LECTURE 1: HYDRAULIC POWER SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction

In the industry, we use three methods for transmitting power from one point to another.

 Mechanical transmission is through shafts, gears, chains, belts, etc.

 Electrical transmission is through wires, transformers, etc.
 Fluid power is through liquids or gas in a confined space.

In this chapter, we shall discuss a structure of hydraulic systems, its advantages and disadvantages
and compare hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical and mechanical systems.

1.2 Fluid Power and Its Scope

Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of forces
and movement of mechanical element or system with the use of pressurized fluids in a confined
system. Both liquids and gases are considered fluids. Fluid power system includes a hydraulic
system (hydra meaning water in Greek) and a pneumatic system (pneuma meaning air in Greek).
Oil hydraulic employs pressurized liquid petroleum oils and synthetic oils, and pneumatic employs
compressed air that is released to the atmosphere after performing the work.

Perhaps it would be in order that we clarify our thinking on one point. By the term “fluid” we refer
to air or oil, for it has been shown that water has certain drawbacks in the transmission of hydraulic
power in machine operation and control. Commercially, pure water contains various chemicals
(some deliberately included) and also foreign matter, and unless special precautions are taken
when it is used, it is nearly impossible to maintain valves and working surfaces in satisfactory
condition. In the cases where the hydraulic system is closed (i.e., the one with a self-contained unit
that serves one machine or one small group of machines), oil is commonly used, thus providing,
in addition to power transmission, benefits of lubrication not afforded by water as well as increased
life and efficiency of packings and valves. The application of fluid power is limited only by the
ingenuity of the designer, production engineer or plant engineer. If the application pertains to
lifting, pushing, pulling, clamping, tilting, forcing, pressing or any other straight line (and
many rotary) motions, it is possible that fluid power will meet the requirement.

History of Fluid Power

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Fluid power is as old as our civilization itself. Water was used for centuries to produce power by
means of water wheels and air was used to turn windmills and to propel ships. Chinese used
wooden valves to control water flow through bamboo pipes in 4000 BC. Ancient Egyptians have
built a masonry dam across Nile, 14 miles south to present Cairo, for the control of irrigation water
by canals, sluices, brick conduits and ceramic pipes. During the Roman empire, extensive water
systems using aqueducts, reservoirs and valves were constructed to carry water to cities. However,
these early uses of fluid power required the movement of huge quantities of fluid because of the
relatively low pressures provided by nature.

Fluid power technology actually began in 1650 with the discovery of Pascal’s law. Simply
stated, this law says that pressure in a fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished equally in all
directions in a confined body of fluid. Pascal found that when he rammed a cork down into a jug
completely full of wine, the bottom of the jug broke and fell out. However, in order for Pascal’s
law to be made effective for practical use, it was necessary to make a piston that would fit exactly.
Not until over 100 years later was this accomplished. It was in 1795 that Joseph Brahmah invented
the cup packing that led to the development of a workable hydraulic press. Brahmah’s hydraulic
press consisted of a plunger pump piped to a large cylinder and a ram. This new hydraulic press
found wide use in England because it provided a more effective and economical means of applying
large force to industrial applications.

In 1750, Bernoulli developed his law of conservation of energy for a fluid flowing in a
pipeline. Both Pascal’s and Bernoulli’s laws operate at the heart of all fluid power applications
and are used for analytical purposes. However, it was not until the Industrial Revolution of 1850
in Great Britain that these laws were actually applied to the industry.

The first use of a large hydraulic press for foregoing work was made in 1860 by Whitworth. In the
next 20 years, many attempts were made to reduce the waste and excessive maintenance costs of
the original type of accumulator. In 1872, Rigg patented a three-cylinder hydraulic engine in which
provision was made to change the stroke of plungers to vary its displacement without a throttle
valve. In 1873, the Brotherhood three-cylinder, constant- stroke hydraulic engine was patented and
was widely used for cranes, winches, etc. Both the above-mentioned engines were driven by fluid
from an accumulator.

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Up to this time, electrical energy was not developed to power the machines of industry. Instead,
fluid power was being used to drive hydraulic equipment such as cranes, presses, shearing
machines, etc. With electricity emerging dominantly in the 19th century, it was soon found
superior to fluid power for transmitting power over great distances.

The modern era in fluid power began around the turn of the century. Fluid applications were made
to such installations as the main armament system of USS Virginia in 1906. In these applications,
a variable-speed hydrostatic transmission was installed to drive the main guns Since that time,
marine industry has applied fluid power to cargo-handling systems, controllable pitch controllers,
submarine control system, aircraft elevators, aircraft- and missile-launching system and
radar/sonar-driven systems. In 1926, the United States developed the first unitized, packaged
hydraulic system consisting of a pump, controls and an actuator.

Today fluid power is used extensively in practically every branch of industry. The innovative
use of modern technology such as electrohydraulic closed loops, microprocessors and improved
materials for component construction continues to advance the performance of fluid power
systems. The military requirements kept fluid power applications and developments going at a
good pace. Aviation and aerospace industry provided the impetus for many advances in fluid
power technology.

Fluid power applications can be classified into two major segments:

i. Stationary hydraulics: Stationary hydraulic systems remain firmly fixed in one position.
The characteristic feature of stationary hydraulics is that valves are mainly solenoid
operated. The applications of stationary hydraulics are as follows:
 Production and assembly of vehicles of all types.
 Machine tools and transfer lines.
 Lifting and conveying devices.
 Metal-forming presses.
 Plastic machinery such as injection-molding machines.
 Rolling machines.
 Lifts.
 Food processing machinery.

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  Automatic handling equipment and robots.

ii. Mobile hydraulics: Mobile hydraulic systems move on wheels or tracks such as a tower
crane or excavator truck to operate in many different locations or while moving. A
characteristic feature of mobile hydraulics is that the valves are frequently manually
operated. The applications of mobile hydraulics are as follows:
 Automobiles, tractors, aeroplanes, missile, boats, etc.
 Construction machinery. Tippers, excavators and elevating platforms.
 Lifting and conveying devices.
 Agricultural machinery.

Hydraulics and pneumatics have almost unlimited application in the production of goods and
services in nearly all sectors of the country. Several industries are dependent on the capabilities
that fluid power affords. Table 1.1 summarizes few applications of fluid power.

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Fluid power systems Eng Mpiima Isaac
Types of hydraulic systems

1. Fluid transport systems: Their sole objective is the delivery of a fluid from one location
to another to accomplish some useful purpose. Examples include pumping stations for
pumping water to homes, cross-country gas lines, etc.

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 2. Fluid power systems: These are designed to perform work. In fluid power systems, work
is obtained by pressurized fluid acting directly on a fluid cylinder or a fluid motor. A
cylinder produces a force resulting in linear motion, whereas a fluid motor produces a
torque resulting in rotary motion.

Classification of Fluid Power Systems

The fluid power system can be categorized as follows:

Based on the control system

i. Open-loop system: There is no feedback in the open system and performance is based on
the characteristics of the individual components of the system. The open-loop system is
not accurate and error can be reduced by proper calibration and control.
ii. Closed-loop system: This system uses feedback. The output of the system is fed back
to a comparator by a measuring element. The comparator compares the actual output to the
desired output and gives an error signal to the control element. The error is used to change
the actual output and bring it closer to the desired value. A simple closed-loop system uses
servo valves and an advanced system uses digital electronics.

Based on the type of control

i. Fluid logic control: This type of system is controlled by hydraulic oil or air. The
system employs fluid logic devices such as AND, NAND, OR, NOR, etc. Two types
of fluid logic systems are available:
 Moving part logic (MPL): These devices are miniature fluid elements using moving
parts such as diaphragms, disks and poppets to implement various logic gates.
 Fluidics: Fluid devices contain no moving parts and depend solely on interacting fluid
jets to implement various logic gates.
ii. Electrical control: This type of system is controlled by electrical devices. Four basic
electrical devices are used for controlling the fluid power systems: switches, relays,
timers and solenoids. These devices help to control the starting, stopping, sequencing,
speed, positioning, timing and reversing of actuating cylinders and fluid motors.

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 Electrical control and fluid power work well together where remote control is
essential.
i. Electronic control: This type of system is controlled by microelectronic devices. The
electronic brain is used to control the fluid power muscles for doing work. This system
uses the most advanced type of electronic hardware including programmable logic
control (PLC) or microprocessor (P). In the electrical control, a change in system
operation results in a cumbersome process of redoing hardware connections. The
difficulty is overcome by programmable electronic control. The program can be
modified or a new program can be fed to meet the change of operations. A number of
such programs can be stored in these devices, which makes the systems more flexible

Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Systems

A hydrostatic system uses fluid pressure to transmit power. Hydrostatics deals with the mechanics
of still fluids and uses the theory of equilibrium conditions in fluid. The system creates high
pressure, and through a transmission line and a control element, this pressure drives an actuator
(linear or rotational). The pump used in hydrostatic systems is a positive displacement pump. The
relative spatial position of this pump is arbitrary but should not be very large due to losses (must
be less than 50 m). An example of pure hydrostatics is the transfer of force in hydraulics.

Hydrodynamic systems use fluid motion to transmit power. Power is transmitted by the kinetic
energy of the fluid. Hydrodynamics deals with the mechanics of moving fluid and uses flow theory.
The pump used in hydrodynamic systems is a non-positive displacement pump. The relative spatial
position of the prime mover (e.g., turbine) is fixed. An example of pure hydrodynamics is the
conversion of flow energy in turbines in hydroelectric power plants.

In oil hydraulics, we deal mostly with the fluid working in a confined system, that is, a hydrostatic
system.

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Advantages of a Fluid Power System

Oil hydraulics stands out as the prime moving force in machinery and equipment designed to
handle medium to heavy loads. In the early stages of industrial development, mechanical linkages
were used along with prime movers such as electrical motors and engines for handling loads. But
the mechanical efficiency of linkages was very low and the linkages often failed under critical
loading conditions. With the advent of fluid power technology and associated electronics and
control, it is used in every industry now.

The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:

 Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately:
Fluid power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism. Using
fluid power, we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large
forces/components with great accuracy using simple levers and push buttons. For example,
in Earth-moving equipment, bucket carrying load can be raised or lowered by an operator
using a lever. The landing gear of an aircraft can be retrieved to home position by the push
button.
 Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a
fraction of a kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
 Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power and
control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems. The fluid
power controls can be placed at a central station so that the operator has, at all times, a
complete control of the entire production line, whether it be a multiple operation machine
or a group of machines. Such a setup is more or less standard in the steel mill industry.
 Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large
amount of torque while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and pneumatic motors
can even maintain torque at a very slow speed without overheating.
 Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force
regardless of speed changes.
 Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or
elimination of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use
of fluid power.

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  Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio
compared to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
 Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of vital
importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in
mining and manufacture of delicate products. For example, hydraulic systems are
responsible for the safety of takeoff, landing and flight of aeroplanes and space craft. Rapid
advances in mining and tunneling are the results of the application of modern hydraulic
and pneumatic systems.

Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure 1.2 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.

 The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power
to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary
type(e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.

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  The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic
circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
 Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through
the circuit.
 External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
 Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
 Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
 Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
 Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.

The piping shown in Fig. 1.1 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage tank to
one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is drawn
from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If the fluid
pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to the reservoir and remains
there until the pressure acquires the required level.

Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.

 When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port A and thus the load is raised.
 When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.
 When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder(thereby holding it
in position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank
via the pressure relief).

In industry, a machine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a circuit diagram.
Figure 1.2 shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The working fluid, which
is the hydraulic oil, is stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is switched ON, it runs a
positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a filter and delivers at high pressure.
The pressurized oil passes through the regulating valve and does work on actuator. Oil from the

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other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return line. To and fro motion of the cylinder is
controlled using directional control valve.

Figure 1.2 Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).

The hydraulic system discussed above can be broken down into four main divisions that are
analogous to the four main divisions in an electrical system.

 The power device parallels the electrical generating station.

 The control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers, pressure switches, relays, etc.
 The lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the electrical lines.
 The fluid power motor (whether it is a rotating or a non-rotating cylinder or a fluid power
motor) parallels the solenoids and electrical motors.

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