UNIT 1: FLUID POWER SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Fluid Power is the technology that deals with the generation, control, and transmission of
power, using pressurized fluids. Fluid power is called hydraulics when the fluid is a liquid
and is called pneumatics when the fluid is a gas.

Hydraulic systems use liquids such as petroleum oils, synthetic oils, and water. Pneumatic
systems use air as the gas medium because air is very abundant and can be readily exhausted
into the atmosphere after completing its assigned task.

COMPONENTS OF A FLUID POWER SYSTEM:

Hydraulic System:

There are six basic components required in a hydraulic system:

1) A tank (reservoir) to hold the hydraulic oil.

2) A pump to force the oil through the system.
3) An electric motor or other power source to drive the pump.
4) Valves to control oil direction, pressure, and flow rate.
5) An actuator to convert the pressure of the oil into mechanical force to do the useful work.
6) Piping to carry the oil from one location to the other.

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 Figure:1: Hydraulic Systems

Figure:2: Pneumatic Systems

Pneumatic systems have components that are similar to those used in hydraulic systems.

1) An air tank to store a given volume of compressed air.

2) A compressor to compress the air that comes directly from the atmosphere.

3) An electric motor or other prime mover to drive the compressor.

4) Valves to control air direction, pressure and flow rate.

5) Actuators, which are similar in operation to hydraulic actuators.

6) Piping to carry the pressurized air from one location to another.

ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER SYSTEM:

The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:

1) Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately: Fluid
power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism. Using fluid
power, we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large forces/components
with great accuracy using simple levers and push buttons.

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2) Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a
fraction of a kilogram to several hundreds of tons.

3) Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power and
control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems.

4) Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large
amount of torque while operating at low speeds.

5) Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force
regardless of speed changes.

6) Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or
elimination of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use of
fluid power.

7) Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio
compared to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.

8) Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of vital
importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in
mining and manufacture of delicate products.

APPLICATIONS OF FLUID POWER:

1) Agriculture: Tractors and farm equipments like ploughs, movers, chemical sprayers,
fertilizer spreaders.

2) Aviation: Fluid power equipments like landing wheels on aeroplane and helicopter,
aircraft trolleys, aircraft engine test beds.

3) Building Industry: For metering and mixing of concrete ingredients from hopper.

4) Construction Equipment: Earthmoving equipments like excavators, bucket loaders,

dozers, crawlers, and road graders.

5) Defence: Missile-launch systems and Navigation controls

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 6) Entertainment: Amusement park entertainment rides like roller coasters

7) Fabrication Industry: Hand tools like pneumatic drills, grinders, bores, riveting machines,
nut runners

8) Food and Beverage: All types of food processing equipment, wrapping, bottling

9) Foundry: Full and semi-automatic moulding machines, tilting of furnaces, die casting
machines

10) Material Handling: Jacks, Hosts, Cranes, Forklift, Conveyor system

TYPES OF FLUID POWER SYSTEM

The Fluid power system is divided in to two types. They are hydraulic and pneumatic system
depends upon the fluid medium used to transmit force.

 The hydraulic fluid power system employs liquid (like as water, petroleum oils and
synthetic oils) as fluid medium.
 The pneumatic fluid power system employs gas (Compressed Air) as the fluid medium.

TRANSMISSION OF POWER AT STATIC AND DYNAMIC STATES:

A hydrostatic system uses fluid pressure to transmit power. Hydrostatics deals with the
mechanics of still fluids and uses the theory of equilibrium conditions in fluid. The system
creates high pressure, and through a transmission line and a control element, this pressure
drives an actuator (linear or rotational). The pump used in hydrostatic systems is a positive
displacement pump. An example of pure hydrostatics is the transfer of force in hydraulics.

Hydrodynamic systems use fluid motion to transmit power. Power is transmitted by the
kinetic energy of the fluid. Hydrodynamics deals with the mechanics of moving fluid and
uses flow theory. The pump used in hydrodynamic systems is a non-positive displacement
pump. An example of pure hydrodynamics is the conversion of flow energy in turbines in
hydroelectric power plants. In oil hydraulics, we deal mostly with the fluid working in a
confined system, that is, a hydrostatic system.

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https://byjus.com/physics/pascals-law-and-its-application/

PASCAL’S LAW (MULTIPLICATION OF FORCE):

Pascal’s law reveals the basic principle of how fluid power systems perform useful work.
This law can be stated as follows:

Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions throughout

the fluid and acts perpendicular to the surface in contact with the fluid.

Figure:3: Pascal`s Law

The above figure shows how Pascal’s law can be applied to produce a useful amplified output
force. Consider an input force of 10N is applied to a 1-m2 area piston. This develops a
10N/m2 pressure throughout the oil within the housing. This 10N/m2 pressure acts on a 10-m2
area piston producing a 100N output force. This output force performs useful work as it lifts
the 100N weight.

FLUIDS FOR HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:

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The most important material in a hydraulic system is the working fluid itself. Hydraulic fluid
characteristics have a crucial effect on equipment performance and life. It is important to use
a clean, high-quality fluid in order to achieve efficient hydraulic system operation.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

1) Water: The least expensive hydraulic fluid is water. Water is treated with chemicals before
being used in a fluid power system. This treatment removes undesirable contaminates.

2) Petroleum Oils: These are the most common among the hydraulic fluids which are used in
a wide range of hydraulic applications. The characteristic of petroleum based hydraulic oils
are controlled by the type of crude oil used.

3) Water Glycols: These are solutions contains 35 to 55% water, glycol and water soluble
thickener to improve viscosity. Additives are also added to improve anticorrosion, anti-wear
and lubricity properties.

4) Water Oil Emulsions: These are water-oil mixtures. They are of two types’ oil-in-water
emulsions or water-in-oil emulsions. The oil-in-water emulsion has water as the continuous
base and the oil is present in lesser amounts as the dispersed media. In the water-in-oil
emulsion, the oil is in continuous phase and water is the dispersed media.

5) Phosphate Ester: It results from the incorporation of phosphorus into organic molecules.
They have high thermal stability. They serve an excellent detergent and prevent building up
of sludge.

PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

1) Viscosity: It is a measure of the fluid’s internal resistance offered to flow.

2) Viscosity Index: This value shows how temperature affects the viscosity of oil. The
viscosity of the oil decreases with increase in temperature and vice versa. The rate of change
of viscosity with temperature is indicated on an arbitrary scale called viscosity index.

3) Oxidation Stability: The most important property of hydraulic oil is its oxidation stability.
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 Oxidation is caused by a chemical reaction between the oxygen of the dissolved air and the
oil. The oxidation of the oil creates impurities like sludge, insoluble gum and soluble acidic
products. The soluble acidic products cause corrosion and insoluble products make the
operation sluggish.

4) Demulsibility: The ability of a hydraulic fluid to separate rapidly from moisture and
successfully resist emulsification is known as Demulsibility.

5) Lubricity: The ability of the hydraulic fluid to lubricate the moving parts efficiently is
called Lubricity.

6) Rust Prevention: The moisture entering into the hydraulic system with air causes the parts
made of ferrous materials to rust. This rust if passed through the precision made pumps and
valves may scratch the nicely polished surfaces. So inhibitors are added to the oil to keep the
moisture away from the surface.

7) Pour Point: The temperature at which oil will clot is referred to as the pour point i.e. the
lowest temperature at which the oil is able to flow easily.

8) Flash Point and Fire Point: Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off
vapour in sufficient quantity to ignite momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. The
minimum temperature at which the hydraulic fluid will catch fire and continue burning is
called fire point.

9) Neutralization Number: The neutralization number is a measure of the acidity or

alkalinity of a hydraulic fluid. This is referred to the PH value of the fluid. High acidity
causes the oxidation rate in an oil to increase rapidly.

10) Density: It is that quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the substance.

11) Compressibility: All fluids are compressible to some extent. Compressibility of a liquid
causes the liquid to act much like a stiff spring. The coefficient of compressibility is the
fractional change in a unit volume of liquid per unit change of pressure.

SELECTION OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

The compressibility of a liquid is the change in its volume when pressure changes by a unit amount. Liquids
are generally considered to be incompressible because 7 the changes in density caused by pressure and
temperature are small. However, liquids can be compressed to a greater degree if hydrophobic porous
particles are dispersed into them.
A hydraulic fluid has the following four primary functions:

1) Transmit Power

2) Lubricate moving parts

3) Seal clearances between mating parts

4) Dissipate heat
In addition a hydraulic fluid must be inexpensive and readily available. From the selection
point of view, a hydraulic fluid should have the following properties:

1) Good lubricity

2) Ideal viscosity

3) Chemical stability

4) Compatibility with system materials

5) High degree of incompressibility

6) Fire resistance

7) Good heat-transfer capability

8) Low density

9) Foam resistance

10) Non-toxicity

11) Low volatility

This is a challenging list, and no single hydraulic fluid possesses all of these desirable
characteristics. The fluid power designer must select the fluid that is the closest to being ideal
overall for a particular application.

ADDITIVES:

Various additives are added to the fluid to sustain the important characteristics. Few such
additives are:

1) Anti-foaming: They are added to reduce foaming of fluid.

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2) Anti-wear: Wear resistant chemicals are added to the fluid to protect critical hydraulic
components from wear.

3) Corrosion inhibitor: Chemicals are added to protect surfaces from chemical attack by
water.

4) Biocide: Emulsifying chemicals are added to the fluid to inhibit growth of water-borne
bacteria.

5) Emulsifier: These are added to facilitate formation and stabilisation of an emulsion.

6) Lubrication Oiliness agents: Extreme Pressure (EP) agents are added to the fluid to
enhance lubrication characteristics for effective full film boundary lubrication between the
mating parts.

7) Flocculants: Chemicals added to dispersion of solids in a liquid to combine fine particles

to form floe or small solid masses in the fluid.

8) Deionisation: Elements which provide hardness like calcium, manganese, iron, and
aluminium salts are removed through deionisation of the water.

9) Oxidation inhibitor: Anti-oxidation additives are added to provide anti-oxidation

characteristics. Oxidation changes the chemical characteristics of the fluid.

10) Vapour phase inhibitor: Prevention of oxidation or corrosion of metals in contact with
the vapour phase of the fluid is ensured by addition of appropriate chemicals.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON HYDRAULIC FLUID:

Viscosity is the most important property of a hydraulic fluid. Temperature has an adverse
effect on the viscosity of hydraulic oil. Hence it has to be seen that the operating temperature
of a hydraulic system is kept at a reasonably constant level. Otherwise there will be
tremendous losses in the system which will reduce the overall efficiency.

A hydraulic fluid that is too viscous generates more friction and heat and usually causes high-
pressure drop, sluggish operation, low-mechanical efficiency, and high-power consumption.
On the other hand low-viscosity fluids permit efficient low-drag operation, but tend to

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increase wear, reduce volumetric efficiency, and promote leakage.

SEAL:

The seal is an agent which prevents leakage of oil from the hydraulic elements and protects
the system from dust/dirt. The major function of the seal is to maintain pressure, prevent loss

of fluid from the system and to keep out contamination in the system to enhance its working
life and functional reliability over a longer period.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEALS:

According to the method of sealing:

1. Positive sealing: A positive seal prevents even a minute amount of oil from getting past.
A positive seal does not allow any leakage whatsoever (external or internal).
2. Non-positive sealing: A non-positive seal allows a small amount of internal leakage,
such as the clearance of the piston to provide a lubrication film.

According to the relative motion existing between the seals and other parts:

1. Static seals: These are used between mating parts that do not move relative to one another.
These are relatively simple. They are essentially non-wearing and usually trouble-free if
assembled properly.

2. Dynamic seals: These are assembled between mating parts that move relative to each
other. Hence, dynamic seals are subject to wear because one of the mating parts rubs against
the seal.
According to geometrical cross-section:

1. O-rings: O-ring is the most widely used seal for hydraulic systems. It is a moulded
synthetic rubber seal that has a round cross-section in its free state. O-ring can be used for the
most static and dynamic conditions. It gives effective sealing through a wide range of
pressures, temperatures and movements.

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 Figure:4: O-rings

2. V seal and U-ring seal: V- and U-ring seals are compression-type seals used in virtually
all types of reciprocating motion -ring applications. These include piston rods and piston

seals in pneumatic and hydraulic cylinder, press rank, jacks and seals on plungers and piston
in reciprocating pumps.

Figure:5: V-Seal and U-ring

3. T-ring seal: T-ring seal is a dynamic seal that is extensively used to seal cylinder-pistons,
piston rods and other reciprocating parts. It is made of synthetic rubber moulded in the shape
of the cross-section T and reinforced by backup rings on either side. The sealing edge is
rounded and seals very much like an O-ring.

Figure:6: T-Ring Seal

4. Piston cup packings: Piston cup packings are designed specifically for pistons in
reciprocating pumps and pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders. They offer the best service life
for this type of application, require a minimum recess space and minimum recess machining,
and can be installed easily and quickly.

5. Piston rings: Piston rings are seals that are universally used for cylinder pistons. Piston
rings offer substantially less opposition to motion than synthetic rubber (elastomer) seals.
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SEALING MATERIALS:

Various metallic and non-metallic materials are used for fabrication of seals that are used in
hydraulic systems. Leather, metals and elastomers are very common seal materials.

1) Leather: This material is rugged and inexpensive. However, it tends to squeal

(scream/screech) when dry and cannot operate above 90 C, which is inadequate for many
hydraulic systems. Leather does operate well at cold temperatures to about -50 C.

2) Buna-N: This material is rugged and inexpensive and wears wells. It has a rather wide
operating temperature range (-45 C to 110 C) during which it maintains its good sealing
characteristics.

3) Silicone: This elastomer has an extremely wide operating temperature range (-65 C to
232 C). Hence it is widely used for rotating shaft seals and static seals. Silicone has low tear
resistance and hence not used for reciprocating seal applications.

4) Neoprene: This material has a temperature range of 50 C to 120 C. it is unsuitable

above 120 C because of its tendency to vulcanize.

5) Viton: This material contains 65% fluorine. It has become almost a standard material for
elastomer-type seals for use at elevated temperatures up to 240 C. Its minimum operating
temperature is 28 C.

6) Tetrafluoroethylene: This material is the most widely used plastic for seals of hydraulic
systems. It is a tough, chemically inert, waxy solid, which can be processed only by
compacting and sintering. It has excellent resistance to chemical breakdown up to
temperatures of 370 C.

PIPES AND HOSES:

In a hydraulic system, the fluid flows through a distribution system consisting of pipes
(conductors) and fittings, which carry the fluid from the reservoir through operating
components and back to the reservoir.

Hydraulic systems use primarily four types of conductors:

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1. Steel pipes

2. Steel tubing

3. Plastic tubing

4. Flexible Hoses

The choice of which type of conductor to use depends primarily on the system’s operating
pressures and flow-rates radial slot contains a vane, which is free to slide in or out of the slots
due to centrifugal force. The cam ring axis is offset to the drive shaft axis. When the rotor
rotates, the centrifugal force pushes the vanes out against the surface of the cam ring. The
vanes divide the space between

QUICK ACTING COUPLINGS:

Couplings are precision components, engineered for specific uses with exact dimensions and
close tolerances. There are a variety of applications in modern industrial plants for quick
connect (QC) couplings both for pneumatically operated tools as well as other fluid power
equipments which can be connected rapidly to their power source to permit wide versatility
for production needs. For instance, in connecting or disconnecting a tractor and its
hydraulically actuated agricultural component.

QCs make changes simple, do not require additional hand tools, take little time and do not
require the help of additional trade or skill. They are devices which permit the rapid
connection or disconnection of fluid conductors.

Fluid Power Symbols:

Table.1.ISO Designation

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Laminar flow or streamline flow in pipes (or tubes) occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers,
with no disruption between the layers. At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow without lateral
mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another like playing cards. There are no cross-currents
perpendicular to the direction of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluids. In laminar flow, the motion
of the particles of the fluid is very orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the
pipe walls. Any lateral mixing (mixing at right angles to the flow direction) occurs by the action
of diffusion between layers of the liquid. Diffusion mixing can be slow however if the diameter of
the pipe of tube is small then this diffusive mixing can be very significant.

Figure:7: Laminar Flow

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Turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic property changes. This includes rapid
variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time. In contrast to laminar flow the fluid no
longer travels in layers and mixing across the tube is highly efficient. Flows at Reynolds numbers
larger than 4000 are typically (but not necessarily) turbulent, while those at low Reynolds
numbers below 2300 usually remain laminar. Flow in the range of Reynolds numbers 2300 to
4000 and known as transition.

Figure:8: Turbulent Flow

Laminar and turbulent flows can exist in the same tube network when operated at different flow
rates. The Reynolds number for a Vapourtec 1mm bore tubular reactor flowing water at 10
ml/min is only slightly above 200. We can safely assume that under normal operational
conditions the flow through to tubing reactors of our flow chemistry systems can be described as
Laminar Flow.
Reynolds Number:
The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a fluid which is
subjected to relative internal movement due to different fluid velocities. A region where these
forces change behavior is known as a boundary layer, such as the bounding surface in the interior
of a pipe.
Darcy Weisbach Equation:

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Fluid Power Actuators:

Fluid power actuators receive fluid from a pump (typically driven by an electric motor). After
the fluid has been pressure, flow, and directionally controlled, the actuator converts its energy into
rotary or linear motion to do useful work. Cylinders account for more than 90% of the actuators
used in fluid power systems for work output. Of the approximately 10% of actuators that produce
rotary output, more than 90% are hydraulic motors, while the rest are some form of rotary
actuator.
Single Acting Ram Cylinders

The symbols and cutaway views in single-acting ram cylinders in push and pull types. Rams can be
as small and simple as a service station lift operated by air over oil, or as big and complex as a
100,000-ton extrusion press. Single-acting rams often are mounted vertically up and are weight
returned. When a ram cylinder is mounted vertically down or horizontally, it must have some
method of retracting it to the home position. Small single-acting pull rams mounted alongside the
large working ram -- raise and hold it in the up position with a counterbalance valve (not shown).
A directional valve or a bi-directional pump directs fluid to the push or pull rams to make them
cycle. Another retraction method uses single-acting push rams that oppose the platen movement
from the opposite side. (For a circuit that uses a large-diameter vertical down acting ram cylinder)
Small ram cylinders may be returned manually or via a spring.

Figure:9: Single Acting Ram Cylinders

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Ram cylinders only have seals where the ram passes through the body. Anytime a ram cylinder
drifts from its stopped position, the cause is valve or pipe leakage if no fluid is coming out around
the ram seal.

As the ram moves, stops and guide protrusions on it keep it aligned and indicate maximum stroke.
Usually on large-area rams, the stops tear off the packing gland and bushing retainers if the ram is
not stopped some other way. Most machines using rams have other methods to keep them from
over stroking. (Some only have warning placards about problems if the ram is powered beyond
certain limits.) The guide protrusions and bushing align the ram in its housing so it runs true.

When there is a need for a long-stroke actuator with a short retracted length, one option is a
telescoping cylinder. Although the majority of telescoping cylinders are single acting, double-
acting models are available. Most telescoping cylinders stroke slowly and cycle infrequently
because their construction is not robust enough for high production applications.

Figure:10: Single and Double Acting Telescoping Cylinders

Telescoping Ram Cylinders

The cutaway views and symbols in Figure depict typical multi-stage telescoping cylinders. The one
on the left is single acting; the one on the right is double acting. Single-acting telescoping cylinders
are usually mounted vertically with the small ram up. The cylinder then can be weight returned.
This arrangement leaves the large ram with its ports attached to a stationary machine member.

Double-acting telescoping cylinders can be mounted vertically with the small ram down or
horizontally when required. The best mounting position for any double-acting telescoping cylinder
is with the small ram attached to a stationery machine member so the ports do not move. Long-
stroke double-acting telescoping mounted horizontally need some sort of carrier to support the
center section during extension so they will not sag and wear out seals and bushings prematurely.
Also note: the return area may only be only 10% of the extend area, so the return force is not
capable of doing much work. This small area also requires very little fluid to give maximum
retraction speed without excessive backpressure at the extend port. Another possible problem with
double-acting telescoping cylinders occurs if the retract port is blocked while the cylinder is trying
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to extend. Up to a 10:1 intensification can result and the high pressure may damage the housing or
rams. Installing a safety relief valve at the retract port may be necessary if this port can be blocked
or restricted for any reason.

For all telescoping cylinders, make sure the small ram can do the work required. As a telescoping
cylinder starts to extend, the large ram always moves first at a lower pressure. When the first and
subsequent rams bottom out, pressure and speed increase due to the decreased ram area. If the small
ram produces insufficient force, the unit stops before making a full stroke.

Several suppliers build double-acting pneumatic telescoping cylinders in small sizes, with up to
three stages. One manufacturer makes a single-acting telescoping cylinder with internal porting and
matching areas that cause all rams to move in unison as they extend and retract. These cylinders
come in a maximum of three stages because the area staging would make any more rams into a
vastly oversized package. An integral combination check and relief valve allows the rams to be
filled and bled and to stroke fully in case of bypass at the seals. This design’s main advantage is
smooth extension and retraction without the bumps of a typical telescoping unit.

Piston and Rod Cylinders

The cutaway view and symbol in Figure is for a typical industrial-grade tie-rod cylinder. This
cylinder includes all the standard features available from most manufacturers. The names of the
parts are what most fluid power glossaries propose, while the names in brackets may be in common
use. The cap end and head end seal off the tube ends with tube-end seals. Tie rods hold the
assembly together. The tie rods are tightened to a torque that will resist as much as five times the
cylinder’s rated pressure. Tie-rod construction gives the package some flexibility or stretch without
permanent deflection or damage. The piston provides the area for fluid to work against. The piston
seals stop bypass that would waste energy. The piston rod transmits the force on the piston to the
outside of the envelope and is attached to the work mechanism. The rod bushing and rod seal keep
the rod aligned and stop fluid leaks to atmosphere. Cap end and rod end cushion plungers block
high fluid flow near the end of stroke to allow smooth, no-shock stopping. Cushion-adjusting
screws make it possible to adjust stopping speed, while cushion-bypass checks let the piston move
rapidly as the cushion plungers are leaving their chambers.

Figure:11: Typical industrial-grade single-rod end tie-rod cylinder

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The symbol on the left is the detailed symbol for a hydraulic cylinder with adjustable cushions on
both ends. This cylinder also could be as shown as: non-cushioned, cushioned rod end only, or
cushioned cap-end only. (When the energy triangles at the ports are blackened, the cylinder is
pneumatic.) The simplified symbol shows less detail but represents the same unit. The 2:1
information over a single rod end cylinder indicates that the rod area is half that of the piston.
(Cylinders with 2:1 area ratio will be discussed later in this chapter.)

Figure:12: Single-acting spring-return and extend cylinders

The spring return and extend cylinders in Figure illustrate another method of moving cylinder
pistons and rods for some applications. The cutaway views show typical construction (using a tie-
rod cylinder as the basic unit). Many other designs are available but essentially use similar parts.
Notice that the pistons have mechanical stops to keep the spring from compressing enough to
bottom out. Breather ports for air operation or connections for tank drains for hydraulic cylinders
are commonly found at the spring end. Most manufacturers indicate that the spring is only capable
of returning the piston and rod. It may not be capable of returning the external load. Springs can be
less than reliable and difficult to monitor especially when they are internal. Because there usually
is little savings in hook up or operation, use these cylinders with care.
Tandem Cylinder:

The tandem cylinder in Figure can produce almost twice the force from the same diameter, but it is
a little over twice the length. The two cylinders can be independently piped or drained to give extra
force in one direction only or both directions. The center heads have guide bushings and seals for
both sections so a different fluid can also be used in either end. (See Chapter 17 to learn how
tandem cylinders allow oil to control speed and air as the power source. Circuits for matched and
unmatched tandem cylinders can be found in the author’s upcoming e-book Fluid Power Circuits
Explained.)

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 Figure:13: Tandem cylinders with attached rod

The tandem cylinder in Figure has a common rod for both pistons. The tandem cylinder
in Figure has two separate pistons and rods and two different stroke lengths. This combination can
be used to get three positive stops from an air or hydraulic cylinder with no special valves or
controls. The stops are mechanically fixed, so the stop positions are in the same place every time.
However, the stop positions only work for one situation. A four- or five-way directional valve at
each cylinder plus flow controls are all that is normally required to operate this circuit.

Special consideration must be used in circuit design for the unattached tandem cylinder in Figure. If
the long-stroke cylinder is not restrained while the short-stroke cylinder extends, it can over travel
and miss the exact position. This problem is exaggerated with horizontal or vertical rod-down
applications. Meter-out flow controls or counterbalance valves can eliminate the problem, but could
increase cycle time in some cases.

Figure:14: Tandem cylinders with attached rod for three positive stop positions (left) and cap-to-
cap cylinders for four positive positions (right)
Double Rod End Cylinder:
The cap-to-cap mounted cylinders in Figure depict another way to use pneumatic or hydraulic
cylinders to obtain positive positioning without special valves or equipment. Two four- or five-way
valves and flow controls usually make this circuit operate smoothly. Some designers specify
double-rod end cylinders such as those shown in Figure. These cylinders cost about twice as much

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as single-rod cylinders and the design has a second place for fluid to leak. In most cases the reason
for using them can be accomplished by other methods with equal or better results. If you must use a
double-rod end cylinder, remember to allow space for the extra rod and the safety hazard it can
cause. Also, the rod reduces the area on the working side of the piston, so a larger bore or higher
pressure is necessary in many cases.

Figure:15: Double-rod end cylinders

A double-rod end cylinder might be specified so that the force and speed in both directions is the
same when flow and pressure are equal. This may be true, but flow controls and a reducing valve
can accomplish the same result at a reduced cost and in less space. Another alternative is a
regeneration circuit, used when producing the exact speed and force in both directions is not
critical. (Regeneration circuits are covered extensively in the author’s upcoming e-book Fluid
Power Circuits Explained.)

It may appear that double-rod end cylinders reduce rod flexure when the cylinder is fully extended.
The rods in their bushings and the piston in its bore provide snug bearing points -- but allow some
play. As the piston nears the end of stroke, two of the bearing points get closer together, so lateral
movement at the extended end of the rod can increase. It is supposed that the opposite rod will
reduce lateral movement and hold the attached load closer to a centered position. However, from
the cutaway it is obvious the distance between the piston bearing and the opposite rod bushing
almost eliminates any centering effect of the piston. A better way to reduce lateral movement of the
extended rod is to stop the piston short of full stroke – either by an internal stop tube or externally
by machine members. This arrangement requires a longer cylinder but gives the desired results at a
lower cost.

A main reason for using double-rod end cylinders is to mount limit switches to show cylinder
position. A special bracket opposite the attachment end holds the limit switches and a doughnut-
shaped protrusion on the rod contacts them as the piston strokes. For the same price (and
consuming a lot less space), most cylinder manufacturers offer limit switches that attach to the head
and/or cap and are activated by cushion plungers. Another signal indicator especially for
pneumatics – is a Hall-effect switch and a magnetic piston to activate it.

All of the above cylinder-position indicators have one potential major flaw. If the part attached to
the rod end gets disconnected for any reason, the machine still will cycle when the cylinder moves
even though the disconnected load may be in the way. If at all possible, mount limit switches on the
machine member so its position is never misinterpreted.

Rodless Cylinder:

26
The cylinders in Figure take up less space on long-stroke applications because they only need
mounting space slightly longer than their stroke length. Conventional piston-and-rod cylinders
require space more than twice their stroke length -- and can be difficult to conveniently place on
many machines.

The earliest long-stroke design is the cable cylinder – shown at top left in Figure. A coated cable
fitted with a work piece attachment, wrapped around two pulleys, and attached to a piston in a bore
produces reciprocating motion as fluid -- usually air -- enters and exhausts through the ports. These
cylinders are usually 4-in. bore or less, and may have strokes up to 30 ft (or more in certain
configurations). Cushions may be specified when required. The cable is coated with nylon or
Teflon so it can slide through seals with minimal damage to them. However, the coatings are prone
to cracking and eventually will cut the seals until they leak. (The symbol for the cable cylinder is
adapted from a manufacturer’s catalog because ISO does not show one.)

Figure:16: Types of Cylinder

The rodless cylinder, top right in the figure, was introduced in the late 1970s. It is even more
compact than a cable cylinder and avoids the coating wear problem. It consists of a piston in a bore
that has a slot open to atmosphere along its whole length. A seal blocks air from escaping through
the slot while the piston is not present. A second contamination seal keeps debris from filling the
slot. The fluid seal and contamination seal pass through slots in the piston in slots as it reciprocates.
The work piece attachment (connected to the piston) reciprocates to move machine members as
fluid enters and exhausts the cylinder. Bores up to 2 12 in. and strokes as long as 33 ft are available
from several manufacturers. Cushions may be specified when required.

The band cylinder is an alternative to the cable cylinder. Its smooth steel band passes through seals
instead of a coated cable. The magnetic-drive cylinder uses magnetic attraction to keep the piston
and work piece attachment connected. It operates at pressures up to 120 psi and will maintain
connection up to 180 psi.

One manufacturer has a modified rodless cylinder with a toothed belt and pulley arrangement to
drive the work piece attachment. It offers the option of an external output shaft to which a brake can
27
be fitted to stop and hold position. This output shaft can also drive an encoder to show work piece
position or can connect to another unit for synchronization. It also could act as a low power rotary
actuator. It is available in 1- or 1 12-in. bores and up to 177-in. stroke.

Linear Actuators
The actuators in Figure depict other ways of producing linear force. The rolling diaphragm,
diaphragm, and bellows actuators are single acting. The rolling diaphragm is capable of long
strokes but not long life at high cycles. The diaphragm is designed only for short-stroke
applications only but can have high force due to large areas. All these single-acting devices use
some internal or external method to retract them. Using vacuum and weight are two of the methods
used for retracting bellows. The double-acting rolling diaphragm operates like a double-acting
piston cylinder but is not designed for long life at high cycles.

Figure:17: Double Acting Actuators

Cushioning Mechanism:
Cylinders that move at high speed need some sort of deceleration method to keep them from
slamming when they reach end of stroke. Some applications with high speed and heavy loads may
need valves and limit switches to give enough time to bring the load to a smooth stop. For most
cases standard cylinder cushions work well. They are 3/4- to 11/16-in. long and can be in the head
or cap end or both. Cushions add cost on most cylinders so should not be specified when
unnecessary.
The cutaway in Figure shows a cylinder with an oversize rod and standard cushions on both ends.
The cushion-adjusting screw and cushion bypass check valve can only be installed in the cap end
28
because the cushion plunger on the rod end is so large there is no room for them. The necessity of
oversize rods is a problem for most manufacturers. It is possible to taper the cushion and get a
smooth stop but it also slows the stroke as the cushion plunger leaves its chamber. The best option
to control deceleration of oversize rod cylinders’ extend stroke is with external valves or
proportional directional controls.

Figure:18: Cushioning
The other problem with oversize rods and rod-end cushions is the high intensification pressure
present when working pressure is high and/or there is a heavy overrunning load. Pressure in the rod
end can easily reach two-to-four times rated pressure each time the cylinder extends. High pressure
can damage tube end seals and piston seals, and stretch the cylinder tube past its tensile limits.

The top cutaway in Figure shows the cylinder piston moving to end of stroke with full flow exiting
through the cushion chambers almost unrestricted. This means the cylinder can travel fast until the
cushion plungers enter their chambers. The bottom cutaway is what happens after the cushion
plungers have entered the cushion chambers. Trapped fluid decelerates the piston quickly to a speed
set by the cushion-adjusting screws. Deceleration is sudden on the straight cushion plungers shown
here because hydraulic fluid is almost non-compressible. The piston continues to end-of-stroke at a
preset controlled speed without damage to itself or the machine.

On cylinders with standard and some oversize rod sizes, the rod-end cushion would function the
same as one on the cap end. There is always some pressure intensification on the rod end but this is
normally not a problem. When the cylinder starts to extend again, the cushion bypass check valve
opens to allow fluid to the full piston area so it can extend quickly at full force. Without the bypass
valves, takeoff speed would be as slow as deceleration on retract.

The cutaways in Figure show a way of making cushions work. In actual cylinder design, cushions
are built in many ways but the general function is the same. One company offers a self
compensating non-adjustable cushion option without adjusting screws or bypass checks. Another
supplier offers tapered or tapered slots in the plungers that give smooth deceleration instead of the
sudden slowdown. Tapered cushions only work for a given pressure, load, and mounting position.
They must be figured from information collected prior to building the cylinder.

Pneumatic Cylinder Cushioning

29
Pneumatic cylinder cushions have similar designs but operate differently because the fluid is
compressible. When the cushion plunger enters a cushion chamber, the trapped air starts
compressing according to Boyles’ Law discussed in Chapter 1. When the load is light and the
starting trapped pressure is high enough, the cylinder stops smoothly without slamming. When the
load is heavy and/or starting trapped pressure is low, the cylinder slows but still may bang the end
of stroke. This situation requires the addition of external deceleration in the form of valves and/or
shock absorbers. Often the rod cushion is ineffective due to less area for the trapped fluid to work
against. As with hydraulic cylinders, oversize rods exaggerate the problem.

Most suppliers offer standard cushions on both air and hydraulic cylinders. This option could
smooth the operation of certain heavy loads that need extra deceleration distance. These longer
cushions only work well for a fixed load and speed condition. If the machine has changing loads
and/or speeds a cushion is not the way to go. Using external shock absorbers or proportional valves
makes control easy to setup.

Cylinder Mounting

The mounting styles shown in Figure depict the standard NFPA-approved ways to mount cylinders.
Up to 25 different companies make cylinders that match these styles in every dimension. This
means no supplier has to be the sole source for any cylinder on a machine. Starting at top left are
the least expensive mounting styles. Tie-rod mounts are extensions of the tie-rod threaded section.
These extensions go through a machine member with nuts installed and tightened to hold the
cylinder in place.

Rotary Actuators:

A rotary actuator is an actuator that produces a rotary motion or torque. The simplest actuator is
purely mechanical, where linear motion in one direction gives rise to rotation. The most
common actuators are electrically powered; others may be powered pneumatically or hydraulically,
or use energy stored in springs. A rotary actuator is a pneumatic cylinder used to provide a turning
or angular movement, allowing a stroke in an oscillating motion through a defined angle. They are
durable and give a relatively high force (torque) for size. Rotary actuators simplify a design and can
reduce maintenance issues.

Manual Rotary Actuator

Often a manual rotary actuator will employ a worm drive to increase the torque that a worker can
physically apply to close a valve. Such actuators are common on quarter-turn butterfly and ball
valves where the self-locking capabilities of many worm drives help to keep the valve shut. These
actuators will often use large hand wheels to further increase a worker’s available torque. These
devices are sometimes referred to as “gear operators” or “manual overrides” in the valve industry.

Electric Rotary Actuators

Electric rotary actuators typically drive through a worm-gear reducer as well. They use
reversible motors to move the valves between open and closed positions. Models are available that
will return the valve to a safe position upon power loss using either stored spring energy or battery
30
or capacitor backup. Generally, the stored spring design requires a more complex transmission to
wind the spring. Electric rotary actuators are easily adapted to distributed control systems. Hand
wheels are generally provided for manual override, usually with a declutching feature.

Fluid Powered Rotary Actuators

Fluid power – be it air or hydraulic oil – is applied to cylinders to move rack-and-pinion assemblies
and scotch yokes, or to vaned rotors for direct shaft actuation. These actuators generally move
between stops of 90° to 360°, depending on the rotational requirements of a given valve or
component.

Rack-and-pinion styles use at least one, and sometimes two or four, cylinders to drive the rack(s)
past the pinion. The pinion rotates in response, driving the output shaft. A rack-and-pinion actuator
will continue to revolve the pinion until it reaches the end of the stroke, although modulation is
possible both with air and hydraulic systems. Hydraulic systems are better at holding a valve
partway open because of the incompressibility of oil. In many instances, the pistons in the cylinders
will work against large coil springs which provide the valve with the capacity to return to a safe
position during a power interruption.

Scotch-yoke actuators also use cylinders, generally single-acting with spring return. This style is
usually limited to 90° of rotation and sees applications in quarter-turn valves.

Hydraulic and pneumatic vane actuators use one or two vanes attached to a hub within a circular
chamber, a kind of cylinder-in-the-round. Air or oil pressure is used to revolve the hub between
stops and produce motion at the output stem.

Another rotary-actuator style is used mainly with hydraulic pressure. It employs a cylinder and set
of helical gears to convert a linear input to a rotary, oscillatory output. In theory, the limits of
rotation for such a device is only bounded by the length of the piston stroke.

Electro hydraulic actuators combine electrical hydraulic pumps with traditional hydraulic actuators
to take advantage of the benefits of each. Such devices require only electrical inputs, produce
significant torque, and are fail-safe—their downside being cost. In many instances, several
hydraulic actuators could be served less expensively from a single hydraulic power pack.

Gear Motor

Gear motors are mechanisms that adjust the speed of electric motors, leading them to operate at a
certain speed. They are composed of a series of gears that make up a kinematic chain, working on a
set of rotary parts. A gear motor is an all-in-one combination of an electric motor and a gearbox.
This makes it a simple, cost-effective solution for high-torque, low-speed applications because it
combines a motor with a gear reducer system.

31
 Figur:19:Gear Motor

 It consists of two inter meshing gears inside a housing with one gear attached to the drive
shaft. Figure shows a schematic diagram of Gear motor.
 The air enters from the inlet, causes the rotation of the meshing gear due to difference in the
pressure and produces the torque.
 The air exists from the exhaust port. Gear motors tend to leak at low speed, hence are
generally used for medium speed applications.

Vane Motor

A vane motor consists of housing with an eccentric bore, in which runs a rotor with vanes in it that
slide in and out. The force differential created by the unbalanced force of the pressurized fluid on
the vanes causes the rotor to spin in one direction. A vane motor consists of a housing with an
eccentric bore, in which runs a rotor with vanes in it that slide in and out. The force differential
created by the unbalanced force of the pressurized fluid on the vanes causes the rotor to spin in one
direction.

32
 Figure:20: Vane Motor
Vane motors have a slotted rotor mounted on a driveshaft that is driven by the rotor (Fig. 5). Vanes,
closely fitted into the rotor slots, move radially to seal against the cam ring. The ring has two major
and two minor radial sections joined by transitional sections or ramps. These contours and the
pressures introduced to them are balanced diametrically.

In some designs, light springs force the vanes radially against the cam contour to ensure a seal at
zero speed so the motor can develop starting torque. The springs are assisted by centrifugal force at
higher speeds. Radial grooves and holes through the vanes equalize radial hydraulic forces on the
vanes at all times.

Pressure fluid enters and leaves the motor housing through openings in the side plates at the ramps.
Pressure fluid entering at the inlet ports moves the rotor counterclockwise. The rotor transports the
fluid to the ramp openings at the outlet ports to return to tank. If pressure were introduced at the
outlet ports, it would turn the motor clockwise.

The rotor is separated axially from the side plate surfaces by the fluid film. The front side plate is
clamped against the cam ring by pressure and maintains optimum clearances as temperature and
pressure change dimensions.

Vane motors provide good operating efficiencies, but not as high as those of piston motors.
However, vane motors generally cost less than piston motors of corresponding horsepower ratings.
The service life of a vane motor usually is shorter than that of a piston motor, though. Vane motors
are available with displacements of 20 in.3/rev. Some low-speed/high-torque models come with
displacements to 756 in.3/rev. Except for the high-displacement, low-speed models, vane motors
have limited low-speed capability.

Piston Motor:

33
Radial-piston motors have a cylinder barrel attached to a driven shaft (Figure). The barrel contains
a number of pistons that reciprocate in radial bores. The outer piston ends bear against a thrust ring.
Pressure fluid flows through a pintle in the center of the cylinder barrel to drive the pistons
outward. The pistons push against the thrust ring and the reaction forces rotate the barrel.

Shifting the slide block laterally to change the piston stroke varies motor displacement. When the
centerlines of the cylinder barrel and housing coincide, there is no fluid flow and therefore the
cylinder barrel stops. Moving the slide past center reverses the direction of motor rotation.

Radial piston motors are very efficient. Although the high degree of precision required in the
manufacture of radial piston motors raises initial costs, they generally have a long life. They
provide high torque at relatively low shaft speeds and excellent low-speed operation with high
efficiency. Also, they have limited high-speed capabilities. Radial piston motors have
displacements to 1,000 in.3/rev. Axial-piston motors also use the reciprocating piston motion
principle to rotate the output shaft, but motion is axial, rather than radial. Their efficiency
characteristics are similar to those of radial-piston motors. Initially, axial-piston motors cost more
than vane or gear motors of comparable horsepower. Like radial piston motors, they also have a
long operating life. Consequently, their higher initial cost may not truly reflect the expected overall
costs during the life of a piece of equipment. In general, axial piston motors have excellent high-
speed capabilities. Unlike radial piston motors, though, they are limited at low operating speeds.
The inline type will operate smoothly down to 100 rpm, and the bent-axis type will provide smooth
output down to the 4-rpm range. Axial piston motors are available with displacements from a
fraction to 65 in.3/rev.

Figure:21: Piston Motor

Inline-piston motors generate torque through pressure exerted on the ends of pistons that
reciprocate in a cylinder block (Figure). In the inline design, the motor driveshaft and cylinder
block are centered on the same axis. Pressure at the ends of the pistons causes a reaction against a
tilted swash plate and rotates the cylinder block and motor shaft. Torque is proportional to the area
of the pistons and is a function of the angle at which the swash plate is positioned.

34
These motors are built in fixed- and variable-displacement models. The swash plate angle
determines motor displacement. In the variable model, the swash plate is mounted in a swinging
yoke, and the angle can be changed by various means, ranging from a simple lever or hand-wheel to
sophisticated servo controls. Increasing the swash plate angle increases the torque capacity but
reduces driveshaft speed. Conversely, reducing the angle reduces the torque capacity but increases
driveshaft speeds (unless fluid pressure decreases). Angle stops are included so torque and speed
stay within operating limits.

A compensator varies motor displacement in response to changes in the workload. A spring-loaded

piston is connected to the yoke and moves it in response to variations in operating pressure. Any
load increase is accompanied by a corresponding pressure increase as a result of the additional
torque requirements. The control then automatically adjusts the yoke so torque increases when the
load is light. Ideally, the compensator regulates displacement for maximum performance under all
load conditions up to the relief valve setting.

Figure: 22: Variable displacement Model - Piston Type

Bent-axis piston motors develop torque through a reaction to pressure on reciprocating

pistons (Figure). In this design, the cylinder block and driveshaft are mounted at an angle to each
other. The reaction is against the drive-shaft flange.

35
Speed and torque change with changes in the angle, from a predetermined minimum speed with a
maximum displacement and torque at an angle of approximately 30Ëš to a maximum speed with
minimum displacement and torque at about 7.5Ëš. Both fixed- and variable-displacement models
are available.

36
 UNIT - II HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS

Hydraulic power, also called Fluid Power, power transmitted by the controlled circulation of
pressurized fluid, usually a water-soluble oil or water–glycol mixture, to a motor that converts it
into a mechanical output capable of doing work on a load.
PUMP CLASSIFICATION
All pumps are classified as either positive-displacement or non-positive-displacement.
Most pumps which are used in hydraulic systems are positive-displacements. Non-positive-
displacement pumps produce a continuous flow. Both propeller pumps and centrifugal pumps are
typical examples of a non-positive design.
Three different types of hydraulic pumps exist: gear pumps, piston pumps and vane pumps.
GEAR PUMP
A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most
common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. The gear pump was invented
around 1600 by Johannes Kepler.
Gear pumps are also widely used in chemical installations to pump high viscosity fluids. There are
two main variations: external gear pumps which use two external spur gears, and internal gear
pumps which use an external and an internal spur gears (internal spur gear teeth face inwards, see
below). Gear pumps are positive displacement (or fixed displacement), meaning they pump a
constant amount of fluid for each revolution. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either
a motor or a pump.
As the gears rotate they separate on the intake side of the pump, creating a void and suction which
is filled by fluid. The fluid is carried by the gears to the discharge side of the pump, where the
meshing of the gears displaces the fluid. The mechanical clearances are small— in the order of 10
μm. The tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from
leaking backwards. The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for very high pressures and the
ability to pump highly viscous fluids.
Many variations exist, including helical and herringbone gear sets (instead of spur gears), lobe
shaped rotors similar to Roots blowers (commonly used as superchargers), and mechanical designs
that allow the stacking of pumps. The most common variations are shown below (the drive gear is
shown blue and the idler is shown purple).
An external precision gear pump is usually limited to a maximum working pressure of 210 bars
(21,000 kPa) and a maximum speed of 3,000 rpm. Some manufacturers produce gear pumps with
higher working pressures and speeds but these types of pumps tend to be noisy and special
precautions may have to be made.
Suction and pressure ports need to interface where the gears mesh (shown as dim gray lines in the
internal pump images). Some internal gear pumps have an additional, crescent-shaped seal (shown
above, right). This crescent functions to keep the gears separated and also reduces eddy currents.

37
TYPES OF GEAR PUMP
There are two basic types: external and internal. An external gear pump consists of two identical,
interlocking gears supported by separate shafts. An internal gear pump has two interlocking gears
of different sizes with one rotating inside the other.

External

An external gear pump uses two external gears (Figure 1, below) that displace non-lubricating
fluids (gears are oil lubricated). The mechanism is usually driven by one of the toothed gears,
which in turn drives the other. Three factors are involved in the regulation of flow: volume of
cavity between the teeth, speed of gears, and the amount of fluid that slips back to the inlet
(tolerance dependant) via the mechanism. There are three main types of external gears: spur, helical
and herringbone. Helical and herringbone deliver more flow at higher pressure while also being
quieter, but may require a greater inlet pressure than spur (EPW, 2012)

Figure:1: External Gear Pump

Internal

An internal gear pump uses internal and external gears (Figure 2, below). The gears themselves are
lubricated by the fluid, which is of a lubricating nature. The internal design is seen as being reliable,
easy to operate and maintain – due to only two moving parts being present. Only one drive gear is
required for the mechanism to function but it is possible to use two. The pump will usually contain
at least one bushing (EPW, 2012). The design can also be modified to include a crescent shaped
portion that improves performance when pumping high viscosity fluids (Figure 2). Internal gear
pumps have relatively low speed and inlet pressure requirements.

38
 Figure:2: Internal Gear Pump

Vane Pump:

Vanes are allowed to slide into and out of the rotor and seal on all edges, creating vane chambers
that do the pumping work. On the intake side of the pump, the vane chambers are increasing in
volume. These increasing-volume vane chambers are filled with fluid forced in by the inlet
pressure.

A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes mounted to a rotor that
rotates inside a cavity. In some cases these vanes can have variable length and/or be tensioned to
maintain contact with the walls as the pump rotates.

The rotor is sealed into the cam by two side plates. Vanes or blades fit within the slots of the
impeller. As the rotor rotates (yellow arrow) and fluid enters the pump, centrifugal force, hydraulic
pressure, and/or pushrods push the vanes to the walls of the housing.
Vane pumps are available in a number of vane configurations including sliding vane (left),
flexible vane, swinging vane, rolling vane, and external vane. Vane pumps are noted for their dry
priming, ease of maintenance, and good suction characteristics over the life of the pump.
The simplest vane pump consists of a circular rotor rotating inside of a larger circular cavity.
The center's of the two circles are offset, causing eccentricity. Vanes are allowed to slide into and
out of the rotor and seal on all edges, creating vane chambers that do the pumping work. On the
intake side of the pump, the vane chambers are increasing in volume. These increasing volume vane
chambers are filled with fluid forced in by the inlet pressure. Inlet pressure is actually the pressure
from the system being pumped, often just the atmosphere. On the discharge side of the pump, the
vane chambers are decreasing in volume, forcing fluid out of the pump. The action of the vane
drives out the same volume of fluid with each rotation.
Usually, the pump mechanism comprises of a cylindrically shaped rotor rotating inside an
asymmetrically shaped casing or cavity. The cylindrical rotor often has a number of rectangle
39
shaped slots running linearly along the outside of the cylinder. As the rotor turns, centrifugal force
causes the vanes to move outward, such that the outer edge of the vane stays in touch with the
inside surface of the asymmetrically shaped casing. In some cases the vanes can be tensioned. The
asymmetrical shape of the casing causes the vanes to move in and out of the slots as the rotor turns.
As the vanes move past the suction port of the pump, a vacuum is created. This vacuum is what
draws fluid into the pumping chamber. The fluid then moves between the vanes, and is eventually
forced out the discharge port of the pump. Like many rotary pumps, the direction of the fluid flow
can be reversed by reversing the direction of rotation of the pump.
Typical Applications for Vane Pumps
Vane pumps can be used in many different positive displacement applications. They can handle
thin and low viscosity liquids, like water and petrol. They don’t work particularly well with highly
viscous fluids, as the higher viscosity prevents the vanes from moving freely in the slots.

Due to the fact that they can handle a wide range of viscosities, Vane pumps are often widely used
for fuel loading terminals, fuel transport vehicles, solvents, alcohol and even soft drinks and syrups.

Vane pumps are available in many different configurations and can also handle fluids with a wide
range of temperatures and pressures. Since they often are used for pumping clean hydrocarbons
including gas and light oils, vane pumps are normally constructed with ductile iron casings and
metal rotors. The vanes are often made of carbon, which exhibits a good lubricity to keep the vanes
sliding inside the slots and against the inside surface of the casing.

The type of fluid being handled plays a large part in whether this pump is right for a specific
application. High-viscosity or thicker fluids will obviously greatly reduce the speed of the pump —
and a therefore vane pump might not be the best choice. In some cases vane pumps present a good
alternative to gear pumps for pumping relatively low viscosity oils.

Vane pumps generally work within the following ranges:

 Flow rate ranges between 20 to 9500 lpm

 Total head (pressure) ranges between 1 to 14 Bar
 Horsepower ranges between 1 to 300 hp

Figure:3: Vane Pump

40
Piston Pump
A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal reciprocates
with the piston. Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress gases. They can operate
over a wide range of pressures. High pressure operation can be achieved without a strong effect on
flow rate.
Piston pumps and plunger pumps use a mechanism (typically rotational) to create
a reciprocating motion along an axis, which then builds pressure in a cylinder or working barrel to
force gas or fluid through the pump. The pressure in the chamber actuates the valves at both the
suction and discharge points.
The piston pump is strong, as well as simple devices. These pumps are made with a chamber, a
piston, and a couple of control devices. These pumps function by flowing downward into the
chamber, thus reducing the media within a hand pump. When the air pressure surpasses from the
opening valve spring, then the reduced media can be sent throughout the open exit valve. As the
piston is drawn back-up, then it releases the inlet valve & shuts the outlet valve, thus suction can be
used to draw in extra media for compression. This article discusses an overview of piston-pump,
working, types, etc.
Working:
The piston pump working is similar to PD pumps. Because they work with the help of the pumping
mechanism force to increase the volume of the liquid. These pumps can use the power from power
sources.
These pumps include more than one piston with a set of control devices. The duplex pump includes
two pistons as well as two controlling devices. Similarly, a triplex pump includes three pistons as
well as three controlling devices. It is very important to check the controlling devices on both sides
to ensure that the flow of liquid direction at both sides is flowing or not.

These pumps are single otherwise double acting pumps. Double acting pumps involve two sets of
controlling devices & liquid on both ends. This lets the pump to complete a pumping cycle by
flowing in one direction to other. When the piston is taking in one direction, then it will exhaust at
another side. This pump needs solo action versions for flowing in both directions for completing a
cycle.

Types of Piston Pumps

These pumps are classified into different types namely lift pump, a force pump, axial pump, and
radial piston-pump. From these pumps, lift and force pumps can operate manually otherwise with
the help of an engine.

41
 Figure:4: Types of Piston Pumps

Lift Piston Pump:

In this type of pump, the piston above stroke can draw fluid with the help of a control device which
is named as valve into the below portion of the cylinder. On the below stroke, fluid flows through
control devices which are arranged in the piston into the higher portion of the cylinder. After that
on the upstroke, fluid can be released from the higher portion of the cylinder through a spout.

Force Piston Pump

In this type of pump, the piston pumps upstroke can draw fluid throughout an inlet valve to
the cylinder (tube). On top of the downstroke, the fluid level can be discharged via an exit valve
into the outlet tube.

Axial Piston Pump

This is pump is a PD (positive displacement) pump and it has several pistons within a circular array
of a tube block. This block can be driven to turn its symmetry axis with an important shaft which is
associated with the pumping pistons. These pumps can be used like an automotive air conditioning
compressor, a separate pump, otherwise a hydraulic motor.
Radial Piston Pump

This pump is one kind of hydraulic pump, and the working pistons expand within a radial track
symmetrically in the region of the drive shaft, in disparity in the direction of the axial piston pump.

Specifications

The main specifications while choosing these pumps mainly include the rate of flow, head of the
pump, volume stroke, pressure, outlet diameter, power rating, horsepower, and finally operating
temperature.

42
Materials

The materials used to design the piston-pump mainly depend on the application of a pump. The
casing and cylinder materials must have sufficient strength as well as they have to hold up adjacent
to the operating environment conditions. Materials to get in touch with the pumped media require to
resistant for any rust-induced with the liquid. Some type of materials used in this pump is discussed
below.

 Cast iron offers high tensile power, robustness, and scratch resistance equivalent to high
force ratings.
 Plastic materials are cheap as well as offer a wide resistance toward rust as well as chemical
attack.
 Stainless steel alloys and steel give safety against rust and chemical and they have superior
tensile powers compare with plastics, equivalent to superior pressure ratings.
 Other types of materials used to design the pump mainly include aluminum, brass, bronze,
ceramics, and nickel-alloy.
Advantages

The advantages of a piston pump mainly include the following.

 The range of pressure is wide

 Force can be managed without moving flow rate.
 The rate of flow and Pressure changes has a small outcome on the act.
 Skilled in moving of thick fluids, slurries, as well as abrasives with good control device
design.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of piston pump mainly include the following.

 Maintenance cost, & operating is high usually bulky and heavy

 They handle only lesser flow rates
 Flow is Pulsating
Thus, this is all about piston pumps which are used like hydraulic pumps for powering heavy
machines as well as small machines. Piston pump applications mainly include transferring paint,
pastry, chocolate, etc. The size of these pipes has increased for utilizing in industries. All types of
piston-pumps in the form of radial and axial are also used in advanced industrial applications,
which include numerous pistons arranged within a round cylinder block.

43
 Figure:5:Piston Pumps

Pump Performances:
A hydraulic pump is a mechanical device that converts mechanical power into hydraulic energy. It
generates flow with enough power to overcome pressure induced by the load. Second, its
mechanical action delivers this liquid to the pump outlet and forces it into the hydraulic system.
Variable Displacement Pumps:
Variable-Displacement Pump. In this pump, pumping-chamber sizes can be changed. The GPM
delivery can be changed by moving the displacement control, changing the drive speed, or doing
both. The pump can be used in a closed-center system—a pump continues to operate against a load
in the neutral condition.
Directional control valve:
Directional control valves (DCVs) are one of the most fundamental parts of hydraulic and
pneumatic systems. DCVs allow fluid flow (hydraulic oil, water or air) into different paths from
one or more sources The position of the spool restricts or permits flow, thus it controls the fluid
flow.
Directional control valves may be classified in several ways. The most common method is by the
type of valving element used in the construction of the valve. The most common types of valving
elements are the ball, cone, sleeve, poppet, rotary spool, and sliding spool.
Four-way, directional-control valves are used to control the direction of fluid flow in a hydraulic
circuit, which controls the direction of movement of a work cylinder or the rotation of a fluid
motor. Four-way valves consist of a rectangular cast body, a sliding spool, and a way to position a
spool.
Solenoid operated directional valves are used in circuits where 2-way, 3-way, and 4-way functions
are required. Sun offers both direct acting and pilot operated, and are available in poppet and spool
configurations.

44
The 4-Way Directional Valve block represents a directional control valve with four ports and
three positions, or flow paths. The ports connect to what in a typical model are a hydraulic pump
(port P), a storage tank (port T), and a double-acting actuator (ports A and B).
Three-way valves have three pipe connection s and two orifices. When one orifice is open, the other
is closed, and vice versa. They are commonly used to alternately apply pressure to and exhaust
pressure from a valve actuator or a single-acting cylinder.
A 2-way valve stops flow or allows flow. A 4-way valve pressurizes and exhausts two ports
interdependently. A 3-position, 4-way valve stops an actuator or allows it to float. The 4-
way function is a common type of directional control valve for both air and hydraulic circuits.
5/3 or 4/3 air valves, like the 5/2 or 4/2 air valves, are used to power double acting air actuators.
The 5/3 and 4/3 body design allow compressed air to flow to one port of a double acting air
actuator while simultaneously allowing air to exhaust from the other port on the same air actuator at
the same time.

Shuttle Valve:
A shuttle valve is a type of valve which allows fluid to flow through it from one of two sources.
Generally a shuttle valve is used in pneumatic systems, although sometimes it will be found in
hydraulic systems.
The basic structure of a shuttle valve is like a tube with three openings; one on each end, and one in
the middle. A ball or other blocking valve element moves freely within the tube.
When pressure from a fluid is exerted through an opening on one end it pushes the ball towards the
opposite end. This prevents the fluid from traveling through that opening, but allows it to flow
through the middle opening. In this way two different sources can provide pressure without the
threat of back flow from one source to the other.
The shuttle valve is a pneumatic OR valve and is also called as a double check valve.
The valve consists of a valve body and a synthetic ball or cuboid valving element moving inside the
bore in the valve housing. With its design based on a mechanical iris, the Shutter Valve controls
flow by moving the petals into any position needed. At full open, the Shutter Valve has 0%
pressure drop (P1=P2) and because there is no obstruction in the flow path when open, cavitation,
noise, water hammer, wear and tear are lowered.

45
 Figure:6: Shuttle Valve
A shuttle valve has several applications including:

1. The use of more switches on one machine: by using the shuttle valve, more than one switch
can be operated on a single machine for safety, and each switch can be placed at any
suitable location. This application is normally used with heavy industrial machinery.
2. Winch brake circuit: a shuttle valve provides brake control in pneumatic winch applications.
When the compressor is operated the shuttle valves direct air to open the brake shoes.
When the control valve is centered, the brake cylinder is vented through the shuttle valve,
and the brake shoes are allowed to close.
3. Air pilot control: converting from air to oil results in locking of the cylinder. Shifting the
four-way valve to either extreme position applies the air pilot through the shuttle valve,
holding the two air-operated valves open and applying oil under air pressure to the
corresponding side of the cylinder. Positioning a manual valve to neutral exhausts the air
pilot pressure, closing the two-way valves, and trapping oil on both sides of the cylinder to
lock it in position.
4. Standby and emergency systems: compressor systems requiring standby or purge gases
capability are pressure controlled by the shuttle valve. This is used for instrumentation,
pressure cables, or any system requiring continuous pneumatic input. If the compressor
fails, the standby tank—regulated to slightly under the compressor supply—will shift the
shuttle valve and take over the function. When the compressor pressure is re-established,
the shuttle valve shifts back and seals off the standby system until needed again.

Check Valve:
A check valve, clack valve, non-return valve, reflux valve, retention valve or one-way valve is
a valve that normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction. Check
valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the body, one for fluid to enter and
the other for fluid to leave. There are various types of check valves used in a wide variety of
applications. Check valves are often part of common household items. Although they are available
in a wide range of sizes and costs, check valves generally are very small, simple, or inexpensive.
Check valves work automatically and most are not controlled by a person or any external control;
accordingly, most do not have any valve handle or stem. The bodies (external shells) of most check
valves are made of plastic or metal.
An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure which is the minimum differential
upstream pressure between inlet and outlet at which the valve will operate. Typically the check
valve is designed for and can therefore be specified for a specific cracking pressure. Heart
valves are essentially inlet and outlet check valves for the heart ventricles, since the ventricles act
as pumps.

46
 Figure:7 : Check Valve
Types of Check Valve
A ball check valve is a check valve in which the closing member, the movable part to block the
flow, is a ball. In some ball check valves, the ball is spring-loaded to help keep it shut. For those
designs without a spring, reverse flow is required to move the ball toward the seat and create a seal.
The interior surface of the main seats of ball check valves are more or less conically-tapered to
guide the ball into the seat and form a positive seal when stopping reverse flow.
Ball check valves are often very small, simple, and cheap. They are commonly used in liquid or gel
mini pump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping air, etc., manual air
pumps and some other pumps, and refillable dispensing syringes. Although the balls are most often
made of metal, they can be made of other materials; in some specialized cases out of highly durable
or inert materials, such as sapphire. High pressure HPLC pumps and similar applications commonly
use small inlet and outlet ball check valves with balls of (artificial) ruby and seats made of
sapphire or both ball and seat of ruby, for both hardness and chemical resistance. After prolonged
use, such check valves can eventually wear out or the seat can develop a crack, requiring
replacement. Therefore, such valves are made to be replaceable, sometimes placed in a small plastic
body tightly-fitted inside a metal fitting which can withstand high pressure and which is screwed
into the pump head.
There are similar check valves where the disc is not a ball, but some other shape, such as
a poppet energized by a spring. Ball check valves should not be confused with ball valves, which is
a different type of valve in which a ball acts as a controllable rotor to stop or direct flow.
A diaphragm check valve uses a flexing rubber diaphragm positioned to create a normally-closed
valve. Pressure on the upstream side must be greater than the pressure on the downstream side by a
certain amount, known as the pressure differential, for the check valve to open allowing flow. Once
positive pressure stops, the diaphragm automatically flexes back to its original closed position.

Swing check valve opening and closing

A swing check valve or tilting disc check valve is a check valve in which the disc, the movable part
to block the flow, swings on a hinge or trunnion, either onto the seat to block reverse flow or off the
seat to allow forward flow. The seat opening cross-section may be perpendicular to the centerline
between the two ports or at an angle. Although swing check valves can come in various sizes, large
check valves are often swing check valves. A common issue caused by swing check valves is
known as water hammer. This can occur when the swing check closes and the flow abruptly stops,
47
causing a surge of pressure resulting in high velocity shock waves that act against the piping and
valves, placing large stress on the metals and vibrations in the system. Undetected, water hammer
can rupture pumps, valves, and pipes within the system.
The flapper valve in a flush-toilet mechanism is an example of this type of valve. Tank pressure
holding it closed is overcome by manual lift of the flapper. It then remains open until the tank
drains and the flapper falls due to gravity. Another variation of this mechanism is the clapper valve,
used in applications such fire fighting and fire life safety systems. A hinged gate only remains open
in the inflowing direction. The clapper valve often also has a spring that keeps the gate shut when
there is no forward pressure. Another example is the backwater valve (for sanitary drainage system)
that protects against flooding caused by return flow of sewage waters. Such risk occurs most often
in sanitary drainage systems connected to combined sewerage systems and in rainwater drainage
systems. It may be caused by intense rainfall, thaw or flood.
A stop-check valve is a check valve with override control to stop flow regardless of flow direction
or pressure. In addition to closing in response to backflow or insufficient forward pressure (normal
check-valve behavior), it can also be deliberately shut by an external mechanism, thereby
preventing any flow regardless of forward pressure.
A lift-check valve is a check valve in which the disc, sometimes called a lift, can be lifted up off its
seat by higher pressure of inlet or upstream fluid to allow flow to the outlet or downstream side. A
guide keeps motion of the disc on a vertical line, so the valve can later reseat properly. When the
pressure is no longer higher, gravity or higher downstream pressure will cause the disc to lower
onto its seat, shutting the valve to stop reverse flow.
An in-line check valve is a check valve similar to the lift check valve. However, this valve
generally has a spring that will 'lift' when there is pressure on the upstream side of the valve. The
pressure needed on the upstream side of the valve to overcome the spring tension is called the
'cracking pressure'. When the pressure going through the valve goes below the cracking pressure,
the spring will close the valve to prevent back-flow in the process.
A duckbill valve is a check valve in which flow proceeds through a soft tube that protrudes into the
downstream side. Back-pressure collapses this tube, cutting off flow.
A pneumatic non-return valve:
Multiple check valves can be connected in series. For example, a double check valve is often used
as a backflow prevention device to keep potentially contaminated water from siphoning back
into municipal water supply lines. There are also double ball check valves in which there are two
ball/seat combinations sequentially in the same body to ensure positive leak-tight shutoff when
blocking reverse flow; and piston check valves, wafer check valves, and ball-and-cone check
valves.
Pressure Control Valve:
Pressure valves are hydraulic valves that gradually (control) or suddenly (switch) change in
position. The most common types of pressure control valves are the pressure relief valve and
the pressure reducing valve. Pressure relief valves control the system pressure by relieving part, or
all, of the flow to tank.
It is often referred to as a pressure regulator. The valve simply uses spring pressure against a
diaphragm to open the valve. When the outlet pressure drops below the set point of the valve, the
spring pressure overcomes the outlet pressure and forces the valve stem downward, opening
the valve.

48
The most common types of pressure control valves are the pressure relief valve and the pressure
reducing valve. Pressure relief valves control the system pressure by relieving part, or all, of the
flow to tank. Pressure reducing valves reduce the pressure supplied to a sub-system of a hydraulic
system. Sequence valves are used to direct the flow to a secondary circuit. Unloading valves are
used to direct flow to tank at pre-set system pressure.
Every pressure control valve switches (or controls) at a predetermined pressure setting. The
switching pressure is generally a variable setting on the valve itself. A change in position of the
pressure control valve (i.e. open or closed) occurs either gradually (by control) or suddenly (by
switch). Pressure shut-off valves and pressure sequence valves are hydraulic valves with a fixed
throttle whereas relief and reducing valves are hydraulic valves with a variable throttle.
Pressure reducing valve with a wrench and back it off by unscrewing it. Fit a socket wrench over
the adjustment nut on the top of the valve. Turn the nut counter clockwise to reduce
the pressure downstream from the valve and clockwise to increase it.

Figure:8: Pressure Control Valve

Pressure Reducing Valve:

A common way of lowering pressure is by throttling down the size of the steam passageway. For
the most basic pressure reduction, it is possible to simply use a conventional globe valve in a fixed
partly-open position, or by inserting an orifice plate into the flow of steam. However, any
fluctuation in flow rate would be accompanied by a corresponding fluctuation in pressure. To avoid
such circumstances, pressure reducing valves (PRVs) can be used to provide precise control of
downstream pressure. They automatically adjust the amount of valve opening to allow the pressure
to remain unchanged even when the flow rate fluctuates.
Types of Pressure Reducing Valve:
In pressure reducing valves, the mechanism that automatically adjusts the downstream pressure
typically uses the balance of forces between the steam pressure and an adjustment spring. At
present, this is a universal concept on almost all manufactured pressure reducing valves. However,
there are two different ways in which this mechanism is implemented to control the amount of
valve opening:
Non-piloted, Direct Acting Valve: Adjustment spring places downward pressure setting force
directly on the main valve.
49
Pilot-Operated Valve: Adjustment spring places downward pressure setting force directly on a
pilot valve, which is smaller and different from the main valve.
The following is an overview of the features of each type of PRV.

Direct Acting (Non-piloted)

Used for small loads where extremely close pressure control is not needed.
Pros: Compact size, low price, easy to install.
Cons: Higher droop (variation from set pressure) than Pilot-operated PRV.

Figure:9: Direct Acting Pressure Reducing Valve

In direct acting pressure reducing valves, the amount of valve opening is determined directly by the
movement of the adjustment spring. If the spring is compressed, it creates an opening force on the
valve which increases flow. As pressure builds downstream, equalizing occurs by feeding the
downstream pressure to the underside of the adjustment spring (usually against a bellows or
diaphragm) where its upward force counter-balances against the spring compression. Spring
compressive force which opens the valve is limited to allow sufficient spring sensitivity to equalize
with downstream pressure changes. The net result is simple pressure control through a valve orifice
where high flow rates can cause pressure droop.

Pilot-Operated
Used for larger loads where close pressure control is required
Pros: Close pressure control, fast response to load variation, may be used across a broader range of
flow rates than the direct acting types.
Cons: Larger size, higher price.

50
 Figure:10: Pilot Operated Pressure Reducing Valve

In pilot-operated pressure reducing valves, a pilot valve is used to load a piston or diaphragm that
increases the downward force used to open a larger main valve. This enables larger flow capacity
with a lower pressure offset (droop). The opening and closing of the pilot valve is controlled by the
balance of force between the adjustment spring and the secondary pressure in the same manner that
a direct-acting valve operates. However, in a pilot-operated PRV, this opening and closing of the
pilot valve purposely delivers pressure to the main valve piston or diaphragm. This pilot flow
pressure then causes a downward force that is amplified by the area of the piston or diaphragm to
enable opening of a much larger main valve, which in turn provides the ability for very high flow
rates.
Because the downward force is amplified through the use of a piston or diaphragm, a small change
in the opening on the pilot valve can result in a large change in flow and downstream pressure
through the main valve. As a result, there is little change needed in adjustment spring force on the
pilot to accomplish quick response over a wide range of steam flow rates. Quick response and tight
delivered pressure control represent the main advantages of this type of valve over the direct-acting
type.
Sequencing Valve:
A sequence valve is a pressure valve designed to open when its set pressure is reached, providing a
path of flow alternate and sequential to the primary circuit. In some ways, a sequence valve is a

51
directional valve, allowing flow to occur. However, it's just a relief valve with some added features.
A sequence valve is somewhat similar to a relief valve except that, after the set pressure has been
reached, the sequence valve diverts the fluid to a second actuator or motor to do work in another
part of the system. Fluid is free to flow into cylinder A. The simplest way to make two or more
cylinders stroke in a planned sequence is by using a single directional valve. However, when two or
more cylinders are piped in parallel, the cylinder with the lowest resistance will stroke first. If this
is the intent, the circuit runs smoothly without other valves. However, in most cases, loads change,
so if you want cylinders to stroke in a specific order regardless of the load on each, you’ll need
more than just a single directional valve.

The only positive way to do this is with separate directional control valves and limit switches or
limit valves. This setup ensures the first actuator has reached a specific location before the next
operation commences. However, the first cylinder may lose holding power when the second
directional valve shifts. If there is no safety concern or possibility of product damage if the first
actuator does not complete its cycle before the second starts, a sequence valve can be a simple way
to control the actuators’ actions. Sequence valves are normally closed, and they usually incorporate
an integral bypass check valve to allow bidirectional flow. Sequence valves always have an external
drain connected directly to tank. On the other hand, one great feature of a sequence-operated circuit
is that it does not matter how far the first cylinder moves before the next operation takes place.
Thick or thin parts are clamped at the same force before the next operation starts because pressure
must build to the same level to trigger the next sequence.

Figure:11: Sequence Valve

Flow Control Valve:

The purpose of flow control in a hydraulic system is to regulate speed. All the devices discussed
here control the speed of an actuator by regulating the flow rate. Flow rate also determines rate of
energy transfer at any given pressure. The two are related in that the actuator force multiplied by
the distance through which it moves (stroke) equals the work done on the load. The energy
transferred must also equal the work done. Actuator speed determines the rate of energy transfer
(power), and speed is thus a function of flow rate.

Eight different types of flow-control valves are commonly used in hydraulic systems.

52
Orifices—A simple orifice in a hydraulic line, Fig. is the most elementary method for controlling
flow and can also be used as a pressure-control device. When used to control flow, the orifice is
placed in series with the pump. An orifice can be a drilled hole in a fitting, in which case it is fixed;
or it may be a calibrated needle valve, in which case it functions as a variable orifice.

Flow regulators—These devices, Fig. are slightly more sophisticated than a fixed orifice and
consist of an orifice that senses flow rate as a pressure drop (∆P) across the orifice. Also, a
compensating piston adjusts to variations of inlet and outlet pressures. This compensating ability
provides closer control of flow rate under varying pressure conditions. Control accuracy may be
5%, possibly less with specially calibrated valves that operate around a given flow-rate point.

Bypass flow regulators—In this flow regulator, flow in excess of set flow rate returns to reservoir
through a bypass port, Fig. Flow rate is controlled by throttling fluid across a variable orifice
regulated by the compensator piston. The bypass flow regulator is more efficient than a standard
flow regulator.

Demand-compensated flow controls—Flow controls can also bypass excess system flow to a
secondary circuit, Fig. Fluid is routed at a controlled flow rate to the primary circuit, and bypass
fluid can be used for work functions in secondary circuits without affecting the primary one. There
must be flow to the primary circuit for this type of valve to function—if the primary circuit is
blocked, the valve will cut off flow to the secondary circuit.

Pressure-compensated, variable flow valves—This flow control is equipped with an adjustable

variable orifice placed in series with a compensator. The compensator automatically adjusts to
varying inlet and load pressures, maintaining an essentially constant flow rate under these operating
conditions to accuracies of 3% to 5%, Fig. Pressure-compensated, variable flow-control valves are
available with integral reverse-flow check valves (which give fluid unrestricted flow in the opposite
direction) and integral overload relief valves (which route fluid to tank when a maximum pressure
is exceeded).

Pressure- and temperature-compensated, variable flow valves—Because the viscosity of

hydraulic oil varies with temperature (as do the clearances between a valve’s moving parts), output
of a flow-control valve may tend to drift with temperature changes. To offset the effects of such
temperature variations, temperature compensators adjust the control orifice openings to correct the
effects of viscosity changes caused by temperature fluctuations of the fluid, Fig. This is done in
combination with adjustments to the control orifice for pressure changes as well.

Priority valves—A priority valve, Fig. , is essentially a flow-control valve that supplies fluid at a
set flow rate to the primary circuit, thus functioning as a pressure-compensated flow-control valve.
Flow in excess of that required by the primary circuit bypasses to a secondary circuit at a pressure
somewhat below that of the primary circuit. Should inlet or load pressure (or both) vary, the
primary circuit has priority over the secondary — as far as supplying the design flow rate is
concerned.

53
 Figure:12: Flow Control Valve

Relief Valve:

A relief valve or pressure relief valve (PRV) is a type of safety valve used to control or limit
the pressure in a system; pressure might otherwise build up and create a process upset, instrument
or equipment failure, or fire. The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurized fluid to flow from
an auxiliary passage out of the system. The relief valve is designed or set to open at a
predetermined set pressure to protect pressure vessels and other equipment from being subjected to
pressures that exceed their design limits. When the set pressure is exceeded, the relief valve
becomes the "path of least resistance" as the valve is forced open and a portion of the fluid is
diverted through the auxiliary route. The diverted fluid (liquid, gas or liquid-gas mixture) is usually
routed through a piping system known as a flare header or relief header to a central, elevated gas
flare where it is usually burned and the resulting combustion gases are released to the
atmosphere. As the fluid is diverted, the pressure inside the vessel will stop rising. Once it reaches
the valve's reseating pressure, the valve will close. The blowdown is usually stated as a percentage
of set pressure and refers to how much the pressure needs to drop before the valve reseats. The
blowdown can vary from roughly 2–20%, and some valves have adjustable blowdowns.
In high-pressure gas systems, it is recommended that the outlet of the relief valve is in the open air.
In systems where the outlet is connected to piping, the opening of a relief valve will give a pressure
build-up in the piping system downstream of the relief valve. This often means that the relief valve
will not re-seat once the set pressure is reached. For these systems often so-called "differential"
relief valves are used. This means that the pressure is only working on an area that is much smaller
than the area of the opening of the valve. If the valve is opened the pressure has to decrease
enormously before the valve closes and also the outlet pressure of the valve can easily keep the
valve open. Another consideration is that if other relief valves are connected to the outlet pipe
system, they may open as the pressure in the exhaust pipe system increases. This may cause
undesired operation.
In some cases, a so-called bypass valve acts as a relief valve by being used to return all or part of
the fluid discharged by a pump or gas compressor back to either a storage reservoir or the inlet of
the pump or gas compressor. This is done to protect the pump or gas compressor and any associated

54
equipment from excessive pressure. The bypass valve and bypass path can be internal (an integral
part of the pump or compressor) or external (installed as a component in the fluid path). Many fire
engines have such relief valves to prevent the over pressurization of fire hoses.
In other cases, equipment must be protected against being subjected to an internal vacuum (i.e., low
pressure) that is lower than the equipment can withstand. In such cases, vacuum relief valves are
used to open at a predetermined low-pressure limit and to admit air or an inert gas into the
equipment to control the amount of vacuum.

Figure:13: Relief Valve

Break Valve:
A brake valve performs the same function as a counterbalance valve, but it is designed to overcome
a key disadvantage. An example will illustrate this point. Suppose a direct-operated counterbalance
valve is used in a motor circuit. There are times when the motor load can overrun, and braking is
needed for those times. This valve is set at 350 psi, and the pressure drop across the motor to supply
required torque is 350 psi. The pump must develop 350 + 350 = 700 psi. The pressure drop across
the counterbalance valve is converted to heat; consequently, half the hydraulic power is wasted. A
brake valve overcomes this disadvantage.
As shown in the functional diagram in Fig, a brake valve has an internal pilot passage and a remote
pilot passage. Suppose the spring is set for 1000 psi. When pressure at the internal pilot reaches
1000 psi, the piston pushes the spool upward to open the valve.

55
 Figure:14: Break Valve
The area of the piston is much less than the area of the bottom of the spool. A typical area ratio
might be 10:1. The remote pilot applies pressure directly to the bottom of the spool; consequently,
only 100 psi is required to compress the spring and open the valve. Pressure required to open the
valve is 1000 psi at the internal pilot and 100 psi at the remote pilot.

Counter Balance Valve:

Counterbalance valves are also known as load holding valves because of its ability to safely hold
heavy loads. The load holding capacity is achieved by allowing free flow into the cylinder/actuator
and by blocking the reverse flow until a pilot pressure inversely proportional to the load is applied.
In short, the counterbalance valve permits flow in one direction and block the flow opposite to it.
Vertical presses, lift trucks, loaders and other machine tools that positions or hold suspended loads
are some counterbalance valve applications. Some important benefits of the counterbalance valve
are listed below.

 Prevent unintended or uncontrolled movement of static or dynamic loads

 Protect the equipment from damages by handling induced pressure
 Offers greater stability to the machinery
 Control the load speed in case of hydraulic hose failure
 Stabilize the system when it experiences high or variable backpressure.
 Suitable for safe and stable load handling

Counterbalance valves are well suited for clamping applications and it avoids falling of negative
loads when any failures occur. These valves can be used with paired cylinders. In a paired cylinder,
the pilot pressure will open the valve of the heavily loaded cylinder and this load will be transferred
to the next cylinder and its corresponding closed valve and will open. The counterbalance valve is
either flange mounted or connected with a metallic pipe and is fitted next to the actuator to offer
safety.

56
The counterbalance valve functions are similar to that of flow control valves and are used for high-
speed safe lowering/elevation of loads. Load holding, load control and load safety are the three
important counterbalance valve functions. The counterbalance valve prevents unintended motion of
actuators/cylinders holding heavy loads. These valves will help to stabilize the load, avoid damage
of equipment and eliminate dangers caused as a result of the hose failures. For aerial work
platforms, it is necessary to prevent sudden or unwanted downward drifts. Even under the
inoperable conditions, these valves will hold the load firmly against the gravitational force by
applying a back pressure against the load. Under operating conditions, the load can be elevated by
passing fluid through the check valve. Also, this valve will prevent uncontrolled or unsafe motion
of loads as a result of line breaks or overloads.

Figure:15: Counter Balance Valve

Ladder Diagram

A ladder diagram is a type of schematic diagram used in industrial automation that represents logic
control circuits. Ladder diagrams are composed of two vertical power rails and horizontal logic
rungs to form what looks like a ladder. The control logic in a ladder diagram is contained within the
rungs.
There are two differences between an electrical schematic and a ladder diagram. The first difference
is the control logic in an electrical schematic is represented using components whereas in a ladder
diagram symbols are used. The second difference is the control logic execution in an electrical
schematic is as per the operation of an electrical circuit whereas in a ladder diagram it relies on the
methodical nature of the PLC scan.

The reason why ladder diagrams are used for PLC programming is because the early control system
designers were accustomed to relay logic control circuits and ladder diagrams closely mimic these.
They preferred to use ladder diagrams instead using text based programming languages of the day
like C, BASIC, Pascal and FORTRON. The other reason ladder diagrams are used is because
factory maintenance staff already understand how to read relay control circuits so using ladder
diagrams for programming a PLC meant they were easily able to troubleshooting control system
problems.

57
Ladder diagrams help you to formulate the logic expressions in graphical form that are required to
program a PLC. They represent conditional, input and output expressions as symbols. So writing a
PLC program using ladder diagrams is similar to drawing a relay control circuit.

Ladder logic is a programming language that is used to program a PLC (Programmable Logic
Controller). It is a graphical PLC programming language which expresses logic operations with
symbolic notation using ladder diagrams, much like the rails and rungs of a traditional relay logic
circuit. It is used by engineers and electricians to execute logical, sequential, counting, timing and
arithmetic tasks in order to carry industrial automation applications.

Because ladder logic was originally designed to replace the use of hard wired relay logic circuits for
machine control the ladder logic programming code actual looks like an electrical schematic
drawing. You might be thinking that ladder logic sounds like an old programming language. So,
with the advancements in software that the world has recently made, is ladder logic still used?

Ladder logic is definitely still being used in PLC programming. It is the most common method for
programming a PLC. Ladder logic programming is still used today because the core fundamental
logic principles for machine and process control are still the same.

In PLC programming, ladder logic is a programming language that is used for developing logic
expressions in order to automate tasks. Recent advancements in software technology means that
PLC programming using ladder logic has been extended into counting, timing, arithmetic,
sequencers, PID control, data manipulation functions and more.

Ladder logic is used extensively for programming PLCs in a multitude of industrial automation
applications. Some examples include.

 Material Handling Conveyor System.

 Pallet Packing and Strapping.
 Ball Mill Lubrication System.
 Logistics Package Conveying and Sorting.
 Cement Batching.
 Beverage Bottling and Labelling.
 Hopper and Tank Level Control.
 Air and Liquid Flow and Pressure Control.

How to Draw a Ladder Diagram:

The simple way to describe a ladder diagram is a graphic programming language that uses a series
of rails and rungs containing logic symbols that are combined to form decision making expressions.
Ladder diagrams actually look like a ladder and are more commonly known as ladder logic
programming. The rails in a ladder diagram represent the supply wires of a relay logic control
circuit. There is a positive voltage supply rail on the left hand side and a zero voltage rail on the
right hand side. In a ladder diagram the logic flow is from the left hand rail to the right hand rail.

The rungs in a ladder diagram represent the wires that connect the components of a relay control
circuit. In a ladder diagram symbols are used to represent the relay components. The symbols are
placed in the rung to form a network of logic expressions.
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When implementing a ladder logic program in a PLC there are seven basic parts of a ladder
diagram that critical to know. They are rails, rungs, inputs, outputs, logic expressions, address
notation/tag names and comments. Some of these elements are essential and others are optional.
To help understand how to draw ladder logic diagrams the seven basic parts of a ladder diagram
are detailed below…..
1. Rails – There are two rails in a ladder diagram which are drawn as vertical lines running
down the far most ends of the page. If they were in a relay logic circuit they would represent
the active and zero volt connections of the power supply where the power flow goes from
the left hand side to the right hand side.
2. Rungs – The rungs are drawn as horizontal lines and connect the rails to the logic
expressions. If they were in a relay logic circuit they would represent the wires that connect
the power supply to the switching and relay components.
3. Inputs – The inputs are external control actions such as a push button being pressed or a
limit switch being triggered. The inputs are actually hardwired to the PLC terminals and
represented in the ladder diagram by a normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) contact
symbol.
4. Outputs – The outputs are external devices that being are turned on and off such as an
electric motor or a solenoid valve. The outputs are also hardwired to the PLC terminals and
are represented in the ladder diagram by a relay coil symbol.
5. Logic Expressions – The logic expressions are used in combination with the inputs and
outputs to formulate the desired control operations.
6. Address Notation & Tag Names – The address notation describes the input, output and logic
expression memory addressing structure of the PLC. The tag names are the descriptions
allocated to the addresses.
7. Comments – Last but by not least, the comments are an extremely important part of a
ladder diagram. Comments are displayed at the start of each rung and are used to describe
the logical expressions and control operations that the rung, or groups of rungs, are
executing. Understanding ladder diagrams is made a lot easier by using comments.

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 Figure:16: Ladder Diagram

Pressure Switch:

A pressure switch is a form of switch that operates an electrical contact when a certain set
fluid pressure has been reached on its input. The switch may be designed to make contact either
on pressure rise or on pressure fall. A pressure switch is a mechanical device that relies on
air pressure to control the operation of an electric air compressor. This simple mechanism
completes the circuit and allows power to the motor as long as system pressure is below a specified
setting.

Pressure switches rely on water pressure to do all the work. Open contacts located within
the switch, closes when pressure drops. This completes an electrical circuit, which in turn activates
the pump. When the set pressure is reached, this allows the contacts to open again which turns off
the pump.

A pressure switch for sensing fluid pressure contains a capsule, bellows, Bourdon tube, diaphragm
or piston element that deforms or displaces proportionally to the applied pressure. The resulting
motion is applied, either directly or through amplifying levers, to a set of switch contacts. Since
pressure may be changing slowly and contacts should operate quickly, some kind of over-center
mechanism such as a miniature snap-action switch is used to ensure quick operation of the contacts.
One sensitive type of pressure switch uses mercury switches mounted on a Bourdon tube; the
shifting weight of the mercury provides a useful over-center characteristic.
The pressure switch may be adjustable, by moving the contacts or adjusting tension in a
counterbalance spring. Industrial pressure switches may have a calibrated scale and pointer to show
the set point of the switch. A pressure switch will have a hysteresis, that is, a differential range
around its setpoint, known as the switch's deadband, inside which small changes of pressure do not
influence the state of the contacts. Some types allow adjustment of the differential.
The pressure-sensing element of a pressure switch may be arranged to respond to the difference of
two pressures. Such switches are useful when the difference is significant, for example, to detect a
clogged filter in a water supply system. The switches must be designed to respond only to the
difference and not to false-operate for changes in the common mode pressure.
The contacts of the pressure switch may be rated a few tenths of an ampere to around 15 amperes,
with smaller ratings found on more sensitive switches. Often a pressure switch will operate a relay
or other control device, but some types can directly control small electric motors or other loads.
Since the internal parts of the switch are exposed to the process fluid, they must be chosen to
balance strength and life expectancy against compatibility with process fluids. For example, rubber
diaphragms are commonly used in contact with water, but would quickly degrade if used in a
system containing mineral oil.
Switches designed for use in hazardous areas with flammable gas have enclosure to prevent
an arc at the contacts from igniting the surrounding gas. Switch enclosures may also be required to
be weatherproof, corrosion resistant, or submersible.
An electronic pressure switch incorporates some variety of pressure transducer (strain gauge,
capacitive element, or other) and an internal circuit to compare the measured pressure to a set point.
Such devices may provide improved repeatability, accuracy and precision over a mechanical
switch.
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 Figure:17:Pressure Switch

Limit Switch

In electrical engineering a limit switch is a switch operated by the motion of a machine part or
presence of an object. They are used for controlling machinery as part of a control system, as a
safety interlocks, or to count objects passing a point. A limit switch is an electromechanical device
that consists of an actuator mechanically linked to a set of contacts. When an object comes into
contact with the actuator, the device operates the contacts to make or break an electrical connection.
Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments because of their ruggedness,
ease of installation, and reliability of operation. They can determine the presence or absence,
passing, positioning, and end of travel of an object. They were first used to define the limit of travel
of an object; hence the name "Limit Switch".
Standardized limit switches are industrial control components manufactured with a variety of
operator types, including lever, roller plunger, and whisker type. Limit switches may be directly
mechanically operated by the motion of the operating lever. A reed switch may be used to indicate
proximity of a magnet mounted on some moving part. Proximity switches operate by the
disturbance of an electromagnetic field, by capacitance, or by sensing a magnetic field.
Rarely, a final operating device such as a lamp or solenoid valve will be directly controlled by the
contacts of an industrial limit switch, but more typically the limit switch will be wired through a
control relay, a motor contactor control circuit, or as an input to a programmable logic controller.
Miniature snap-action switch may be used for example as components of such devices
as photocopiers, computer printers, convertible tops or microwave ovens to ensure internal
components are in the correct position for operation and to prevent operation when access doors are
opened. A set of adjustable limit switches are installed on a garage door opener to shut off the
motor when the door has reached the fully raised or fully lowered position. A numerical

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control machine such as a lathe will have limit switches to identify maximum limits for machine
parts or to provide a known reference point for incremental motions.

Figure:18:Limit Switch
Meter in and Meter out Circuit
The difference between the meter in circuit and the meter out circuit are as follows. 1) In
the meter in circuit the flow rate goes into the cap end of the cylinder while in the meter out circuit
the flow rate comes out of the rod end of the cylinder. With a meter-out circuit, a flow-control
valve is installed on the return side of a cylinder so that it controls a cylinder's actuation
by metering its discharge flow. A relief valve is set slightly above the operating pressure that is
required by the type of work. Meter-in is a method by which a flow control valve is placed in
a hydraulic circuit in such a manner that there is a restriction in the amount of fluid flowing to the
actuator. But with an overrunning load over which the actuator has no control, the cylinder begins
to cavitate. An essential rule of thumb in Fluid Power is, “when in doubt, meter out.” This
phrase means that if you do not know the complete application circuit but need to control it, do it by
regulating the fluid flow out of the actuator. The metering valve holds back fluid to the front brakes
until enough pressure is created to overcome the return springs inside the rear drums. It is also
known as a “metering block.” The metering valve is plumbed into the system immediately after the
Master Cylinder.
Meter Out

In the meter-out operation shown in Figure, the direction of the flow through the circuit is simply
changed as can be made out from the diagram. It is the opposite of a meter-in operation as this
change in direction will cause the fluid leaving the actuator to be metered. The advantage with the
meter-out operation is that unlike in the case of meter-in operation, the cylinder here is prevented
from overrunning and consequent cavitating.

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 Figure:19: Meter Out

One major problem confronting the meter-out operation is the intensification of pressure in the
circuit which can in turn occur on account of a substantial differential area ratio between the piston
and the rods. Pressure intensification occurs on the rod side when the meter-out operation is carried
out without a load on the rod side of the cylinder and can result in failure of the rod seals. It is
therefore seen that both the meter-in and meter-out operations have their relative advantages and
disadvantages and only the application determines the type and nature of flow valve placement.

Meter in

With this circuit, a flow-control valve is installed in a pressure line that leads to a work cylinder.
All flow entering a work cylinder is first metered through a flow-control valve. Since this metering
action involves reducing flow from a pump to a work cylinder, a pump must deliver more fluid than
is required to actuate a cylinder at the desired speed. Excess fluid returns to a tank through a relief
valve. To conserve power and avoid undue stress on a pump, a relief valve’s setting should be only
slightly higher than a working pressure’s, which a cylinder requires. A meter-in circuit is ideal in
applications where a load always offers a positive resistance to flow during a controlled stroke.
Examples would be feeding grinder tables, welding machines, milling machines, and rotary
hydraulic motor drives. A flow-control-and-check valve used in this type of circuit would allow
reverse free flow for the return stroke of a cylinder, but it would not provide control of return stroke
speed.

Figure:20: Meter in Circuit

Vehicle Suspension Systems

Suspension is the system that connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between
the two. Suspension includes springs, shock absorbers, linkages, wheels and tires. The main
purpose of suspension is supporting both road holding and ride quality. Suspension system affects
on the vehicle handling too. It is very important to keep the road wheel in contact with the road
surface, for the suspension.

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There are different ways of attaching the wheels of the car so that they can move up and down on
their springs and dampers. The design of front suspension and design rear suspension have some
differences to the ability of opposite wheels to move independently of each other.
For front-wheel drive cars, rear suspension has few constraints and a variety of beam axles and
independent suspensions are used. For rear-wheel drive cars, rear suspension has many constraints
and the development of the superior but more expensive independent suspension layout has been
difficult.

Four-wheel drive cars often has suspensions that are similar for both the front and rear wheels.The
design of independent and dependent suspension have some differences to the ability of opposite
wheels to move independently of each other, so suspensions classified in two types:
Type of suspension:
Dependent suspension;
Independent suspension.

Figure:21:Vehicle Suspension System

Hydraulic Press

Joseph Bramah (13 April 1748 – 9 December 1814), born Stainborough Lane Farm, Stainborough,
Barnsley Yorkshire, was an English inventor and locksmith. He is best known for having invented
the hydraulic press. Along with William George Armstrong, he can be considered one of the two
fathers of hydraulic engineering. Hydraulic presses are commonly used for forging, clinching,
moulding, blanking, punching, deep drawing, and metal forming operations. The hydraulic press is
advantageous in manufacturing, it gives the ability to create more intricate shapes and can be
economical with materials. A hydraulic press works on the principle of Pascal's law, which states
that when pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the pressure change occurs throughout the entire
fluid. Within the hydraulic press, there is a piston that works as a pump, that provides a modest
mechanical force to a small area of the sample.

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Hydraulic press are reliable and accurate because they are based on Pascal's law which says
that: Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished and acts with equal force on equal
areas and at 90 degrees to the container wall. A hydraulic press has all of the
essential components of a basic hydraulic system. It has a set of cylinders, punches (or
pistons), hydraulic pipes that move the fluid, and a die (or anvil). The pistons use liquid under
pressure to push on the anvil with a high level of force.

Figure:22: Hydraulic Press

Hydraulic Copying Machine

The introduction of the technique of copying on production lathes and other machine tools
represents an important stage in the development of automation of machine tools. There has been a
tremendous increase in the saving of labour required for the production of certain components by
the copying method.

Everyone knows that the setting and control of machines by means of hydraulic, pneumatic, electric
and combined systems of cycle automations are designed for high versatility and a wide range of
adjustments. The dynamic features, space and weight reduction, high accuracy, remote control
facilities, low price, etc., are added advantages of hydro-copying systems. We get a very high
power-to-weight ratio and thus reduced construction and installation costs.

Consequently, the hydraulic control copying machines have conquered the field of small and
medium size machines with particularly high rates of feeds. As regards the work, incomparable
setting simplicity, higher dimensional stability of products coupled with higher chip flows, better
surface finish and, in particular, fidelity of shape are the significant features obtained by the use of
hydro-copying machines.

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A hydraulic system consists of pumps delivering oil under pressure to operate cylinders, and serves
mainly to obtain reciprocating motions. Control devices set up the magnitude and direction of travel
of the various units, as well as the sequence of their operations within the working cycle.

As distinct from mechanical systems, hydraulic devices do not have rigid transmission ratios
between the driven and driving elements. Mineral lubricating oil is used for the movements of
tables in copying units, for self-clamping devices and indexing units. Here we will consider the
hydro-copying methods alone.

Hydro-copying units are extensively used in automatic lathes to turn the contours on a work piece
to the profiles of a template. The tracer (or stylus) of the copying unit operates a hydraulic valve in
a hydraulic system.

In combination with the longitudinal movement of the saddle, effected by mechanical or hydraulic
means, the stylus follows the profile of the template and operates the control valve that admits or
exhausts oil under pressure on either end of a piston, which transmits its motion to the tool slide.
The advantage of these systems over mechanical type includes the magnitude of the force (very
small) acting upon the tracing stylus which controls the valve. Inspite of the number of advantages,
the hydraulic feeding system has a few drawbacks of its own. Frictional losses in the fluid, internal
and external leakages, the variation, in the supply of liquid, and the varying speed of the
mechanisms due to fluctuations of temperature, viscosity of the fluid and other factors, like the
compressibility of the fluid, leakage of air into the system, heating of the hydraulic fluid, the in-
flammability of the oils, etc., are some of the shortcomings. Except for the fluctuation in the feed
rates, all other defects can easily be avoided or compensated by a discriminating selection of
designs of hydraulic circuits. The fluctuations in feed rates of a hydraulically driven feed device are
eliminated by the mechanically controlled piloting system, thus eliminating the defects of
instability and irregularity. When turning with copying lathe, the spindle speed and the rate of feed
must constantly be adjusted so that both the steadiness of the cutting speed and the constant feed
increment per revolution of the chuck are maintained, regardless of the tool position with relation to
the centre of rotation of the work piece, i.e. if the hydraulic feed is constant and independent of the
spindle speed, the feed per revolution can suffer considerable changes in machining stepped parts
and hence it should be adjusted accordingly.

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 Figure:23: Hydraulic Copying Machine

Hydraulic Cranes:

A hydraulic crane is a type of heavy-duty equipment used for lifting and hoisting. Unlike
smaller cranes, which rely on electric or diesel-powered motors, hydraulic cranes include an
internal hydraulic system that allows the crane to lift heavier loads.

The pressurized hydraulic fluid pushes the piston in and out of the cylinder, allowing the piston to
lift or move a load. With hydraulic systems in cranes, there are typically two different pistons.
When one piston is compressed, the displaced oil forces the other piston to extend.

The basic idea of all hydraulic systems is that force applied at one point is transmitted through a
fluid to another point. In order for this to work, the fluid (which is usually oil) must be
incompressible, meaning its volume should not change when pressure is applied. Piping and
cylinders within the system can be structured and altered in many different ways to achieve specific
results. The initial force applied can be multiplied in the process, allowing for applications such as
the lifting of heavy loads. This is because piping within the system can be any length or shape, and
it can fork so that one applied force can drive several cylinders.

Essential components of a hydraulic system

 Reservoir oil tank.

 Piping.
 Hydraulic pump.
 Power source.
 Actuator.
 Valves.
 Filters.

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1. Reservoir Oil Tank

The reservoir holds the incompressible fluid, which is usually hydraulic oil. It also protects the fluid
from getting contaminated, which is critical to ensure the hydraulic system functions optimally.

2. Piping

Piping is simply, but importantly, the hollow structures that carry the hydraulic fluid from one
location to another within the system.
3. Hydraulic Pump

The role of hydraulic pumps is to force the hydraulic fluid from the reservoir to the rest of the
circuit. Firstly, the pump creates a vacuum at the pump inlet which forces the fluid from the
reservoir into the pump. Next, the pump pushes the fluid to the pump outlet and then forces it into
the rest of the hydraulic system.

Figure:24: Hydraulic Cranes

Earth Moving Equipment:

Heavy equipment is essential for construction jobs of almost any size, from home building to large-
scale commercial and civil projects. Earth-moving equipment covers a broad range of machines that
can excavate and grade soil and rock, along with other jobs. Earth movers and other heavy
equipment help to speed not only earth work but also materials handling, demolition, and
construction. Many types of heavy construction equipment are designed for multiple functions,
making them indispensable on job sites. Earthmoving equipment is heavy equipment, typically
heavy-duty vehicles designed for construction operations which involve earthworks. They are used
to move large amounts of earth, to dig foundations for landscaping and so on. Most earthmoving
equipment uses hydraulic drives as the primary source of motion. Earthwork operations involve
processes such as excavating, hauling, dumping, crushing and compacting soil. Activities are
typically equipment-driven, and most frequently include excavators, loaders, compactors and
hauling trucks.

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 Figure:25:Earth Movers

Excavators:

Excavators are large construction equipment that can be driven by tracks or wheels, but tracks are
more standard. A conventional excavator has a long bucket arm attached to a pivoting cab that can
rotate a full 360 degrees. The operator sits in the cab and from there has good visibility of the site.
Excavators are highly versatile and can be fitted with special attachments for specialty jobs. The
most common uses for an excavator include:

 Material handling
 Excavating trenches, holes, and foundations
 Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
 Demolition
 Rough grading
 Heavy lifting and pipe installation
 Mining
 River dredging

Backhoe Loader:

Backhoe loaders, often called backhoes, have a body that's similar to a farm tractor and include an
adjustable shovel in front and a small bucket in the back for digging. Backhoe loaders are
considered medium-sized construction equipment for smaller jobs and are capable of working in
limited space to perform various operations. They can move dirt, backfill excavations, dig holes
and trenches, and place pipes and other materials. One of the best attributes of backhoe loaders is
that they are wheel-driven and can be used in urban areas. They can even be driven to a job site.
The bucket in the back can be changed to dig trenches of different widths.

Bulldozers:

Bulldozers are considered one of the strongest and most reliable heavy equipment used in the
construction industry. A bulldozer is a powerful and extremely heavy machine used to move dirt
along large open tracts of land. Bulldozers have a wide, flat blade in front that can be operated
using two hydraulic pistons to move the blade in a limited range of angles and depths. They are

69
normally used to push piles of earth and for rough or fine grading, depending on the size of the
bulldozer. A bulldozer's considerable weight helps it crush large boulders, among other operations.

Skid –Steer Loaders:

Skid-steer loaders are among the most versatile machines available in the construction industry.
They are small and nimble and can turn within their own footprint, just like a tank, making them
ideal for work in confined spaces or in areas where construction activity has been finalized. Skid-
steer loaders are wheel-driven and offer good traction in snow and mud. The wheels also minimize
soil compaction and damage to finished areas. These handy loaders come in a few different sizes
and can be outfitted with a variety of attachments to perform digging, drilling, compacting, log
grappling, snow blowing, jack-hammering, and other tasks.

Motor Graders:

Motor graders are heavy equipment used for fine grading and for moving small amounts of dirt.
They have a long blade that can be adjusted to meet certain angles to create a flat surface. They can
also be fitted with a second blade in front of the front axle and in some instances can be used for
underground mining. Motor graders are typically used to fine-grade dirt or gravel roads or to
prepare the road base course before placing asphalt. Graders can also be used to create sloped
surfaces or drainage ditches with shallow V-shaped cross-sections.

Crawler Loader:

A crawler loader is a cross between an excavator and a backhoe or bucket loader. Its tracks give
it excellent stability, and its versatile bucket makes it useful for moving soil and debris and for
loading material onto trucks. Crawler loaders are also used for excavation on relatively small
projects. For larger-scale work, a hydraulic excavator is often used instead of a crawler loader.

Trencher:

A trencher is used to dig trenches, usually narrow trenches for piping and cabling. Trenchers come
in many different types and sizes, from small walk-behind versions to very large trenching
machines that can cut into asphalt pavement and other hard surfaces. The trencher has a conveyor
system that carries the excavated material and deposits it onto the ground next to the trench.
Trenchers can use different digging implements depending on the depth of the trench and material
being excavated.

Dump Trucks

Dump trucks are needed on almost every large job site. They offer limited function but perform the
all-important task of moving and dumping many types of heavy material. They are also road-ready
so they can bring material into or out of site and can travel anywhere large equipment is permitted.

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Dump trucks come in many different sizes for different capacity and load needs, ranging from small
utility-type trucks with dumping beds to enormous machines used in mining operations.

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 UNIT 3
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behavior and applications of
compressed air in our daily life in general and manufacturing automation in particular.
Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is abundantly available and can be
exhausted into the atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.

1. Basic Components of Pneumatic System:

Fig. 1 Components of a pneumatic system

Important components of a pneumatic system are shown in fig. 1.

a) Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
b) Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air
compressors are either diesel or electrically operated. Based on the
requirement of compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be used.
c) Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases.
Therefore coolers are used to reduce the temperature of the compressed air.
d) Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is separated from the air by
using a dryer.
e) Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for
control of direction flow, pressure etc.
f) Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain the required
movements of mechanical elements of pneumatic system.

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 g) Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is
used to drive the compressor.
h) Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in
the air receiver.

These components of the pneumatic system are explained in detail on the next pages.

2. Receiver tank

The air is compressed slowly in the compressor. But since the pneumatic system
needs continuous supply of air, this compressed air has to be stored. The compressed
air is stored in an air receiver as shown in Figure 2. The air receiver smoothens the
pulsating flow from the compressor. It also helps the air to cool and condense the
moisture present. The air receiver should be large enough to hold all the air delivered
by the compressor. The pressure in the receiver is held higher than the system
operating pressure to compensate pressure loss in the pipes. Also the large surface
area of the receiver helps in dissipating the heat from the compressed air. Generally
the size of receiver depends on,
 Delivery volume of compressor.
 Air consumption.
 Pipeline network
 Type and nature of on-off regulation
 Permissible pressure difference in the pipelines

Fig. 2 Air receiver

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 3. Compressor:

It is a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into fluid energy. The
compressor increases the air pressure by reducing its volume which also increases the
temperature of the compressed air. The compressor is selected based on the pressure it
needs to operate and the delivery volume.
The compressor can be classified into two main types
a. Positive displacement compressors and
b. Dynamic displacement compressor

Positive displacement compressors include piston type, vane type, diaphragm type
and screw type.

3.1 Piston compressors

Fig. 3 Single acting piston compressor

Piston compressors are commonly used in pneumatic systems. The simplest form is
single cylinder compressor (Fig. 3). It produces one pulse of air per piston stroke. As
the piston moves down during the inlet stroke the inlet valve opens and air is drawn
into the cylinder. As the piston moves up the inlet valve closes and the exhaust valve
opens which allows the air to be expelled. The valves are spring loaded. The single
cylinder compressor gives significant amount of pressure pulses at the outlet port. The
pressure developed is about 3-40 bar.

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3.2 Double acting compressor

Fig. 4 Double acting piston compressor

The pulsation of air can be reduced by using double acting compressor as shown in
Figure 4. It has two sets of valves and a crosshead. As the piston moves, the air is
compressed on one side whilst on the other side of the piston, the air is sucked in. Due
to the reciprocating action of the piston, the air is compressed and delivered twice in
one piston stroke. Pressure higher than 30bar can be produced.

3.3 Multistage compressor

Fig. 5 Multi-stage compressor

As the pressure of the air increases, its temperature rises. It is essential to reduce the
air temperature to avoid damage of compressor and other mechanical elements. The
multistage compressor with intercooler in-between is shown in Figure.5. It is used to
reduce the temperature of compressed air during the compression stages. The inter-
cooling reduces the volume of air which used to increase due to heat. The compressed
air from the first stage enters the intercooler where it is cooled. This air is given as

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input to the second stage where it is compressed again. The multistage compressor
can develop a pressure of around 50bar.

3.4 Combined two stage compressors

Fig. 6 Combined to stage compressor

In this type, two-stage compression is carried out by using the same piston (Fig. 6).
Initially when the piston moves down, air is sucked in through the inlet valve. During
the compression process, the air moves out of the exhaust valve into the intercooler.
As the piston moves further the stepped head provided on the piston moves into the
cavity thus causing the compression of air. Then, this is let out by the exhaust port.

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 Compressors

1. Diaphragm compressor

Fig. 7 Diaphragm compressor

These are small capacity compressors. In piston compressors the lubricating oil from
the pistons walls may contaminate the compressed air. The contamination is
undesirable in food, pharmaceutical and chemical industries. For such applications
diaphragm type compressor can be used. Figure 7 shows the construction of
Diaphragm compressor. The piston reciprocates by a motor driven crankshaft. As the
piston moves down it pulls the hydraulic fluid down causing the diaphragm to move
along and the air is sucked in. When the piston moves up the fluid pushes the
diaphragm up causing the ejection of air from the outlet port. Since the flexible
diaphragm is placed in between the piston and the air no contamination takes place.

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2. Screw compressor
Piston compressors are used when high pressures and relatively low volume of air is
needed. The system is complex as it has many moving parts. For medium flow and
pressure applications, screw compressor can be used. It is simple in construction with
less number of moving parts. The air delivered is steady with no pressure pulsation. It
has two meshing screws. The air from the inlet is trapped between the meshing screws
and is compressed. The contact between the two meshing surface is minimum, hence
no cooling is required. These systems are quite in operation compared to piston type.
The screws are synchronized by using external timing gears.

Fig. 8 Screw compressor

3. Rotary vane compressors

Fig. 9 Rotary vane compressor

The principle of operation of vane compressor is similar to the hydraulic vane pump.
Figure 9shows the working principle of Rotary vane compressor. The unbalanced
vane compressor consists of spring loaded vanes seating in the slots of the rotor. The
pumping action occurs due to movement of the vanes along a cam ring. The rotor is
eccentric to the cam ring. As the rotor rotates, the vanes follow the inner surface of
the cam ring. The space between the vanes decreases near the outlet due to the
eccentricity. This causes compression of the air. These compressors are free from
pulsation. If the eccentricity is zero no flow takes place.
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 Fig. 10 Liquid ring compressor

Liquid ring vane compressor is a variation of vane compressors. Figure 10 shows the
construction of Liquid ring compressor. The casing is filled with liquid up to rotor
center. The air enters the compressor through the distributor fixed to the compressor.
During the impeller rotation, the liquid will be centrifuged along the inner ring of the
casing to form the liquid ring. There are two suction and discharge ports provided in
the distributor. During the first quarter of cycle, the air is sucked in both suction
chambers of the casing and during the second quarter of the cycle, the air is
compressed and pushed out through the two discharge ports. During the third and
fourth quarters of the cycle, the process is repeated. This type of compressor has no
leakage and has minimal friction. For smooth operation, the rotation speed should be
about 3000 rpm. The delivery pressure is low (about 5 bar).

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4. Lobe compressor

Fig. 11 Lobe compressor

The lobe compressor is used when high delivery volume but low pressure is needed. It
consists of two lobes with one being driven and the other driving. Figure 11 shows the
construction and working of Lobe compressor. It is similar to the Lobe pump used in
hydraulic systems. The operating pressure is limited by leakage between rotors and
housing. As the wear increases during the operation, the efficiency falls rapidly.

5. Dynamic compressors

Fig. 12Blower (Centrifugal type)

When very large volume of compressed air is required in applications such as

ventilators, combustion system and pneumatic powder blower conveyors, the dynamic
compressor can be used. The pressure needed is very low in such applications. Figure
12 shows a typical Centrifugal type blower. The impeller rotates at a high speed.
Large volume of low pressure air can be provided by blowers. The blowers draw the
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air in and the impeller flings it out due to centrifugal force. Positive displacement
Compressors need oil to lubricate the moving parts, whereas the
dynamic compressors have no such need. The efficiency of these
compressors is better than that of reciprocating types.

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