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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) Part 1

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Introduction
In the industry we use three methods for transmitting power from one point to another.
Mechanical transmission is through shafts, gears, chains, belts, etc. Electrical transmission
is through wires, transformers, etc. Fluid power is through liquids or gas in a confined space.
In this chapter, we shall discuss a structure of hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems.
We will also discuss the advantages and disadvantages and compare hydraulic, pneumatic,
electrical and mechanical systems.

Fluid Power and Its Scope

Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of
forces and movement of mechanical element or system with the use of pressurized fluids in
a confined system. Both liquids and gases are considered fluids. Fluid power system
includes a hydraulic system (hydra meaning water in Greek) and a pneumatic system
(pneuma meaning air in Greek). Oil hydraulic employs pressurized liquid petroleum oils and
synthetic oils, and pneumatic employs compressed air that is released to the atmosphere
after performing the work.
Perhaps it would be in order that we clarify our thinking on one point. By the term “fluid” we
refer to air or oil, for it has been shown that water has certain drawbacks in the transmission
of hydraulic power in machine operation and control. Commercially, pure water contains
various chemicals (some deliberately included) and also foreign matter, and unless special
precautions are taken when it is used, it is nearly impossible to maintain valves and working
surfaces in satisfactory condition. In the cases where the hydraulic system is closed (i.e., the
one with a self-contained unit that serves one machine or one small group of machines), oil
is commonly used, thus providing, in addition to power transmission, benefits of lubrication
not afforded by water as well as increased life and efficiency of packings and valves. It
should be mentioned that in some special cases, soluble oil diluted with water is used for
safety reasons. The application of fluid power is limited only by the ingenuity of the designer,
production engineer or plant engineer. If the application pertains to lifting, pushing, pulling,
clamping, tilting, forcing, pressing or any other straight line (and many rotary) motions, it is
possible that fluid power will meet the requirement.
Fluid power applications can be classified into two major segments:
Stationary hydraulics: Stationary hydraulic systems remain firmly fixed in one position. The
characteristic feature of stationary hydraulics is that valves are mainly solenoid operated.
The applications of stationary hydraulics are as follows:
 Production and assembly of vehicles of all types
 Machine tools and transfer lines
 Lifting and conveying devices
 Metal-forming presses
 Plastic machinery such as injection-moulding machines

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

 Rolling machines
 Lifts
 Food processing machinery
 Automatic handling equipment and robots
Mobile hydraulics: Mobile hydraulic systems move on wheels or tracks such as a tower
crane or excavator truck to operate in many different locations or while moving. A
characteristic feature of mobile hydraulics is that the valves are frequently manually
operated. The applications of mobile hydraulics are as follows:
 Automobiles, tractors, aeroplanes, missile, boats, etc
 Construction machinery
 Tippers, excavators and elevating platforms
 Lifting and conveying devices
 Agricultural machinery
Hydraulics and pneumatics have almost unlimited application in the production of goods and
services in nearly all sectors of the country. Several industries are dependent on the
capabilities that fluid power affords. Table 1.1 summarizes few applications of fluid power.
Table 1.1 More applications of fluid power
Agriculture Tractors; farm equipment such as mowers, ploughs, chemical
and water sprayers, fertilizer spreaders, harvesters
Automation Automated transfer lines, robotics
Automobiles Power steering, power brakes, suspension systems,
hydrostatic transmission
Aviation Fluid power equipment such as landing wheels in aircraft.
Helicopters, aircraft trolleys, aircraft test beds, luggage
loading and unloading systems, ailerons, aircraft servicing,
flight simulators
Construction For metering and mixing of concrete rudders, excavators, lifts,
industry/equipment bucket loaders, crawlers, post-hole diggers, road graders,
road cleaners, road maintenance vehicles, tippers
Defence Missile-launching systems, navigation controls
Entertainment Amusement park entertainment rides such as roller coasters
Fabrication Hand tools such as pneumatic drills, grinders, borers, riveting
industry machines, nut runners
Food and All types of food processing equipment, wrapping, bottling,
beverage
Foundry Full and semi-automatic moulding machines, tilting of
furnaces, die-casting machines
Glass industry Vacuum suction cups for handling

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Hazardous Hydraulic fracturing technologies: It involves pumping large

gaseous areas volumes of water and sand into a well at high pressure to
fracture shale and other tight formations, allowing hazardous
oil and gas to flow into the well. However, hydraulic fracturing
has serious environmental and water pollution related issues.
Instrumentation Used to create/operate complex instruments in space rockets,
gas turbines, nuclear power plants, industrial labs
Jigs and fixtures Work holding devices, clamps, stoppers, indexers
Machine tools Automated machine tools, numerically controlled(NC)
machine tools
Materials handling Jacks, hoists, cranes, forklifts, conveyor systems
Medical Medical equipment such as breathing assistors, heart assist
devices, cardiac compression machines, dental drives and
human patient simulator
Movies Special-effect equipment use fluid power; movies such as
Jurassic park, Jaws, Anaconda, Titanic
Mining Rock drills, excavating equipment, ore conveyors, loaders
Newspapers and Edge trimming, stapling, pressing, bundle wrapping
periodicals
Oil industry Off-shore oil rigs
Paper and Process control systems, special-purpose machines for rolling
packaging and packing
Pharmaceuticals Process control systems such as bottle filling, tablet
placement, packaging
Plastic industry Automatic injection moulding machines, raw material feeding,
jaw closing, movement of slides of blow moulder
Press tools Heavy duty presses for bulk metal formation such as sheet
metal, forging, bending, punching, etc.
Printing industry For paper feeding, packaging
Robots Fluid power operated robots, pneumatic systems
Ships Stabilizing systems, unloading and loading unit, gyroscopic
instruments, movement of flat forms, lifters, subsea inspection
equipment
Textiles Web tensioning devices, trolleys, process controllers
Transportation Hydraulic elevators, winches, overhead trams
Under sea Submarines, under sea research vehicles, marine drives and
control of ships
Wood working Tree shearers, handling huge logs, feed, clamp, sawing

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

The following are the two types of hydraulic systems:

 Fluid transport systems: Their sole objective is the delivery of a fluid from one
location to another to accomplish some useful purpose. Examples include pumping
stations for pumping water to homes, cross-country gas lines, etc.
 Fluid power systems: These are designed to perform work. In fluid power systems,
work is obtained by pressurized fluid acting directly on a fluid cylinder or a fluid
motor. A cylinder produces a force resulting in linear motion, whereas a fluid motor
produces a torque resulting in rotary motion.

Classification of Fluid Power Systems

The fluid power system can be categorized as follows:
 Based on the control system
Open-loop system: There is no feedback in the open system and performance is based
on the characteristics of the individual components of the system. The open-loop system
is not accurate and error can be reduced by proper calibration and control.
Closed-loop system: This system uses feedback. The output of the system is fed back
to a comparator by a measuring element. The comparator compares the actual output to
the desired output and gives an error signal to the control element. The error is used to
change the actual output and bring it closer to the desired value. A simple closed-loop
system uses servo valves and an advanced system uses digital electronics.
 Based on the type of control
Fluid logic control: This type of system is controlled by hydraulic oil or air. The system
employs fluid logic devices such as AND, NAND, OR, NOR, etc. Two types of fluid logic
systems are available:
(a) Moving part logic (MPL): These devices are miniature fluid elements using moving
parts such as diaphragms, disks and poppets to implement various logic gates.
(b) Fluidics: Fluid devices contain no moving parts and depend solely on interacting fluid
jets to implement various logic gates.
Electrical control: This type of system is controlled by electrical devices. Four basic
electrical devices are used for controlling the fluid power systems: switches, relays,
timers and solenoids. These devices help to control the starting, stopping, sequencing,
speed, positioning, timing and reversing of actuating cylinders and fluid motors. Electrical
control and fluid power work well together where remote control is essential.
Electronic control: This type of system is controlled by microelectronic devices. The
electronic brain is used to control the fluid power muscles for doing work. This system
uses the most advanced type of electronic hardware including programmable logic
control (PLC) or microprocessor (µP). In the electrical control, a change in system
operation results in a cumbersome process of redoing hardware connections.

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

The difficulty is overcome by programmable electronic control. The program can be

modified or a new program can be fed to meet the change of operations. A number of
such programs can be stored in these devices, which makes the systems more flexible.

Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Systems

A hydrostatic system uses fluid pressure to transmit power. Hydrostatics deals with the
mechanics of still fluids and uses the theory of equilibrium conditions in fluid. The system
creates high pressure, and through a transmission line and a control element, this pressure
drives an actuator (linear or rotational). The pump used in hydrostatic systems is a positive
displacement pump. The relative spatial position of this pump is arbitrary but should not be
very large due to losses (must be less than 50 m). An example of pure hydrostatics is the
transfer of force in hydraulics.
Hydrodynamic systems use fluid motion to transmit power. Power is transmitted by the
kinetic energy of the fluid. Hydrodynamics deals with the mechanics of moving fluid and uses
flow theory. The pump used in hydrodynamic systems is a non-positive displacement pump.
The relative spatial position of the prime mover (e.g., turbine) is fixed. An example of pure
hydrodynamics is the conversion of flow energy in turbines in hydroelectric power plants.
In oil hydraulics, we deal mostly with the fluid working in a confined system, that is, a
hydrostatic system.

History of Fluid Power

Fluid power is as old as our civilization itself. Water was used for centuries to produce power
by means of water wheels and air was used to turn windmills and to propel ships. Chinese
used wooden valves to control water flow through bamboo pipes in 4000 BC. Ancient
Egyptians have built a masonry dam across Nile, 14 miles south to present Cairo, for the
control of irrigation water by canals, sluices, brick conduits and ceramic pipes. During the
Roman empire, extensive water systems using aqueducts, reservoirs and valves were
constructed to carry water to cities. However, these early uses of fluid power required the
movement of huge quantities of fluid because of the relatively low pressures provided by
nature.
Fluid power technology actually began in 1650 with the discovery of Pascal’s law. Simply
stated, this law says that pressure in a fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished equally in all
directions in a confined body of fluid. Pascal found that when he rammed a cork down into a
jug completely full of wine, the bottom of the jug broke and fell out. However, in order for
Pascal’s law to be made effective for practical use, it was necessary to make a piston that
would fit exactly. Not until over 100 years later was this accomplished. It was in 1795
thatJoseph Brahmah invented the cup packing that led to the development of a workable
hydraulic press. Brahmah’s hydraulic press consisted of a plunger pump piped to a large

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

cylinder and a ram. This new hydraulic press found wide use in England because it provided
a more effective and economical means of applying large force to industrial applications.
In 1750, Bernoulli developed his law of conservation of energy for a fluid flowing in a
pipeline. Both Pascal’s and Bernoulli’s laws operate at the heart of all fluid power
applications and are used for analytical purposes. However, it was not until the Industrial
Revolution of 1850 in Great Britain that these laws were actually applied to the industry.
The first use of a large hydraulic press for foregoing work was made in 1860 by Whitworth.
In the next 20 years, many attempts were made to reduce the waste and excessive
maintenance costs of the original type of accumulator. In 1872, Rigg patented a three-
cylinder hydraulic engine in which provision was made to change the stroke of plungers to
vary its displacement without a throttle valve. In 1873, the Brotherhood three-cylinder,
constant- stroke hydraulic engine was patented and was widely used for cranes, winches,
etc. Both the above-mentioned engines were driven by fluid from an accumulator.
Up to this time, electrical energy was not developed to power the machines of industry.
Instead, fluid power was being used to drive hydraulic equipment such as cranes, presses,
shearing machines, etc. With electricity emerging dominantly in the 19th century, it was soon
found superior to fluid power for transmitting power over great distances.
The modern era in fluid power began around the turn of the century. Fluid applications were
made to such installations as the main armament system of USS Virginia in 1906. In these
applications, a variable-speed hydrostatic transmission was installed to drive the main guns.
Since that time, marine industry has applied fluid power to cargo-handling systems,
controllable pitch controllers, submarine control system, aircraft elevators, aircraft- and
missile-launching system and radar/sonar-driven systems. In 1926, the United States
developed the first unitized, packaged hydraulic system consisting of a pump, controls and
an actuator.
Today fluid power is used extensively in practically every branch of industry. The innovative
use of modern technology such as electrohydraulic closed loops, microprocessors and
improved materials for component construction continues to advance the performance of
fluid power systems. The military requirements kept fluid power applications and
developments going at a good pace. Aviation and aerospace industry provided the impetus
for many advances in fluid power technology.

Advantages of a Fluid Power System

Oil hydraulics stands out as the prime moving force in machinery and equipment designed to
handle medium to heavy loads. In the early stages of industrial development, mechanical
linkages were used along with prime movers such as electrical motors and engines for
handling loads. But the mechanical efficiency of linkages was very low and the linkages
often failed under critical loading conditions. With the advent of fluid power technology and
associated electronics and control, it is used in every industry now.

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:

1. Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately:
Fluid power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism. Using fluid
power, we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large
forces/components with great accuracy using simple levers and push buttons. For example,
in Earth-moving equipment, bucket carrying load can be raised or lowered by an operator
using a lever. The landing gear of aircraft can be retrieved to home position by push button.
2. Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a
fraction of a kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
3. Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power and
control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems. The fluid
power controls can be placed at a central station so that the operator has, at all times, a
complete control of the entire production line, whether it be a multiple operation machine or a
group of machines. Such a setup is more or less standard in the steel mill industry.
4. Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large
amount of torque while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and pneumatic motors can
even maintain torque at a very slow speed without overheating.
5. Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force
regardless of speed changes.
6. Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or
elimination of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use of
fluid power.
7. Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio
compared to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
8. Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of
vital importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in
mining and manufacture of delicate products. For example, hydraulic systems are
responsible for the safety of takeoff, landing and flight of aeroplanes and space craft. Rapid
advances in mining and tunneling are the results of the application of modern hydraulic and
pneumatic systems.

Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid
for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 1.1 shows hydraulic system with basic components.
Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1.1 are as follows:
 The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical
power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic
cylinder) or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion.

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Figure 1.1 Components of a hydraulic system

 The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the
hydraulic circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
 Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing
through the circuit.
 External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
 Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
 Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
 Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean
and efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
 Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.
The piping shown in Fig. 1.1 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage
tank to one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank.
Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of
pressure. If the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back
to the reservoir and remains there until the pressure acquires the required level.
Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.
 When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port A and thus the load is raised.
 When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.
 When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder(thereby holding
it in position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return
to tank via the pressure relief).

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Figure 1.2 Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols)

In industry, a machine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a circuit
diagram. Figure 1.2 shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The
working fluid, which is the hydraulic oil, is stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is
switched ON, it runs a positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a filter
and delivers at high pressure. The pressurized oil passes through the regulating valve and
does work on actuator. Oil from the other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return
line. To and fro motion of the cylinder is controlled using directional control valve.
The hydraulic system discussed above can be broken down into four main divisions that are
analogous to the four main divisions in an electrical system.
 The power device parallels the electrical generating station.
 The control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers, pressure switches, relays,
etc.
 The lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the electrical lines.
 The fluid power motor (whether it is a rotating or a non-rotating cylinder or a fluid
power motor) parallels the solenoids and electrical motors.

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid
for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 1.3 shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic
components.

Figure 1.3 Components of a pneumatic system.

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 1.3 are as follows:
 The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform
useful work.
 The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
 The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
 The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed
air.
 External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
 The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an
air compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is
provided to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated
pressurized air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir,
a pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and
reaches the required level, respectively.
The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way
similar to its hydraulic circuit.

Comparison between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

Usually hydraulic and pneumatic systems and equipment do not compete. They are so
dissimilar that there are few problems in selecting any of them that cannot be readily

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

resolved. Certainly, availability is one of the important factors of selection but this may be
outweighed by other factors. In numerous instances, for example, air is preferred to meet
certain unalterable conditions, that is, in “hot spots” where there is an open furnace or other
potential ignition hazard or in operations where motion is required at extremely high speeds.
It is often found more efficient to use a combined circuit in which oil is used in one part and
air in another on the same machine or process. Table 1.2 shows a brief comparison of
hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
Table 1.2 Comparison between a hydraulic and a pneumatic system
S. No. Hydraulic System Pneumatic System
1. It employs a pressurized liquid It employs a compressed gas, usually
as a fluid air, as a fluid
2. An oil hydraulic system operates at A pneumatic system usually operates
pressures up to 700 bar at 5–10 bar
3. Generally designed as closed system Usually designed as open system
4. The system slows down when leakage Leakage does not affect the system
Occurs Much
5. Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy
6. Heavier in weight Lighter in weight
7. Pumps are used to provide Compressors are used to provide
pressurized liquids compressed gases
8. The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards
9. Automatic lubrication is provided Special arrangements for lubrication
are needed

Future of Fluid Power Industry in India

The automation market in India is estimated to be 1/10ththat of China. If India has to become
one of the leading economies in the world, based on manufacturing, it will have to attain
higher technological standards and higher level of automation in manufacturing. In the past
30 years, fluid power technology rose as an important industry. With increasing emphasis on
automation, quality control, safety and more efficient and green energy systems, fluid power
technology should continue to expand in India. Fluid power industry is gaining a lot of
importance in Indian industry. According to a recent survey, it has shown a growth of 20%
over the last 10 years and the size of market is estimated to be close to 5000 crores per
annum. This makes it a sizable industry segment in India. The growth rate of this industry in
India is typically about twice the growth of economy.
The reasons for this are three-fold:
1. As the economy grows, this industry grows.
2. There is a lot of automation and conversion into more sophisticated manufacturing
methods which increases the rate.

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

3. One of the interesting things happening in this industry is that India is becoming an
attractive destination for manufacturing and outsourcing of some of the products.
So these three aspects together create a situation where the growth of this industry is twice
the growth of GDP in India. The fluid power sector in India consists of many sophisticated
Indian industries and partnership with number of global fluid power technology leaders that
include Festo, Rexroth, Vickers, Eaton, Parker Hannifin, Norgen, , Saucer Donfos, Yuken,
Siemens, Shamban, Pall and Gates, , Rotex, , Janatics, Maxwell, Wipro Dynamatic
Technologies and many more. One of the major segments for hydraulic industry in India is
mobile hydraulics. Because of massive programs on road construction, there is a major
expansion of construction machinery industry as well. In addition to this, a trend toward the
usage of more sophisticated hydraulics in tractors and farm equipment is witnessed. The
manufacturing industry in India is working toward higher automation and quality of output. As
Indian industry moves toward: Modernization to meet the productivity and to compete in the
global market, an excellent potential for the pneumatic industry is expected in India. Another
area of interest for fluid power industry would be the opportunities in defence equipment.
Defence is a major market segment in Indian fluid power industry and contributes to over
40% of the market demand. There is also a move toward products with miniature
pneumatics, process valves, servo drives, hydraulic power steering with new controls and
sophisticated PLC, microprocessor controls. However, the key input required for the effective
utilization of fluid power is education and training of users. So there is a big need for
education and training in design application and maintenance of fluid power systems.
Rexroth recently opened many competence centers in India to train the manpower and to
create awareness about the use of fluid power in Indian industy.

Introduction to basic laws

Fluid power systems are designed using all the principles learned in fluid mechanics. It is
appropriate to briefly review these principles before proceeding with our study of the
applications. One of underlying postulates of fluid mechanics is that, for a particular position
within a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions. This follows directly from
Pascal’s Law. Other postulate states that fluids can support shear forces only when in
motion. Two postulates define the features of fluids used to transmit power & control motion.

Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law states that the pressure exerted on a confined fluid is
 transmitted undiminished in all directions
 acts with equal force on equal areas
 acts at right angles to the containing surfaces
In Fig. 1.1, a force is being applied to a piston, which in turn exerts a pressure on the
confined fluid. The pressure is equal everywhere and acts at right angles to the containing

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

surfaces. Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area and is expressed as Pressure
= F/A, where F is the force acting on the piston, A is the area of the piston and P is the
pressure on the fluid.

Multiplication of Force
The most useful feature of fluid power is the ease with which it is able to multiply force. This
is accomplished by using an output piston that is larger than the input piston. Such a system
is shown in Fig. 1.2.

This system consists of an input cylinder on the left and an output cylinder on the right that is
filled with oil. When the input force is Fin on the input piston, the pressure in the system is
given by

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Here to obtain the output force, the input force is multiplied by a factor that is equal to the
ratio of the output piston area to the input piston area. If the output piston area is x times the
input piston area, then the output force is x times the input force. Generally, the cross-
sectional area of the piston is circular. The area is given by

Hence, the above equation can be written as

The conservation of energy is very fundamental principle. It states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. At first sight, multiplication of force as depicted in Fig.1.2 may give
the impression that something small is turned into something big. But this is wrong, since the
large piston on the right is only moved by the fluid displaced by the small piston on left.
Therefore, what has been gained in force must be sacrificed in piston travel displacement.
Now we shall mathematically derive force displacement relation and force power relation.

Force displacement relation: Hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence, the

volume displaced by the piston is equal to the volume displaced at the output piston:

Since the volume of a cylinder equals the product of its cross-sectional area and its height,
we have

Where Sin is the downward displacement of the input piston and Sout is the upward
displacement of the output piston:

Comparing

Force power relation: Hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence, the quantity of
oil displaced by the input piston is equal to the quantity of oil gained and displaced at the
output piston:
Flow rate is the product of area and volume of fluid displaced in a specified time

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Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Example 1
A pressure of 2000 Pa is transmitted throughout a liquid column due to a force being applied
on a piston. If the piston has an area of 0.1 m2, what force is applied?
This can be calculated using Pascal’s Law formula,
F = PA
Here,
P = 2000 Pa = N/m2
A = 0.1 m2
Substituting values, we arrive at F = 200 N

Example 2
An input cylinder with a diameter of 30 mm is connected to an output cylinder with a
diameter of 80 mm (Fig. 1.3). A force of 1000 N is applied to the input cylinder.
(a) What is the output force?
(b) How far do we need to move the input cylinder to move the output cylinder 100 mm?

Page 15 of 21 by Dr. Abhishek D. Patange at College of Engineering, Pune

Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Solution: Since the volume of a cylinder equals the product of its cross-sectional area and
its height, we have

Practical Applications of Pascal’s Law

The practical applications of Pascal’s law are numerous. In this section, two applications of
Pascal’s law are presented: (a) The hand-operated hydraulic jack and (b) the air-to-hydraulic
pressure booster.

Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack

This system uses a piston-type hand pump to power a hydraulic load cylinder for lifting
loads, as illustrated in Fig. 1.12. The operation is as follows:
1. A hand force is applied at point A of handle ABC which is pivoted at point C. The piston
rod of the pump cylinder is pinned to the input handle of the pump piston at point B.

Page 16 of 21 by Dr. Abhishek D. Patange at College of Engineering, Pune

Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

2. The pump cylinder contains a small-diameter piston that is free to move up and down. The
piston and rod are rigidly connected together. When the handle is pulled up, the piston rises
and creates a vacuum in the space below it. As a result, the atmospheric pressure forces the
oil to leave the oil tank and flow through check valve 1 to fill the void created below the pump
piston. This is the suction process.
3. A check valve allows flow to pass in only one direction, as indicated by the arrow. When
the handle is pushed down, oil is ejected from the small-diameter pump cylinder and it flows
through check valve 2 and enters the bottom end of the large-diameter load cylinder.
4. The load cylinder is similar in construction to the pump cylinder and contains a piston
connected to a rod. Pressure builds up below the load piston and equals the pressure
generated by the pump piston. The pressure generated by the pump piston equals the force
applied to the pump piston rod divided by the area of the pump piston.
5. The load that can be lifted equals the product of the pressure and the area of the load
piston. Also, each time when the input handle is cycled up and down, a specified volume of
oil is ejected from the pump to raise the load cylinder a given distance.
6. The bleed valve is a hand-operated valve, which, when opened, allows the load to be
lowered by bleeding oil from the load cylinder back to the oil tank.

Figure 1.12 Application of Pascal’s law: Hand-operated hydraulic jack

Air-to-Hydraulic Pressure Booster

This device is used for converting shop air into higher hydraulic pressure needed for
operating hydraulic cylinders requiring small to medium volumes of higher pressure oil. It

Page 17 of 21 by Dr. Abhishek D. Patange at College of Engineering, Pune

Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

consists of a cylinder containing a large-diameter air piston driving a small-diameter

hydraulic piston that is actually a long rod connected to the piston. Any shop equipped with
an airline can obtain smooth, efficient hydraulic power from an air-to-hydraulic pressure
booster hooked into the air line. The alternative would be a complete hydraulic system
including expensive pumps and high-pressure valves. Other benefits include space savings
and low operating and maintenance costs.
Figure 1.13 shows an application where an air-to-hydraulic pressure booster supplies high-
pressure oil to a hydraulic cylinder whose short stroke piston is used to clamp a work piece
to a machine tool table. Since shop air pressure normally operates at 100 psi, a
pneumatically operated clamp would require an excessively large cylinder to rigidly hold the
workpiece while it is being machined.

The air-to-hydraulic pressure booster operates as follows. Let us assume that the air piston
has 10 cm2 areas and is subjected to a 10 bar air pressure. This produces a 1000 N force on
the booster’s hydraulic piston. Thus, if the area of the booster’s hydraulic piston is 1 cm2, the
hydraulic oil pressure is 100 bar. As per Pascal’s law, this produces 100 bar oil at the short
stroke piston of the hydraulic clamping cylinder mounted on the machine tool table.

Page 18 of 21 by Dr. Abhishek D. Patange at College of Engineering, Pune

Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Example 3
An operator makes 15 complete cycles in 15 s interval using the hand pump shown in Fig.
1.14. Each complete cycle consists of two pump strokes (intake and power). The pump has
a piston of diameter 30 mm and the load cylinder has a piston of diameter 150 mm. The
average hand force is 100 N during each power stroke.
(a) How much load can be lifted?
(b) How many cycles are required to lift the load by 500 mm, assuming no oil leakage? The
pump piston has 20 mm stroke.
(c) What is the output power assuming 80% efficiency?

Page 19 of 21 by Dr. Abhishek D. Patange at College of Engineering, Pune

Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Differential hydraulic cylinders

Differential hydraulic cylinder will have a piston within its cylindrical housing. Area of piston,
where hydraulic pressure force will be applied by pressurized hydraulic fluid, will not be
equal at both ends.
If we will look the internal construction of differential hydraulic cylinder, we will come to know
that at cap end side there will be complete piston area where pressure force will be applied
by the pressurized hydraulic fluid. While at rod end side, hydraulic pressure force will be
applied over annular area of piston.

Page 20 of 21 by Dr. Abhishek D. Patange at College of Engineering, Pune

Industrial Fluid Power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) UG: Mechanical Engineering

Above picture indicates the differential hydraulic cylinder, where we may see that area of
piston is not equal at its both ends.
During extension of cylinder, hydraulic pressure force will be applied over the complete area
of piston from cap end side, while during retraction hydraulic pressure force will be applied
over the annular area of piston. Complete face area of piston and annular area of piston are
also displayed in above figure.
Non-differential hydraulic cylinders
Image displayed here indicates the non-differential hydraulic cylinder. As we can see here,
there will be piston rod extended at both end in such type of hydraulic cylinder and hence
speed as well as thrust will be equal in each direction.
Such type of hydraulic cylinders could be used in an application where job could be done by
each end of the hydraulic cylinder.

Page 21 of 21 by Dr. Abhishek D. Patange at College of Engineering, Pune

Fluid Power

Actuation of double acting hydraulic cylinder

Cylinder

Rod end
Blank end

Port A
Connecting rod
Piston Port B

Mode of operation: Linear actuation/displacement

1. Extension / forward stroke (How to visualize?)
Connecting rod is coming out from cylinder or
piston is moving from left to right
2. Retraction / reverse stroke (How to visualize?)
Connecting rod is moving inside the cylinder or
piston is moving from right to left

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 21

Fluid Power

How to achieve Extension / forward stroke?

To move connecting rod out of the cylinder or to move piston from left to right,
Add oil to the blank end from port A and remove oil from rod end from port B
Piston Cylinder Connecting
Rod end rod
Blank end
Direction of cylinder motion

Direction of
cylinder force
Port A Port B

Pressure line Return line

Blue color indicates working pressure & Green color indicates return line pressure
must be connected to pump & must be connected to reservoir/tank

Look at the direction of actuation of cylinder and

entry/exit of oil..!!!

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 22

Fluid Power

How to achieve Retraction / reverse stroke?

To move connecting rod inside of the cylinder or to move piston from right to left,
Add oil to the rod end from port B and remove oil from blank end from port A
Piston Cylinder Connecting
Rod end rod
Blank end
Direction of cylinder motion

Port A Port B

Return line Direction of Pressure line

cylinder force

Green color indicates return line pressure Blue color indicates working pressure &
& must be connected to reservoir/tank must be connected to pump

Look at the direction of actuation of cylinder and

entry/exit of oil..!!!

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 23

Fluid Power

How to achieve direction control for extension?

Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end

Rod end

A B

P T

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 24

Fluid Power

How to achieve direction control for retraction?

Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end

Rod end

A B

P T

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 25

Fluid Power

How to achieve direction control for locking of cylinder?

Blank end
Locked at this position
(no motion)

Rod end
A B

P T

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 26

Fluid Power

How to achieve direction control?

Direction of cylinder motion
Blank end

Direction of
cylinder force
Rod end

A B A B A B
Hand lever 1 for
Hand lever 2 for
1st switching
3rd switching
position
position

Spring returned for Spring returned for

nd
2 switching position P T P T P T 2ndswitching position

Overall designation:
4/3 Direction control valve, double hand
lever operated, spring returned, blocked
centered

4 = Number of ports (A B P T)
3 = Number of switching
positions/ envelops / blocks

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 27

Fluid Power

What is back pressure? When it arise? How to avoid it?

Blank end Direction of cylinder motion

Direction of
cylinder force
Rod end

A B A B A B
Hand lever 1 for
1st switching
position

P T P T P T
For extension
Back pressure is a resistance or force Pressure relief valve
opposing the desired flow of fluid. At the (Normally closed and
end of the extension, blank end side and variable pressure)
pressure line will be full of oil and there is
no space for oil which is coming from
pump. This creates a back pressure and
thus it needs to be relieved. For this a
pressure relief valve must be added in At the end of the extension, system experiences back
pressure line (After a pump and before pressure, thus a pressure relief valve will be opened
direction control valve). and excessive oil will be returned to the tank.

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 28

Fluid Power

What is back pressure? When it arise? How to avoid it?

Direction of cylinder motion
Blank end

Rod end
Direction of cylinder force

A B A B A B
Hand lever 2 for
3rd switching
position

P T P T P T

For Retraction Pressure relief valve

At the end of the retraction, rod end side
(Normally closed and
and pressure line will be full of oil and variable pressure)
there is no space for oil which is coming
from pump. This creates a back pressure
and thus it needs to be relieved. For this a
pressure relief valve must be added in At the end of the retraction, system experiences back
pressure line (After a pump and before pressure, thus a pressure relief valve will be opened
direction control valve). and excessive oil will be returned to the tank.

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 29

Fluid Power

Calculation of pressure, velocity, power during extension

of a double acting cylinder Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end F = = 5000 N

= 40 mm Rod end
= 20 mm
A B
A pump supplies oil at 0.0016 / to 40 mm
diameter double acting cylinder. If the external
load acting on cylinder during extension and
retraction is 5000 N and connecting rod is 20
T
mm, find the
P
1. Hydraulic pressure during the extension
2. Velocity of piston during the extension
= 0.0016 / 3. Power in kW during the extension
4. Hydraulic pressure during the retraction
5. Velocity of piston during the retraction
6. Power in kW during the retraction

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 63

Fluid Power

Calculation of pressure during extension

Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end F = = 5000 N

= 40 mm Rod end
= 20 mm
A B
1. Hydraulic pressure during the extension

= =
P T

= = 0.04
4 4
= 0.0016 /

5000
= = 3978.87 kPa
0.04
4
Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 64
Fluid Power

Calculation of velocity during extension

Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end F = = 5000 N

= 40 mm Rod end
= 20 mm
A B
2. Velocity of piston during the extension

= =
P T

= = 0.04
4 4
= 0.0016 /
.
= = 1.27 m/sec
.

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 65

Fluid Power

Calculation of power during extension

Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end F = = 5000 N

= 40 mm Rod end
= 20 mm
A B
3. Power in kW during the extension

= ∗ = ∗
P T
= 5000 ∗ 1.27 = .

= 0.0016 /

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 66

Fluid Power

Calculation of pressure during retraction

Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end
F = = 5000 N

= 40 mm Rod end
= 20 mm
−
A B
1. Hydraulic pressure during the retraction

= =
−
P T − = ( − )

= (0.04 −0.02 )
4
5000
= = 5305.16 kPa
4 (0.04 −0.02 )
Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 67
Fluid Power

Calculation of velocity during retraction

Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end
F = = 5000 N

= 40 mm Rod end
= 20 mm
−
A B
2. Velocity of piston during the extension

= =
−
P T − = ( − )

= (0.04 −0.02 )
4
0.0016
= = 1.69 m/sec
4 (0.04 −0.02 )
Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 68
Fluid Power

Calculation of power during retraction

Direction of cylinder motion

Blank end
F = = 5000 N

= 40 mm Rod end
= 20 mm
−
A B
3. Power in kW during the extension

= ∗ = ∗

P T = 5000 ∗ 1.69 = .

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 69

Fluid Power

Extension Retraction

Pressure = < =
−
3978.87 kPa 5305.16 kPa

Velocity = < =
−
1.27 m/sec 1.69 m/sec

Power = ∗ < = ∗

. .

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 70

Fluid Power

Regenerative circuit (fast extension)

Blank end

Rod end

A B
A B A B

P T
P T
P T

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 71

Fluid Power

Regenerative circuit (fast extension)

Blank end

Direction of
cylinder force
Rod end

A B
A B A B

P T
P T
= + P T

Solving for the pump flow,

= −
= ∗ −[ ∗( − )]
= ∗ − ∗ + ∗
= ∗
= /

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 72

Fluid Power

Regenerative circuit (fast extension) Direction of

cylinder force
Blank end

Rod end

A B
A B A B

P T
P T
P T
Solving for velocity of retraction,
= /( − )

So if you compare the formulae for

Velocity of extension and retraction,
= /
= /( − )

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 73

Fluid Power

Regenerative circuit (fast extension)

Dividing velocity of extension by velocity of retraction,

/
=
/( − )

−
=

= −

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 74

Fluid Power

Regenerative circuit (fast extension)

Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 75

Fluid Power

Regenerative circuit (fast extension)

Extension Retraction

Simple = =
Pressure −

Regenerative
= =
−

Simple
= =
−
Velocity
Regenerative = =
−
Simple = ∗ = ∗
Power
Regenerative = ∗ = ∗
Abhishek D. Patange , Department of Mechanical Engineering, COEP 76
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