Learning

Sindhura yamini
Concepts
– Theories of Learning
– Application of learning theories in everyday life
 – Learning is any relativity permanent change in behaviour or behaviour
potential produced by experience
– It does not refer to changes resulting from maturation
– Learning can result from vicarious as well as from direct experiences
Learning – The changes produced by a Learning or not always positive in nature.
– Learning occurs in several basic forms such as classical conditioning,
operant conditioning and observational learning
– Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which to stimulus events
become associated in such a way that the occurrence of one event
reliably predicts the occurrence of the other
– Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which organisms learn
associations between behaviours and stimuli that precede them or
Types of
follow them learning
– Observational learning is a form of learning in which organisms learn by
observing the behaviours and the consequences of behaviours of others
around them
 – Pavlov’s experiment
– Watson, the founder of behaviorism, was greatly influenced by Pavlov’s
work. He tested humans by conditioning fear in an infant known as Little
Albert. His findings suggest that classical conditioning can explain how
some fears develop.

Classical
conditioning
 I. Acquisition is the process by which a conditioned stimulus acquires the
ability to elicit conditioned response through repeated pairings of an
unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned stimulus
Classical A. Forward conditioning
conditioning – i. delay conditioning
ii. trace conditioning
principles B. simultaneous conditioning
C. backward conditioning
Types of
conditioning
ØDelayed conditioning
ØTrace conditioning
ØSimultaneous conditioning
ØBackward conditioning

ØStrength of conditioning:
Forward > delayed> trace> backward
 q Extinction - this is a gradual weakening and eventual
disappearance of the CR tendency. Extinction occurs from multiple
presentations of CS without the US.
• Essentially, the organism continues to be presented with the
conditioned stimulus but without the unconditioned stimulus
Principles of the CS loses its power to evoke the CR. For example, Pavlov's
dogs stopped salivating when the dispenser sound kept
Classical occurring without the meat powder following.

conditioning qSpontaneous Recovery - sometimes there will be a reappearance

of a response that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur
after a period of non-exposure to the CS. It is called spontaneous
because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere.
 qStimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus
becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and
now occurs to those other similar stimuli.
Principles of – For Example - a child who gets bitten by black lab, later
becomes afraid of all dogs. The original fear evoked by the
Classical Black Lab has now generalized to ALL dogs.
– Example 2- little Albert
conditioning qStimulus Discrimination - learning to respond to one
stimulus and not another. Thus, an organisms becomes
conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to
other stimuli.
 – Modern views of classical conditioning emphasize the
important role of cognitive processes. A large body of
research suggests that conditioning is a complex process in
which organisms form representations of the relationships
among a variety of factors—including many aspects of the
Present physical setting or context in which the conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli are presented.
scenario… – WHY?
– Role of expectations, blocking- conditioning to one stimulus
may be prevented by previous conditioning to another
stimulus, conditioning must be consistent, role of mental
imagery- imagination.
 – Research shows that the cerebellum, a structure in the
brain involved in balance and coordination, plays a key role
Brain area in the formation of simple forms of classically conditioned
responses.
 – Test - once a behavior has been "learned", it can be exhibited by
"performance" of a corresponding behavior
– Conditioned Fear & Anxiety - many phobias that people
experience are the results of conditioning.
– Advertising - modern advertising strategies evolved from John
Application Watson's use of conditioning.
üUS --> CS --> CR/UR
üattractive person --> car --> pleasant emotional response

ütaste aversion
 – Breaking Habits and Forming Habits
üClassical conditioning can also be used to break habits or

Application form them. Sometimes conditioned stimuli can become

triggers that cause us to engage in repetitive behaviors.
üthese stimuli can also help us to recognize and avoid
common triggers, which can help us break our habits.
 – The basic principle: Acts that are reinforced tend to be
repeated (Mazur, 2006).
– Pioneer- learning theorist Edward L. Thorndike called this
the law of effect: The probability of a response is altered by
the effect it has (Schultz & Schultz, 2005).
Operant – Law of effect experiment
conditioning – Learning is strengthened each time a response is followed
by a satisfying state of affairs.
– The responses are voluntary - the learner actively “operates
on” the environment. In contrast, classical conditioning is
passive – behavior/association happens
 – Difference between classical and operant conditioning

Operant
conditioning
 – Reinforcement The application or removal of a stimulus to
increase the strength of a specific behaviour
– Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by an
appetitive (desired) stimulus.

Training – Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior prevents or

removes an aversive (undesired) stimulus. This procedure also
procedures makes the behavior more likely to recur.
a) Escape occurs when a behavior terminates an aversive event.
b) Avoidance occurs when a behavior happens in the presence of a signal that
informs the organism that an aversive event is likely.
 – Premack principle: A more preferred activity can be used to
reinforce a less preferred activity
– Punishment: refers to following response with an unpleasant
consequence
Training – Positive punishment occurs when a behavior is followed by an
procedures aversive stimulus. This procedure makes the behavior less likely to
recur.
– Negative punishment (also known as omission training) occurs
when an appetitive stimulus is prevented or removed following a
behavior. This makes the behavior less likely to recur.
Schedules of
Partial
Reinforcement
Applications

– Shaping – Technique in which closer

and closer approximations to desired
behaviour or required for the delivery
of positive reinforcement
– Chaining- A procedure that establishes
a sequence of responses which lead to
a reward following the final response in
the chain.
 – Biofeedback technique- the use sophisticated equipment that
enables people to monitor and self regulate certain body functions
through.
– Tokens have also been used with troubled children and adults in
special programs, and even in ordinary elementary school
classrooms
Applications – Feedback (information about the effect a response had) is
particularly important in human cognitive learning
– When managing behavior, self-reinforcement, self-recording,
feedback, and behavioral contracting are all helpful.
– Four strategies that can help change bad habits are reinforcing
alternative responses, promoting extinction, breaking response
chains, and avoiding antecedent cues.
Observational – The acquisition of new forms of behaviour,
information, or concepts through exposures to
others and the consequences they experience.
learning
 Illustration of experiment
By observing a model (someone who serves as an
example), a person may
– learn new responses
The process – learn to carry out or Avoid preciously learned
responses (depending on what happens to the
model for doing the same thing)
– learn a general rule that can be applied to
various situations.
Key factors in
Observational
Learning
 – Imitation Learning of skills
– Language development
– Media characters can act as powerful models for observational
learning.
Application of – Televised violence increases the likelihood of aggression by
viewers.
Obs Learning – It came play a role in development of both appropriate and
inappropriate forms of behaviour
– Observational learning can play and important role in work
settings: In helping workers interact more effectively with people
from different cultural backgrounds
Reference books
Baron
Coon and Mitterer