the segmented worms, such as
earthworms, lugworms, and leeches. These two groups have long been considered close relatives
because they share trochophore.

Spiral cleavage in a sea snail embryo

History of classification

Further information: Taxonomy (biology), History of zoology (through 1859), and History of
zoology since 1859
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck led the creation of a modern classification of invertebrates, breaking
up Linnaeus's "Vermes" into 9 phyla by 1809.

In the classical era, Aristotle divided animals,[d] based on his own observations, into those with
blood (roughly, the vertebrates) and those without. The animals were then arranged on a scale
from man (with blood, 2 legs, rational soul) down through the live-bearing tetrapods (with blood,
4 legs, sensitive soul) and other groups such as crustaceans (no blood, many legs, sensitive soul)
down to spontaneously generating creatures like sponges (no blood, no legs, vegetable soul).
Aristotle was uncertain whether sponges were animals, which in his system ought to have
sensation, appetite, and locomotion, or plants, which did not: he knew that sponges could sense
touch, and would contract if about to be pulled off their rocks, but that they were rooted like
plants and never moved about.

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical classification in his Systema Naturae. In his
original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes,
Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed
into a single phylum, the Chordata, while his Insecta (which included the crustaceans and
arachnids) and Vermes have been renamed or broken up. The process was begun in 1793 by
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, who called the Vermes une espèce de chaos (a chaotic mess)[e] and
split the group into three new phyla: worms, echinoderms, and polyps (which contained corals
and jellyfish). By 1809, in his Philosophie Zoologique, Lamarck had created 9 phyla apart from
vertebrates (where he still had 4 phyla: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish) and molluscs, namely
cirripedes, annelids, crustaceans, arachnids, insects, worms, radiates, polyps, and infusorians.

In his 1817 Le Règne Animal, Georges Cuvier used comparative anatomy to group the animals
into four embranchements ("branches" with different body plans, roughly corresponding to
phyla), namely vertebrates, molluscs, articulated animals (arthropods and annelids), and
zoophytes (radiata) (echinoderms, cnidaria and other forms). This division into four was
followed by the embryologist Karl Ernst von Baer in 1828, the zoologist Louis Agassiz in 1857,
and the comparative anatomist Richard Owen in 1860.

In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms: Metazoa
(multicellular animals, with five phyla: coelenterates, echinoderms, articulates, molluscs, and
vertebrates) and Protozoa (single-celled animals), including a sixth animal phylum, sponges. The
protozoa were later moved to the former kingdom Protista, leaving only the Metazoa as a
synonym of Animalia.

Practical uses

The human population exploits a large number of other animal species for food, both of
domesticated livestock species in animal husbandry and, mainly at sea, by hunting wild species.
Marine fish of many species are caught commercially for food. A smaller number of species are
farmed commercially.Humans and their livestock make up more than 90% of the biomass of all
terrestrial vertebrates, and almost as much as all insects combined.

Invertebrates including cephalopods, crustaceans, and bivalve or gastropod molluscs are hunted
or farmed for food. Chickens, cattle, sheep, pigs, and other animals are raised as livestock for
meat across the world.Animal fibres such as wool are used to make textiles, while animal sinews
have been used as lashings and bindings, and leather is widely used to make shoes and other
items. Animals have been hunted and farmed for their fur to make items such as coats and hats.
Dyestuffs including carmine (cochineal),shellac,and kermes have been made from the bodies of
insects. Working animals including cattle and horses have been used for work and transport from
the first days of agriculture.

Animals such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster serve a major role in science as
experimental models.Animals have been used to create vaccines since their discovery in the 18th
century. Some medicines such as the cancer drug Yondelis are based on toxins or other molecules
of animal origin.

People have used hunting dogs to help chase down and retrieve animals,and birds of prey to
catch birds and mammals, while tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish. Poison dart
frogs have been used to poison the tips of blowpipe darts.A wide variety of animals are kept as
pets, from invertebrates such as tarantulas and octopuses, insects including praying mantises,
reptiles such as snakes and chameleons, and birds including canaries, parakeets, and parrots[189]
all finding a place. However, the most kept pet species are mammals, namely dogs, cats, and
rabbits.There is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their
existence as individuals with rights of their own. A wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic animals
are hunted for sport.

Symbolic uses

Artistic vision: Still Life with Lobster and Oysters by Alexander Coosemans, c. 1660

Animals have been the subjects of art from the earliest times, both historical, as in Ancient
Egypt, and prehistoric, as in the cave paintings at Lascaux. Major animal paintings include
Albrecht Dürer's 1515 The Rhinoceros, and George Stubbs's c. 1762 horse portrait Whistlejacket.
Insects, birds and mammals play roles in literature and film, such as in giant bug movies.

Animals including insects and mammals feature in mythology and religion. In both Japan and
Europe, a butterfly was seen as the personification of a person's soul, while the scarab beetle was
sacred in ancient Egypt. Among the mammals, cattle, deer, horses, lions, ats, bears, and wolves
are the subjects of myths and worship. The signs of the Western and Chinese zodiacs are based
on animals.