6.7 Harmonic Drives 249 _— Ciel spine o Figure 634 Harmonic drive [Model 633} ‘Although teeth on both splines have the same pitch, the circular spline has two more teeth than the flex spline, that is, Ny+2) (67) ‘where Nand Nyare the numbers of teeth on the circular spline and flex spline, respectively. ‘The animation provided through [Model 6.33] has two distinct motions. For the first motion, the wave generator isthe input component, the flex spline is the output component, and the circular spline is held fixed. As the wave generator rotates, the flex spline forms a travelling deflection wave, Figure 6.34 shows two configurations of the harmonic drive. In Figure 6.34(b), the wave generator has rotated 180° clockwise from the position shown in Figure 6.34(a), Notice that the marking on the flex spline has shifted one tooth with respect to the circular spline as a result of rotation of the wave generator. The rotational direction of shift is opposite to that of the travelling deflection wave, that is, for each rotation of the ‘wave generator in the clockwise direction, the flex spline rotates an equivalent of two teeth in the counterclockwise direction. Therefore, the first speed ratio generated is 57 (612) ‘where wand «wy are rotational speeds of the flex spline and wave generator, respectively, and the negative sign indicates thatthe flex spline and wave generator turn in opposite directions. For the harmonic drive illustrated in Figure 6.33 Ny=48 Ne and thus for this unit Ny Any one of the three components of a harmonic drive can be sclected for the input, the ‘output, oF the fixed component. Once the selection has been made, the corresponding speed ratio may be determined using a tabular method, similar to that employed for planetary250 6 GEARTRAINS TABLE 6.12 Tabular Analysis of the Harmonic Drive Shown in Figure 6.33, ‘Component = | Wave Generator lex Spline Circular Spline Overton oe o A Component Tum atom : i ‘ | Foret opm » “He 0 bolt Rotations : Spee ety -E ‘ tear trains. Table 6.12 provides such a table. Included in the table is a row for which all three components have the same rotational speed of x rpm. In the subsequent row, the circular spline has zero rotational speed, the wave generator is given y rpm, and the corre- sponding value of rotational speed of the flex spline is provided. Absolute values of rota- tional speeds that are a superposition of the two motions are also listed, For the second portion of the animation provided through (Model 6.33], the flex spline is prevented from rotating, and hence, from Table 6.12, ‘Therefore i | a (673) In addition, if the wave generator is the input component, and the circular spline is the ‘output component, then the second speed ratio generated is, we 8 to = Sm or MO. by ey Combining Equations (67-4), (6.3), and(6.7-D, + : x 2 2 a 675) + ( +e ir For the harmonic drive shown in Figure 6.33 peers m= No” 50” 25 Here, the circular spline and wave generator rotate in the same direction. Harmonic drives may be combined in multiple stages, similar to planetary gear trains, to provide even greater speed ratios. i | | | | | | | i | 16.7 Harmonic Drives 251 EXAMPLE 6.11 Analysis of a Two-Stage Harmonic Drive Figure 6.35 shows the cross section ofa two-stage harmonic drive, The numbers of teeth Ny = 104; Ne = 106; Ny = 108; N= 110 1 | ciretor spline | circular spline 2 Determine the speed ratio of (a) circular spline I with respect tothe wave generator if circular spline 2 is held fixed (b) circular spline 2 with respect to the wave generator if circular spline | is held fixed ‘The drive is equivalent to combining two harmonic drives. The wave generators of both stages share the same rotational speed, and the flex splines of both stages are rigidly con- nected. We employ Table 6.12 to generate the following equations: ‘+ connection of wave generators: ntyenty 676) + connection of flex splines: 2 2 n-Zyen-2y 67-9 Ng” Ny ae where subscripts 1 and 2 indicate the stage number. Equations (6,7-6) and (6.7-7) are valid for pars (a) and (b) ofthis problem, We now proceed to calculate the speed ratios when ei- ther circular spline 1 or circular spline 2 is held fixed. (a) [circular spline 2 is fixed, then from Table 6.12 ee 0 678)252 6 GEARTRAINS Solving Equations (6.7-6)-(6.7-8) and (6.7-1) for x1 and y1 in terms of y2, Np) Np w= MEN, yy = MeN 679 vee aE 675) ‘The speed ratio may be expressed as foarte Cope = (6740 Oy ED 4 Substituting Equations (6.7-9) in Equation (6.7-10), and simplifying, 2UN j= Np) _ 2108 ~ 104) _ fale Oe 674 = NN 106% 108 ~ 143i cay (6) Meiccular spline 1 is xed, then from Table 6.12 oy =" =0 (6713) Solving Equations (6.7.6), (6.7.1), (67-12), and (6.7-1) for x2 and y in terms of ya, wp 2M ND NaN oe Ne os wm (67.13) The speed ratio may be expressed as aye = 22 = tt (67.44) MO, tH Substituting Equations (6.7-12) and (67-13) in Equation (6,7-14), and simplifying, ee ole NEN, 7 TOTO ~~ TA50 Gee 6.8 TORQUE RELATIONS IN GEARBOXES. In a gearbox, torque is transmitted from the input to the output shaft, and if there is a dif- ference in rotational speed between input and output, there will be a related change in torque. This means that the input and output torques are unequal, and to maintain static equilibrium, a reaction torque must be applied to the gearbox housing. Figure 6.36 shows the torques acting on a typical gearbox. The input rorque and output torque are designated as T; and T,, respectively, and the input and output rotational speeds are w; and wo). The input and output powers (see Appendix D, Section D.10.3) to and from the gearbox are (68-1) (682)6.8 Torque Relat 253 Power os wl, pve x) mea Figure 6.36 Torques on a gearbox. where it has been recognized that the output torque and output rotational speed must have opposite signs. Due to frictional losses, the power output is less than the power input to the gear train. ‘The mechanical efficiency of the gearbox, 7, is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input power: Too To; =a, | 683) 0 8-4) | | { ‘where T;is the reaction rorque acting on the gearbox, which is required to keep the gearbox housing stationary. The following example illustrates the use of the above equations. EXAMPLE 6.12 Torque Analysis of a Gear Train Determine the torque on the housing of the gearbox in Figure 6.13, with the ring gear fixed, while under the following conditions: input power = P; = 30,000 N-m/sec = 30,000 watts = 30 kW 000 pm; = 0.98 =254 6 GEARTRAINS, ‘The speed ratio of the gearbox was previously determined (see Equation (6.4-1)) to be From Equation (6.8-1) =e =0.30 From Equation (6.8-3) ‘and therefore T= ‘Combining the above results with Equation (6.8-4), =U Since Ty is positive, the torque on link 4 speed. -h-T 467 ~ 143 = 324 Nem in the same direction as the input rotational PROBLEMS 6.1. For the gear tain shown in Figure P6.1, determine (@) the speed ratio e5j2 () the output rotational speed, ag, if the input rota tional speed, uw, is 75 rpm CW M=25 0 Me 15; Nes IS P62. Fora verted gear train (Figure 5.33), gears 2 and 3 have a module of 5 mm, and gears 4 and 5 have a ‘module of 3 mm. All gears are sraight spur. Deter- ‘mine suitable tooth numbers for the gears if the speed ratio is to be G@) 0.5 (b) approximately 0.42 P63. Specify the numbers of weth forthe gears showin in. Figure 6.8, having speed ratios of approximately 0.8, N= is: Figure P6.tProblems 255, 05, and 0.3. The smallest gear must have at least 20 teeth, and the module of all eeth is 4 mm. P64 Figure P64 illustrates a three-speed transmission Gears 4,5, and 6 are free to spin about their shaft in the configuration shown, while gears 3, 7, 8, 9,10, and 11 are keyed to their respective shafts. Gear 10is ‘an idler gear whose center isnot inline with those of ‘pears 6 and 11. C, and Cz are synchronizers that x ‘one free gear tothe shaft each time, so that power is transmitted from the input shaft to the output shaft "The input and output shafs are collinear. Using gears ‘of diametral pitch 12 in”! and using a centre-to- ‘centr distance between the input Shaft and counter shaft of 4 inches, specify the number of teth ofall ‘gears to obtain the following speed ratios: +1, +05, 402, -0.2 (reverse), subject to the constraint that the minimum number of teeth in aay gear is 16. ‘Coumershaft Figure Pod 6.5 Using the tabular method, derive the expressions for the component speeds for a type I planetary gear train as given in Figure 6.14 6.6 Using the tabular method, derive the expressions for the component speeds in a type planetary gear train as given in Figure 6.14 6.7 Using the tabular method, derive the expressions for the component speeds in a type K planetary gear train a given in Figure 6.14 6. For the gear train of Figure P6.8, calculate the speed ratio and determine the speed of rotation of output ‘gear 10, given that gear 3is driven at 200 rpm in the direction shown, N:=20; Ny Ns= 72, 16; =I : sets ouput 10 Figure P68 P6.9._Determine the expression forthe speed ratio of each of the following planetary gear trains (refer to Fig ure 6.14) (a) type D, 1 = 0, w2 = input, wy = output () type J,an = 0,0 ‘output (6) type Cw ‘output (8) type Lo cutput 6.10 In the gear train of Figure P6.10, shaft A rotates at 200 rpm and shaft B rotates at 300 rpm in the direc- tions indicated. Determine the speed of shaft C and its direction of rotation. M=35: Ny Ns Maid Ny) =16 Figure P6.10256 6.11 For a planetary gear train type A, the sun and ring gears have N; = 20 and Ny = 70 toeth, respectively (a) If the speed of the ring gear is 500 rpm CW, at What speed must the sun gear be driven if the crank isto rotate at @ 75 mmcw (ii) 75 mm CCW () Determine the maximum number of equally spaced planet gears that can be employed in this application. 6.12 Figute P6.12 shows an epicyclic gear train called Ferguson's paradox. Goats 2, 3, and 4 are loosely at tached to ther respective shafts while gear Sis fixed. (@) Find the number of rotations the crank has to tum 0 that gear 4 rotates five times in the direction shown. How many times does gear 3 rotate, and in which diction? (b) Determine the number of turns that gear 2 makes bout is own shat M=IS Ns My=81; Ns 0 2 6 GEAR TRAINS Figure P6.13 6.14 For the gear tran shown in Figure P6.14, gear 2 has ‘a module of 2.0 mm with 75 teeth; gear S has a mod: lle of 4.0 mm with 50 teeth; and gear 4 has 40 weth, Determine the number of teeth on gear 3 and speed ratio of the gear train, Figure P6.12 6.13 In Figure P6.13, Cand D represent band brakes that can be used {0 stop the rotation of ether arm E or gear 4, one at atime. Determine the speed and direc- tion of shaft B when shaft Ais rotating at 1,000 rpm CW, while (a) brake Colds arm £ fixed (b) brake D holds gear 4 fixed Ma= 90; Ny=32 Nes; Ng=28 Guat SS Figure P6.14 * P6.15 If an automobile is making a right-hand turn at 30 kv, determine the rotational speed of the dif- ferential carrer. The radius of curvature of the curve is 0 mo the center of the automobile, and the auto- mobile tread (the distance between the two drive wheels) is 1.60 m, The outside diameter of the ‘wheels is 850 mm. The differential gear tain of the automobile is shown in Figure 6.24 =15| | } i | Problems 6.16 Determine the three speed ratios, ey1, es, and e3/1, of the planetary gear train shown in Figure P6.16. Employ (@) the tabular method, and obtain results with one table () the combination of the basic types in Figure 6.14 15, N= 45; Ne= 105 Ns= 13 No Ne ourpus Figure P6.16 P6.17 Figure P6.17 illustrates a two-speed transmission ‘The two output speeds are obtained by altematively fixing gears 3 and 7 by using band brakes C and D, respectively. Determine the expressions for the two possible values of the speed ratio, 241 257 6.18 In the gear train of Figure P6.18, gears 1 and 2 are cut from the same casting and revolve freely about the arms of the planet carrier C. Gears 5 and 6 ar also cut from the same casting and are freely at- tached to shaft A. Gears 3 and 4 are keyed to shalt A For an output speed of 500 rpm in the direction shown, determine the sense and speed of the input shaft rotation Maa =a N= 38s Ns =40 50 Tapa Figure P6.18, P6.19 The three-stage planetary gear train illustrated in Figure P6.19 has the following two input rotational speeds: o) = 100 apm CW, wy = 6,000 rpm CW. Figure P6.19)258 Determine the output rotational speed, to, using the tabular method. M=20; Ny=23;-M=21 Ns=25; Ny= 1S; Np = a3 Ny Mo =19 Ny = 38 Nig = 28 HO; Ne=120; Nig = 10 6.20 A two-stage planetary gear train incorporates type A for the fist stage and type H for the second. The ring gear of the frst stage is connected tothe crank of the second stage, while the crank ofthe fist stage is ‘connected tothe ring gear 1 of the second stage. If ring gear § ofthe second stage is fixed, write down, but do not solve, the four governing equations fr the ‘motion in terms of x, yi, 2, and y2 according to the equations given in Figure 6.14, and determine the condition for the mechanism to function with a nonzero mobility. 6.21 In the operation of the gear train shown in Fig- ture P6.21, ring gear 1 is Fixed. Determine a rela- tion involving Ns and Nz to obtain a speed ratio of -0.48, M 10 Ny= 85; Ny= 88 MDP “Supe Figure P6.21 6.22 Determine the output rotational speed, w, for the gear train shown in Figure P6.22 by (a) using the tabular method (b) considering the gear train to bea combination of ‘the basic types illustrated in Figure 6.14 20; My 6 GEARTRAINS Ns = 15; Na = 80; Ne= 15: Ny =35 (21 = 200 rpm CW a % Figure P6.22 76.28 Thedriveshaftofanautomobileisturning at 1,500 pra with output 1 on the garage floor and the right (ie, ‘output 2) jacked up. The bevel gear differential of Fig. ure 624 is connected 10 the wheels. Determine the speed of output 2and the speed of ring gear? N= 60 N= No=18 N= 15; Ns Ny = 20; P6.24 Refer tothe Figure P6.24. (a) Determine the rotation ofthe carrier when gear 1 makes 30 rotations clockwise and gear 2 makes 12 rotations counterclockwise Also, determine the angular displacement of _gear 3 about its own axis, (b) IF gear | rotates at frpm and gear 2 at g rpm, de termine the rotational speed of the carrier in terms of fand g N= 40: Me=30; Ny =24 Figure P6.24Problems 259 6.25 For a harmonic drive similar to that shown in Fi: ture 6.32, determine the rotational speed of the flex spline. Ny =100, = 10pm CW: 76.26 Referto Figure P6.26. Ring gear 1s driven at S00 rpm in the direction shown, while gear 4s bel stationary. (a) Determine the speed ratio ofthe gear train and eal- culate the sense and rotational speed of cartier C (6) 1F 30 RW of power is obtained atthe output, and the drive has @ mechanical efficiency of 98 per- cont, caleulate the torque req fixed, 102 ee =0 My = 500; Ny = 60; Super put a ah Figure P6.26 76.27 For an input speed wo} = 600 radisec ofthe gear train shown in Figure P6.27, calculate the rotational speed ‘ofthe planet carrierand the output rotational speed, or, M=15; Na = 425 3 150; Ne 100 P6.28 Determine the torque required to hold down the base of the gearbox casing shown on Figure 6.36 while under the following operating conditions: = 300rpm; 7; = 200N-m N= 095; ey; = ~0.60 wre P627 6.29 In the planetary gear train shown on Figure P6.29,, intemal gear 4 tums at 300 rpm in the direction shown. The diametral pitch of gear 1 is 4 in (a) Determine the diametral pitch of gear 3 and its piteh diameter. (b) Determine the speed and direction of rotation of, the output shat. (6) If the input power is 20 KW, and the mechanical efficiency is 95 percent, determine the external torque on gear 1 ~Oaipar Figure P6.29 6,30 Refer to Figure P6.30. Determine the speed of rota- tion of shaft A needed to produce the 300 rpm output rotation of shaft Bin the direction shown. Ifthe me- chanical efficiency of the gear train is 90 percent Aetermine the torque T; that must be applied to the ‘gearbox to convert a 20 KW input to output at shaft B. 20; Ny=40, N= ID 39; Np=16, Ng =60. jf fll rye wes nie 6.31 In the two-stage planetary gear train of Figure P6:31, ‘gear 6 is fixed and erank arms C and D are attached to the output shaft. Gears 3 and 4 form a compound ‘wheel that rotates freely about the output shat Determine (a) the speed and direction of rotation ofthe output shaft (b) the relative rotational speed of planet gear 2 with respect to rank arm C (c) the maximum number of equally spaced planet ‘gears S may be employed 20, Nya TM 300 rpm CW Tapa igure P6.31 6.32 Figure P6.32 illustrates a planetary gear train, Points A.C, D, and E are used to keep track of the angular positions of links 1, 3.4, and 5, respectively. Stating from the position shown, gear 5 is rotated 270° coun- terclockwise (point E moves to point E), snd gear L 6 GEAR TRAINS is rotated 90° clockwise (point A moves to point A’). ‘After completion of the motions of gears | and $ (@) specify the angular position ofthe crank arm 2 () specify the angular position of planet gear 3 about its own axis (©) specify the angular position of planet gear 4 about its own axis (@) sketch the configuration ofthe gear train and in- dicate the postions of points C and D after the ‘motions (indicate as C’ and DY, respectively) N54 Ny=20 108 Figure P6.32 6.33 Information pertaining to the two-speed transmission shown in Figure P6.33 is given in Table P6.33, Shier Syochonizer /p6 22 ouput caugentat | | spice +4 SES HE = 1 Figure P63, All gears are to be manufactured using a hob cuter having 20° pressure angle and 0:500-inch hob pitch, All gears are to have fulldepth teeth, eachProbl: TABLE P6.33 Gear No. | No.of Teeth Type of Gear | 2 20 ‘Straight spur 3 40 = 4 = Helical spur 3 = = = = —_ /— = = with more than 15 teeth and fewer than 45 teeth Shafts and B are collineat. The desired speed ratios are +38/156 (synchronizer connects gear 4 to shaft B), and +54/132 (synchronizer connects gear 6 10 shaft B). Determine (@) the base circle radius of gear 2 (@) the center-o-center distance, c, between gears 2 and 3 (6) the contact rato between gears 2 and 3 (@) the umber of teeth on gears 4, 5,6, and 7 that will generate exactly the desired speed ratios (6) the circular pitch of gear 4 (9 the helix angle of gear 4 (q) the helix angle of pear 7 (th) the pitch circle diameter of gear S (@ the addendum circle diameter of pear 5 6.34 For the planetary gear train shown in Figure P6.34, all gears have straight spur teth, fll depth, 20” pres sure angle, and module of 3 mm. Determine (a) the speed and direction of rotation of the output shafl (8) the relative rotational speed of the planet carrier ‘with respect to gear 7 (©) the maximum number of equally spaced planet ‘gears 7 that may be employed M=3 0 Np=2 N= 27 Ns= 56 Ny= 100; My =50 Ne= 180; 0) = $00 pm CCW7 Cams 7.1 INTRODUCTION Video 12 Miling Moctine ‘ideo734, Video 130 Dis Cm ‘ylindcat Cum Face Cam Mesh ‘A cumis a link of a mechanism. It transmits motion, by direct contact, to another link, called the follower. Some common types of cam mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 7.1, showing input and output motions, which may be translational or rotational. Figure 7.2 shows a moving-headstock milling machine, used in machining a wide variety of small metal components employed in high precision mechanical devices. This ‘machine is an excellent example of implementing different types of cam mechanisms. Here, the followers transmit motions to the cutting tools. Cam mechanisms often provide a simpler and less expensive method of achieving required motions than other types of ‘mechanisms. Motions can more eadily be modified by changing the shape of the cam. Fig- ure 7.3 shows some of the dise cam mechanisms used in this machine. ‘The photographs depict different types of followers. Figures 7-4 and 7.5 show a cylindrical cam mechanism and a face cam mechanism, respectively. In this chapter, graphical and analytical methods of determining the shapes of dise ‘cams are presented. In addition, the computer program entitled Cam Design is introduced, for use in the desiga of dise cam mechanisms. 7.2 DISC CAM MECHANISM NOMENCLATURE 262 ‘Mecha cams may be classified according to their type of follower. Figure 7.6 shows six cams and followers. Followers are classified according to their shape, location relative to the cam, and whether the follower motion is translational or rotational. Three of the followers shown in Figure 7.6 execute linear translation, whereas three execute rotational motion,7.2 Disc Cam Mechanism Nomenclature 263 | i ' ' p ® i Figure 7.1, Common types of cams: (a) disc or plate, (b) wedge, (c) cylindrical, (Genter | Figure 712 Moving isc ig | rene vee 7 ' | ' } i i | ‘Common definitions associated with disc cam mechanisms are + cam profile: the surface of the cam contacted by the follower * trace point: the point of contact of the knife-edge follower, or the center of the roller follower * pitch curve: the path of the trace point with respect to the camFigure 7.3 Dise cam mechanisms: (a) single knife-cdge follower [Video 7.3A], (b) mulipte knlfe-edge followers [Video 7 3B], (¢) roller follower [Video 7.3C} Figure 7.4 Cylindrical eam mechanism Figure 7.5 Face cam mechanism [Video 7.4}. [Video 75} + base circle: the smallest circle tangent to the cam profile, with its center on the axis of the camshaft * prime circle: the smallest circle tangent to the pitch curve, with its center on the axis of the camshaft + pressure angle: the angle between the normal to the pitch curve and the direction of ‘motion of the trace point This nomenclature for dise cam mechanisms having translating and pivoting followers isillustrated in Figuees 7.7 and 7.8. Springs (not shown) between the follower and base link are employed to keep the follower in contact with the cam profile. 7.3 PRESSURE ANGLE Pressure angle changes as the mechanism moves. Figures 7.7 and 7.8 illustrate pressure angles in mechanisms for given configurations, The value of the pressure angle is a critical parameter in design of dise cam mecha- \s and should be kept as small as possible. The practical maximum is 30°. Even if the follower and dise cam were a frictionless kinematic pair, there is still a component ofssure Angle 265 Transaing Pivoting Knife ode Fist face Rolle Figure 7.6 Disc cam mechanisms [Model 7.6} ‘unwanted side thrust. This can be illustrated by a free body diagram as shown in Figure 7.9. Figure 7.9(a) shows a disc cam and roller follower. Figure 7.9(b) shows the roller follower with the guide of the follower removed and replaced by the equivalent forces. Larger val- ues of pressure angle cause an increase in the unwanted side thrust on the follower stem. For excessive pressure angles, the mechanism will tend to bind. ‘Some means by which the pressure angle may be reduced are + increasing the diameter of the base circle + increasing the diameter of the roller follower + changing the offset of the follower (see Figure 7.7) + changing the motion of the follower An illustration of the application of the above methods is provided later inthis chapter bby means of an example.266 7_CAMS Prime cle for roller follower Base cece Pieh cane prime crc for aller Foc flat-face follower follower ‘Cam profile, pitch eure fora face follower Figure 7.7 Dise cam mechanism with translating followers. [rsa ® © Figure 7.9 Roller follower: (a) disc cam and follower, () fee body diagram of follower.267 7.5 Types of Follower Mot 7.4 THE DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM throughout a complete cycle. It may be expressed in the form [Fao sez] cos A displacement diagram isa plot of follower displacement versus cam rotation. The motions ofthe follower may be grouped into the following three categories: + rise: The follower is moving away from the center ofthe dise cam. + diel: The follower is a rest + fall or return: The follower is moving toward the center of the disc eam. Figure 7.10 shows an example of a displacement diagram. It depicts portions of rise, 300m Base circle igure 7.20 Prescribed dimensions of adise cam, ‘The displacement parameters are given in Table 7.1, and the corresponding displace- ‘ment diagram is illustrated in Figure 7.21. Determine (a) the cam profile (b) the pressure angle as a function of cam rotation TABLE 7.1. Follower Motion Parameter »| Inial Angle | Final Angle Rise (1) or for interval | for Interval ype of Return (=) Interval 4 degrees) (degrees) Motion (em) 1 0 100 Harmonie 25 2 100 160 Dwell 0 a 160 300 Cyeloidal 15 4 300 360 Parabolic 10 (a) We apply the equations as listed in Figure 7.19. A typical calculated value of the pres- sure angle is made for @ = 30°. At this rotation, the follower is undergoing lift with harmonic motion, with a lift of 2.5 em in the interval 0<0< 100°7.7. Determination of Disc Cam Profile 281 #66" Harmonic __ yell Cyoloidal Parabolic |_Hamone et Figure’7.21. Displacement diagram ‘Therefore L=25cm; B=100°-0" = 100° ‘Using the expressions from Figure 7.15, and recognizing in this instance that yields o=e £G0") = 0.515 em af@) _ wh m8 eee Sp TB pt POONA 18 Ro = Ute +1)? — FI" = 1.908 om RG) = Ro + £8); R(30°) = 2.423 cm er (L@=-S). . 2 0) =e! (LOS), gca0 =267 S +r, sin(d6)) 98) = 5 = tan” (a (30°) = 67.3 78) = (LRG) — 7, cos( HON]? +18 +7, sin(HO)PH'7; ——re(30") = 2.142. em xe(8) = recos((8));—-Xe(30°) = 0.825 em ye(0) ‘The calculated coordinates are rotated about the center of rotation of the cam in an ‘opposite direction to that of the rotation of the cam to locate a point on the cam profile ‘This is illustrated in Figure 7.22(a). Figure 7.22(b) shows the disc cam mechanism, {As a second point on the profile, consider the cam rotation of @ = 200°. At this position, the follower is undergoing return with cycloidal motion, This interval of fesin((0));—_ye(30°) = 1.98 cm202 7 CAMS (047,37) (0.825, 1.98) | @ © Figure 7.22 (a) Development of disc cam profile. (b) Mechanism, ‘motion starts at 160° and ends at 300°. The return during the interval is 1.5 L B = 300° — 160° = 140° : 200° — 160° = 40° £300") + 57(40°) = 2.30 em Employing the equations from Figures 7.16 and 7.19, inthis instance (200°) = 0.447em; —y.(200°) = 3.74em; (200°) ‘The point is added to Figure 7.22. Therefore 178" | (b) The pressure angle was included in calculating part (a) of this problem. Figure 7.23 shows a plot of pressure angle as a function of cam rotation. 360 (eB) Figure 7.23 Pressure angle asa function of cam rotation7.9 Positive-Motion Cam Mechanisms 283 ‘The cam profile and pressure angle presented in the above example may also be ob- tained using the program Cam Design (see Section 7.10) 7.8 UNDERCUTTING OF A DISC CAM PROFILE (On occasion, for a given geometry of a mechanism and specified follower displacement, it ‘may be impossible to generate the cam profile. Consider employing the same displacement diagram as was employed in Example 7.1. If we now incorporate a flat-face follower and ‘employ the procedure presented in Section 7.7, then the result is shown in Figure 7.24. Part of the cam profile doubles back on itself. This portion of the cam profile is impossible 10 ‘manufacture, and is said to be undercut, This has resulted from attempting to achieve too ‘great a lift of the follower, within inadequate cam rotation, and the base circle ofthe cam is ‘too small relative to the rise required. Undercutting may be eliminated by employing one or more of the following methods: * increasing the diameter ofthe base circle + incorporating a different type of follower ‘+ modifying the motion of the follower This is lustrated by an example later in this chapter. 7.9 POSITIVE-MOTION CAM MECHANISMS f woasi7.2s Positive-motion cam mechanisms are those where the cam exerts affirmative control of motion of the follower during a complete cycle. The cylindrical cams shown in Figures 7.1 and 7.4 are also positive-motion cams. Such cams do not require gravity or spring force to censure contact between the cam and follower. Figure 7.25 shows another type of positive-motion cam mechanism. It is very similar to a disc cam mechanism with a roller follower. However, in this instance, a groove of Figure 7.24 Undereut dise Figure 7.25 Positive-motion cam, ‘cam mechanism (Mode! 7.25}284 Moet 736 Movie Projector Neshanm 7 CAMS ' i Figure 7.26 Constant-breadt) Figure 727 Move projector am mechanism (Model 126). mechani constant width is machined in the cam. As the cam rotates, the roller follower is constrained to move in this groove. Figure 7.26 shows a constant-breadth cam mechanism, which is another type of positive- ‘motion cam mechanism, The cam surface is always in contact with the two parallel surfaces of the translating follower. The distance between parallel surfaces, d, equals the base circle diameter plus the maximum follower rise. In order to be a constant-breadth cam, the lengths ‘of all diagonal lines through the center of the cam to the cam profile must be equal. Constant- breadth cams may be designed similar to disc cams with a translating flat face, provided that the rise during 180° of cam rotation is the mirror image ofthe return during the remainder of the eycle, Figure 7.27 shows an example of a constant-breadth cam employed in a movie pro- Jector mechanism, Figure 7.28 gives another illustration of the same system. The function Of this mechanism is to intermittently advance film, one frame at a time. While a frame is, stationary, light is permitted to shine through the filmand momentarily project a stationary image. While the film is moving, the light must be blocked. This mechanism incorporates, two positive-motion cam mechanisms. This includes the constant-breadth cam mechanism used to provide up and down motion of the transport arm, The constant-breadth cam is located on shaft B, as shown in Figure 7.28(a). Shaft A is geared to shaft B. A cylindrical ‘cam is attached to shaft A. One end of the transport arm is inthe slot of the cylindrical cam. This cam causes the intermittent rotation of the transport arm about the vertical axis C. The rotation causes the other end of the transport arm to enter perforations of the film. While centered into the perforations (Figure 7.28(b)), the arm moves vertically, advancing the film ‘one frame, Every third upward stroke of the transport arm, the end of the arm enters perfo- rations in the sides of the film, A shutter (shown in animation, but not in Figure 7.28) is attached to shaft B,7.10 Program Cam Design 285 Figure 7.28 Movie projector mechanism (Model 7.28} 10 PROGRAM CAM DESIGN ‘The program Cam Design is included on the CD-ROM accompanying this textbook. With this program it is possible to design disc cams having either translating or pivoting follow- crs. The face of the follower may be a knife edge, roller, or flat face. The disc cam profile ‘may be plotted, and an animated motion of the cam mechanism may be displayed. Any of the motions presented in Section 7.4 may be incorporated in the displacement diagram. Values of pressure angle may be displayed. Also, by plotting the profile, we may determine whether or not undercutting is encountered. ‘Asan illustration, consider the following input parameters of a disc cam mechanism to be analyzed: + translating roller follower + base circle diameter: 4.0 em + roller circle diameter: 1.0.em + offset: 0.6 em + cam rotational speed: 20 rad/sec CCW ‘Table 7.2 lists the required motions ofthe follower. Figure 7.2%(a) illustrates the above input parameters, and Figure 7.29(b) shows the displacement diagram. TABLE 7.2 Follower Motion parancer-=] itl gle | fel Angle teen fortnerat | forimernat | npeot | Ret) Inter degen | ‘depecn | Motion ‘cm 1 Q 100 Parabolic os 2 100 260 Dwel [| 0 3 260 360 Hamenie | 08286 7_ CAMS =} bosom Pargbolic yell Harmonie 10 a © o Figure 7.29 (a) Prescribed dimensions ofa dise cam. (b) Displacement diagram, Tons for rotation and introductory logo. igure 731 Cam Design—menu icons ter initiating the program, we obtain the opening sereen logo as shown in Figure 7.30. By selecting the File menu (Figure 7.31), we have the option to either open an existing file OF create a new one. If we select a New file, a wizard dialogue box appears. It includes three property pages: Design Page, Motion Page, and Display Page. Each is described separately below. + Design Page (Figure 7.32) Figure 7.32(a) shows an illustration ofthe Design Page containing default parame- ters of a cam mechanism. For this illustration, we enter the following modifications: replace the knife-edge follower with a roller follower, and replace the values of the base circle diameter, follower offset, and roller diameter. After entering these data, the screen appears as shown in Figure 7.32(b). Then selecting Next >, we obtain the ‘Motion Page. ‘+ Motion Page (Figure 7.33) ‘The default Motion Page is shown in Figure 7.33(a). Default parameters are replaced by those to be employed for this illustration. This includes the cam rotational speed, along with the number of intervals of motion during a complete cycle (changed from ‘one to three—see Table 7.2). Furthermore, by selecting each interval, we input the7.10 Program Cam Design 287 Mae Peete Frotcmae 5] nd a, ma Na died P| ek CS] coe sade [HB ra © Figure 7.33 Cam Design example—Motion Page.288, 7_ CAMS ‘cam rotation at the end of the interval, the type of motion, and if needed, the rise or fall ofthe follower during the interval. For this illustration, we input the parameters listed in Table 7.2. Figures 7.33(b), 7.33(c) and 7.33(¢) illustrate the Motion Page after the parameters for each interval have been entered, Then, selecting Next >, we ‘obtain the Display Page. + Display Page (Figure 7.34) This page outlines a variety of display modes that may be obtained in either tabular or graphical form. Figure 7.34(a) shows the default Display Page, which specifies a broste Maximum Values Toone Deplcomer Enso] Tan F001 30 Sater 30 Te =008 so T= 2st SI ons 050 oas 0.0 ~023 oso} - | 075 =Dipconen 1 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 280 270 300 330 360 (es) Figure 734 Cam Design example—lispay or displacement diagram: (a) Display Page, (b) displacement diagram,7.10 Program Cam Design 289 displacement diagram. By clicking on Finish, the wizard dialogue box is closed, and the screen as shown in Figure 7.34(b) appears. It includes a displacement diagram in nondimensional form. Maximum absolute values of displacement, velocity, acceler ation, jerk, and pressure angle throughout a cycle are also provided in a table con: tained within the figure. By clicking the Edit Cam icon (see Figure 7.31), the Properties Sheet appears, as shown in Figure 7.35(a). We now have the choice to return to the Design Page, the Motion Page, or the Display Page. It is possible to modify the parameters or repeat the displays. ‘We have the option to change the type and dimensions of the cam mechanism through the Design Page. Alternatively, by selecting the Motion Page, we may alter the follower mo- tions, A further option isto select the Display Page, and either review or select outputs. We ‘may go to the Display Page, deselect the Show Graph button, and select the Show Con- tour button, We also have the option of including the follower with the eam in the illustra- tion by clicking on the appropriate box (Figure 7.35(b)). Then, clicking Apply gives the result as shown in Figure 7.36, Once again clicking the Edit Cam icon, then the Display | =) Dwr in| ise Figure 7.38 Cam Design example—Properties Sheet Figure 7.36 Cam Design example—eam and follower.290 Funcion | Aolwe Maximum | Naninom ae Falmer Dagens Kobe 01 1000 Follower Velo Tse007 300. [Fotlower ce Simevoo2] 300] Follower ier Te $008 3100. Presi Angle [sie voor SIRO. (Output Graphs (normalized with the maximum values) ' rae 075 Pressure Angle 050 4 - 02 000 ~02s| 050 = 075} 030 @ 120 150 189 210 240 270 300 530 360 es) o + Figure 7.37. Com Desiga examplo—display of pressure angle. Page button, deselecting the Show Contour button, clicking on the Show Graph button, selecting the Pressure Angle graph as shown in Figure 7.37(a), and clicking Apply gives the result shown in Figure 7.37(b) ‘An animated motion of the cam mechanism may also be obtained. Animations may be generated with or without the follower. For animations, itis necessary to deselect all ‘ther inputs and outputs, except for Show Contour (see Figure 7.38(a)). Then, using the icons shown in Figure 7.31, we have the choice to step the motion in increments of 5° of|7.10 Program Cam Design 291 ng a Dat | ton HEI | Kose omen BF o © re 7.38 Camm Design example—cam animation cam rotation in either the clockwise or counterclockwise direction, Alternatively, the motion may be animated, Figures 7.38(b) and 7.38(c) illustrate two positions of the cam ‘mechanism. Under the File menu, we may save the above parameters using a desired file name. The above cam mechanism is saved as eam. Then we proceed to return to the Motion Page ‘and change the displacement diagram. The rotation of the cam dividing the second and third intervals is altered from 260° to 300° (Figure 7.39(a)). This modified cam mechanism ‘and displacement diagram are shown in Figures 7.39(b) and 7.39(c), respectively. Its then saved as eam2, ‘Two or more files may be opened simultaneously. Figure 7.40(a) shows the case ‘when both cam and cam2 are opened at the same time. When more than one file is open, itis possible to superimpose graphs of displacement and the time derivatives of displace- ment, as well as the cam contours. The icon shown in Figure 7.31 is used to activate the292 7. CAMS rig [haa ———— —— (Ouipat Gras (normalized with tbe maximum values) = Displacemest ‘030 6) 90120 150 180 210 340 270 300 330 360 + (es) » © Figure 7.39 Cam Design example—modificaion of displacement diagram. superimpose option, Then, the screen as shown in Figure 7.40(b) appears. We then indicate the desired files to he superimposed by first highlighting them and then clicking the Add >> button. If cam and cam2 are added, we obtain the screen as shown in Figure 7.40(). If ‘we select to superimpose graphs by clicking OK, then we obtain the result shown in Fig- ture 7.40(d). Alternatively, if we select to superimpose the contours, we obtain the result shown in Figure 7.40(¢).7.10 Program Cam Design 293 o © Figure 7.40 Cam Design example—superposition of cam profiles and displacement diagrams. ‘This program can be used effectively as a design tool to search for a cam mechanism that has a prescribed motion while subject to a variety of constraints, such as space and maximum pressure angle. It may also be used to check for the existence of undercutting, and to design a cam mechanism where undercutting does not exist.294 7. CAMS a | Displacement Seale 10.80) Figure 7.40. (Continued) EXAMPLE 7.2 Design of a Disc Cam to Reduce Pressure Angle Consider the displacement parameters given in Table 7.3. The corresponding displacement diagram is illustrated in Figure 7.41 In addition, we have the following parameters: + translating roller follower + base circle diameter: 4,0 em + roller circle diameter: 1.0 em + offset: 0.0.cm7.10 Program Cam Design 295 TABLE 7.3 Follower Motion = ie |e |e : so) ho es | i a i el ae [ome oS a gcsy aah g H poh oe T0160 20 Rotation, 8 (degrees) Figure 7.41 Displacement diagram. Based on the above parameters and motions, Figure 7.42(a) shows the corresponding cam mechanism, and Figure 7.42(b) gives a plot of the pressure angle as a function of cam rotation. The maximum pressure angle during a cycle is 37.1°, Figure 7.42(a) illustrates the configuration of the cam mechanism where the pressure angle is maximum. Design a cam mechanism for which the pressure angle is always less than 30° through changing (2) the diameter of the base circle (©) the diameter ofthe roller follower (6) the offset of the follower (@) the displacement diagram Employ the program Cam Design. Barer ‘We consider the disc cam profile shown in Figure 7.42(a) as the original profile. (@) Increasing the diameter of the base circle will generally decrease the maximum value of pressure angle. However, this will be accomplished at the expense of296 7_CAMS Fsction ‘sce Maxim [Maximum (ae) Talon Depheenent {sta 70] Follower ai [see sen Follower Acceleration | +080e+con | foliwerlee | Re +00 Preven TSO ‘Output Graphs (normalized with the maximum values) 0 30 6 90 120 150 18 210 240 270 300 330 360 (Gee) o » Figure 7.42 Original disc cam mechanism—distribution of pressure angle. ) © creating a larger mechanism. Through trial and error we are able to reduce the ‘maximum pressure angle from 37.1° to 30.0° by increasing the base circle diame- ter from 4.0 cm to 6,01 cm. Figure 7.43(a) shows the configuration of the mecha- nism where the pressure angle is maximum. Figure 7.43(b) shows a superposition of the original and modified cam profiles. We returm the diameter of the base circle back to 4.0 cm and now increase the diameter of the roller follower. Through trial and error, by inereasing the roller diameter from 1.0 em to 3.01 em, the maximum pressure angle has been reduced from 37.1° to 30.0°. Figure 7.44(a) illustrates the disc cam mechanism in the con- figuration of maximum pressure angle. Figure 7.44(b) shows a superposition of the original and modified cam profiles. The greatest difference between the pro- files occurs during the steep rise ofthe follower. We return the diameter of the roller follower back to 1.0 em. Several values of offset are now tried in a search for the minimum value of the maximum pressure angle throughout a cycle. The optimum offset is 0.606 cm. Figure 7.45(a) shows the corresponding cam mechanism. The maximum pressure angle has been reduced from 37.1° to 30.2", Figure 7.45(b) shows a superposition of the original ‘and modified profiles. In this instance, it was not possible to reduce the maximum. pressure angle to 30.0° solely by changing the follower offset. However, a de- signer has the option to vary more than one parameter in order to achieve a desired result, By increasing the base circle diameter from 4.0.cm to 4.5 em, with zero off- set, the maximum pressure angle reduces to 35.1°. Then, through tral and error,@ © Figure 7.43 Disc cam mechanism with increased base circle diameter: (a) configuration of, ‘maximom pressure angle, (b) superposition of original and modified cam profiles. 297 @ © Figure 7.44 Disc cam mechanism with increased roller diameter: (a) configuration of| ‘maximum pressure angle, (b) superposition of original and modified cam profiles the pressure angle may be reduced to 30.0° by incorporating an offset of 0.45 em. ‘This result is illustrated in Figure 7.46. (@) We return the offset back to zero and the base circle diameter to 4.0 cm. For the results presented in ‘gure 7.42(b), the configuration corresponding to the largest, value of pressure angle occurs near the steepest slope of the displacement298 7 CAMS aoe ° Figure 7.45 Dise cam mechanism with offset: (a) configuration of maximum pressure angle, (b) superposition of original and modified cam profiles. “8 Figure 7.46 Disc cam mechanism with offset and increased base circle diameter: (a) config- ‘ration of maximum pressure angle, (b) superposition of original and modified cam profiles. diagram. Thus, in order to reduce this large pressure angle, we may reduce the slope ofthe displacement diagram. This may be accomplished by reducing the ini- tial dwell, which spans 0° to 50°. Through trial and error, ifthe initial dwell is reduced, to spun 0° to 29.0°, then the maximum pressure angle is reduced to 30.0°. Figure 7.47 shows the modified displacement diagram, Figure 7.48(a) shows the ‘cam mechanism in the configuration of maximum pressure angle. Figure 7.48(0) shows a superposition of the new and original profiles.7.10 Program Cam Design 299 isplncement Seale 11.50 o Figure 748 Disc cam mechanism incorporating modified displacement diagram: (a) configu ration of maximum pressure angle, (b) Superposition of original and modified cam profiles, EXAMPLE 7.3 Design of a Disc Cam to Eliminate Undercutting Consider the displacement parameters given in Table 7.4. The corresponding displacement diagram is illustrated in Figure 7.49. In addition, we have the following parameters: + wanslating flat-face follower + ase circle diameter: 15 emTABLE 7.4 Follower Motion Parameter >| Initial Angle | Final Angle Rise (+) oF for Interval | for Interval Type of Return (-) Interval 1 degrees) (degrees) Motion (em i 1 0 50. Dwell 0 2 50 100 Harmonic 25 3 100 360 Parabolic -25 Faneion ‘se Maxime [Maximum oe) Folens Dapicenan 2000 “Ta | lower Wc “Sie +000 as Follower Aceon Te #007 a0) Foioner fk [sae son | 50 Lesgh [5006 Fa 75a ‘Output Graphs (normalized withthe maximum values) Displacement} 0 30 60 9 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 3% 360 (ae) Figure 7.50 Dise cam mechanism Figure 7.49 Displacement diagram. with undercutting ‘The cam mechanism is shown in Figure 7.50. There is clearly a section of the profile that has been undercut. Design a cam for which undercutting is eliminated by changing (a) the diameter of the base circle 1 (b) the type of follower { Employ the program Cam Design. (a) Figure 7.51 shows the result when the base circle diameter has been increased to 25 em.) ‘The undercut section has been completely eliminated,7.11. Manufacturing of Cams 301 Figure 7.51 Disc cam Figure 7.52 Disc cam with increased base circle mechanism implementing diameter. roller follower. (bp) We return the value of the base circle back to 15 em and now replace the flat-face fol- lower with a roller follower. The roller diameter is 1.0 cm, Figure 7.52 shows the cam ‘mechanism with no undercutting. 7.11 MANUFACTURING OF CAMS Video 7341, Video 78342, Wie 7538, Meo 788C, Video 7830) Cams are manufactured using a wide range of methods. Depending on the quantity to be produced, speed of operation, load rating, and required accuracy of the motion, cams are ‘made from a variety of materials and may be fabricated by hand, or molded, ot machined. ‘This section presents two methods of manufacturing cams; one for low-volume production and the other for mass production. For low-volume production of dise cams, the shape of the cam profile may be tran- seribed by hand onto a cam blank. This technique is used for the fabrication of cams used in moving-headstock milling machines (Figure 7.2). The steps are illustrated in Fig- ‘ure 7.53. Fist, radial lines are drawn from a center on the blank to segregate portions of ‘motions and dwells of the follower (Figure 7.53(a)). Circular ares are then scribed, using the common center. These arcs correspond to the periods of dwell. The contours for the rises and falls are then added (Figure 7.53(b)). This is followed by completing a rough cut of the profile using a band saw (Figure 7.53(c)). Then a fine cut is taken using a shaping machine (Figure 7.53(d)). Finally, the cam profile is smoothed as necessary by hand. Cams for internal combustion engines are usually machined from a solid shaft, so all cams on the shaft are rigidly connected and will be driven at the same speed. Figure 1.1 shows a one-cylinder engine with two cams on the camshaft. Most internal combustion engines are designed with two cams for each cylinder. Ina modem facility for the mass production of camshafts, the entire process is highly automated. The process starts with a solid cylindrical shaft, which is accurately cut t0 length by machining the two end surfaces. Typically four holes are then drilled in one end of the shaft, all offset from its centerline. Three of the holes are tapped and will be used302 7 CAMS @ Figure 7.53 Manufacture of a disc cam: (a) seribing radial lines [Video 7.531] and circular arcs {Video 7.5342], (b) seribing rises and falls {Video 7.53B], (c) rough eut using band saw [Video 7.53C]. () fine cut using shaper [Video 7.53D} later for attaching a pulley or timing gear to drive the camshaft. A tapered pin is press-fit in the hole that isnot tapped. This pin willbe used for controlling the rotations of the shaft in the subsequent manufacturing operations “Multiple annular slots are cut on the eieular surface, spaced along the length of the shaft. These slots will become the gaps between the cams, The cam profiles are then ‘machined. In machining each cam profile, the shaft is given one revolution at a constant rate, taking approximately two seconds. During rotation, a milling cutter machines a cam profile. The milling cutter, rotating on its own axis, is actuated to move radially with respect to the centerline of the camshaft. This radial motion is computer controlled and ‘mimics the motion ofthe follower in the engine. This process is carried out forall cams on the camshaft, Between the machining of cam profiles, the milling cuter is repositioned by ‘moving it parallel tothe axis ofthe camshaft The camshafts are automatically transferred to other machines forthe finish grinding ofthe cam profiles and camshaft bearings. There is a separate grinding wheel for each cam profile and bearing. The grinding wheels are also computer controlled, similar to the radial movements used forthe milling operation. ‘Ata subsequent station, the eam profiles only are heat treated. The camshafts ae later {ed through a machine where they are wire brushed to remove burs and scaling caused byi | | | | Problems 303, the heat treatment process. The camshafts are then transferred to a polishing machine. Here, a polishing compound is applied, and the camshaft is rotated several revolutions in both directions. The polishing is carried out using long bands of polishing cloth that are applied to the working surfaces. In the next machine, the camshafts are washed to remove the polishing compound and subjected to final inspection. PROBLEMS PLA A disc cam's translating roller follower with zero off= set isto rise 3.0 cm with simple harmonic motion jn 160° of cam rotation and return with simple har- ‘monic motion in the remaining 200°. If the roller dius is 0.50 em, and the prime circle radius is 3 em, construct the displacement diagram, pitch curve, and ‘am profile for counterclockwise cam rotation. P72. The follower shown in Figure P7.2sto be pivoted 35° clockwise with harmonic motion during a 120° cour- terclockwise tur of the cam, then allowed to dell : Free body diagram, Force polygon, a Tink 3 Tink a 7 a roe body digram, QF (256 10) al Ma fi aasin (256 Ib) ama of a slider erank mechanism, Figure 8.7 Static force an Free body diagrams of links 3 and 4 are shown in Figure 8.7. We note that link 3 is a two- isa three-force member. Therefore, for link 4 force member, and link P+PutFs=0 86-1) Assuming frictionless kinematic pairs, F 14 is perpendicular to the direction of the slide. ‘Also, the force from link 3 is along the direction defined by points B and D. For link 4, we cconstruct the force polygon, shown in Figure 8.7. We now consider the analysis of link 3, and note that at point D, based on Newton's third law of mechanies (Appendix D), 862)8.6 Static Force Analysis Using Force Polygon Method 313 Since link 3 is a two-force member, Pua Fa (863) Now consider the force transmitted from link 3 onto link 2, We note that Fn=—-Fx (86-4) ‘To keep link 2 in static equilibrium, the sum of the forces and sum of the moments acting ‘on this link must be zero. The sum of the forces being zero is accomplished by setting Fa=-Fn (86-5) However, Fiz and Fy, are not collinear. Therefore, link 2 is not a two-force member. ‘Thus, in addition to the forces, an external moment must be applied to the link to counter~ act the couple produced by the forces. The magnitude of the moment is Ma = Fuld (86-6) where d is the perpendicular distance between the two lines of action. This moment must bbe applied in the clockwise direction to counteract the counterclockwise moment created by the force couple. Therefore Miz = [Frald = 256 x 0.89 = 227in-IbCW EXAMPLE 8.2 Static Force Analysis of a Lever Mechanism For the mechanism shown in Figure 8.8(a), determine the magnitude and sense of the torque to be applied to link 2 by the base Tink to keep the mechanism in static equilibrium ‘while being subjected to a force of magnitude 50 N. row =3.0em ‘The lines of action of the forces are shown in Figure 8.8(b). For link 5, the line of action of force F and the line of action of the force from link 6 intersect at Kj. Then the line of action of the third force on link 5, through the turning pair at C, is drawn through this intersection point, For link 3, the line of action of the force through C intersects the Tine of. action of the force acting on link 3 from link 4 at K2. The line of action of the third force acting on link 3, through the turning pair at B. is drawn through this intersection point. Force polygons of links $ and 3 are also shown in Figure 8.8(b). Since Fa= then we construct a free body diagram of link 2.as shown in Figure 8.8(b). The moment that ‘must be supplied to link 2 is Me Fro\d = 26 x 2.8 = 73N-cmCWa4 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS (508) | Fes Force polygon, ink < Force polygon, Fy Tink 3 Fos (26N) 4° 28m “Fre body diagram, Vig @ © Figure 8.8 Static force analysis ofa lever mechanism, EXAMPLE 8.3 Static Force Analysis of a Front-End Loader | Consider the front-end loader mechanism shown in Figure 8.9. The mobility of this mech- anism is equal to two. The two inputs are provided by the linear actuators, links 5 and 7. For static analysis, itis permissible to designate the linear actuators as two-force members, For the position shown, a load of 5,000 Ib is applied to the bucket, link 6. Determine (a) the magnitude of the force in the actuators, links 5 and 7 i (b) the magnitude of the bending moment at B , rag = 32in (a) Link 2 is a two-force member. Links 4 and 6 are three-force members. i Se etree a seater eee ret ieee ae i eemnsoneiet | Se en aman nies |8.6 Static Force Analysis Using Force Polygon Method 315 Fy, (10.500) Re Force polygon, ak Force polygon, ~ ‘ a \\ tr, A \ Ca \ Tikes, 67 \ i: Figure 89 Static force analysis ofa front-end loader mechanism, Because of the equal and opposite directions of interactive forces, we can easily determine the forces acting on link 3 at points C and D. In addition, there are two other forces ating on link 3 through the turing pairs located at A and B Link 3 can be referred to as a four-force member because it is connected to other links through four turing pairs, We are notable to solve forthe forces applied to this link using the cases presented in Sections 8.2 and 8,3. Instead, i is necessary to con- sider a subsystem consisting of a combination of links 3, 6, and 7. This is permissible because under static conditions there is no relative motion between inks “The subsystem is subjected to three extemal forces, Therefore the properties of @ three-force member may be applied, The line of action ofthe external load and that of the two-force member of link 2 intersect at point K. The line of action of the force through the turing par at B must also pass through the same intersection point. Having determined th tree lines of action, we construct a force polygon corresponding tothe subsystem, Included in this polygon is force Fay8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS, We now consider the other three-force member, link 4. We employ the result from the previous force polygon and realize that Fs (86-7) F. ‘The line of action of the force through B has now been determined. This line of action intersects that coming from link 5 at K. The third line of action through point (Ox is determined because it must also go through K. From the three lines of action, we determine the force polygon corresponding to link 4. "The magnitudes of the forces in links 5 and 7 are WFssl = 20,4001 and [Frgl = 10,5001 respectively. From the force polygon analysis, we determine the force Fz3, which acts through the turning pair at A. To determine the bending moment at B, we take the component of this force that is perpendicular to the direction of link 3. The result is (Fay. = 10,4001 By inspection, there is no bending moment in link 3 at A. The magnitude of the bend- ing moment at Bis then 33 x 10° in-lb Ma = rap X (Fes)y = 32 % 10,400 = Figure 8,10 shows two positions of the front-end loader mechanism. The speeds of the animation shown through [Model 8.10] are so slow that forall positions the mech- anism is essentially in static equilibrium, that is, forall configurations, lines of action of forces for each three-force member intersect at a common point. co) Figure 8.10 Frontend loader mechanism [Model 8.10}8.7 Principle of Superposition 37 8.7_ PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION When a mechanism is subjected to more than one force simultaneously, itis not possible to immediately determine their combined effect in one analysis. Instead, we may perform mul- tiple analyses where each has only one ofthe forces being applied. The combined result may be found by superimposing individual results. This procedure is referred to as the Principle of Superposition. This principle is illustrated in Figure 8.11 and in the following example. Figure 8.11 Example of Principle of Superposition. EXAMPLE 8.4 Static Force Analysis of a Four-Bar Mechanism Consider the four-bar mechanism shown in Figure 8.12(a). The mechanism is subjected to ‘two forces, one on link 3, and the other on link 4, Determine the torque required to be sup- plied from the base link onto link 2 in order to keep the mechanism in equilibrium. Neglect the effect of gravity. in ‘We begin by considering only load P on link 3 and neglecting load Q on link 4, as shown in Figure 8.12(b). In this instance, link 3 may be considered as a three-force member, ‘whereas link 4 is a two-force member. Through the analysis shown, the force (Fi)p determined Next, we remove load P from link 3 and apply load @ to link 4, as shown in Fig- ure 8.12(¢). In this instance, link 3 may be considered as a two-force member, and link 4 ‘now a three-force member. Through the analysis shown, the force (F32)q is determined. ‘The total load between links is found by superimposing the above results, that is, Fa =(Fu)p + (Fado eT)318 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS Fo») o Force polygon, link Free body Fide agar, ik Figure 8.12 Static force analysis ofa four-bar mechanism: (a) mechanism, (b) load applied to link 3. The result is shown in Figure 8.12(d), from which Fol = 631 ‘To maintain static equilibrium of link 2, we require 872)319 Figure 8.12 (Continued) Static force analysis ofa four-bar mechanism: (c) load applied to link 4, (d) superimposed loads, In addition, a moment is supplied from the base link onto link 2. Its magnitude and direc- tion are Mag = Frald = 63 x 9.6 = 605in-IbCW where d = 9.6 in is the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces act- ing on link 2. This moment must be supplied in the clockwise direction to counteract the counterclockwise moment created by the force couple.320 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS 8.8 GRAPHICAL DYNAMIC FORCE ANALYSIS OF ‘A MECHANISM LINK—INERTIA CIRCLE, ‘We now consider the analysis of a mechanism link under dynamic conditions, Through the use of inertia forces and inertia moments introduced in Chapter 2, dynamic problems can be treated in the sume manner as static problems. Therefore, concepts introduced for static analyses are employed for dynamic problems. ‘Consider the mechanism link shown in Figure 8.13(a). The center of mass is indicated as point G. The mass of the link ism, and the polar mass moment of inertia about its mass center is In addition, for the given position, suppose we know the linear and angular accelerations of the link. For the time being, we isolate the link from the rest ofthe mechanism. (On the link shown in Figure 8.13(a) are drawn the vector of linear acceleration of the center of mass, Zg, and the angular acceleration, 0, We may generate the linear accelera- tion ofthe mass center by applying an external force that is parallel to Zig. The force (see Section 2.10.1) required is 88-1) Figure 8.13 Dynamic force analysis of a mechanism Tink: (a) given motion, (b) force _generating linear acceleration, (c) force generating linear and angular accelerations, () inertia force and force polygon,cle 321 8.8 Graphical Dynamic Force Analysis of a Mechanism Link—Inertia C Equation (88-1) is independent of the location of application of F, Therefore, regard Jess of where the force is applied, we always obtain the same acceleration of G. However, different angular accelerations ofthe link will be generated by varying the location of F. I F is applied at the center of mass (Figure 8.13(b), then it will not provide a moment about G; and based on Equation (2.10-4), the link will have zero angular acceleration, However, by applying the force at a position other than the mass center, the force will cause a mo- ment about G. Using Equation (2.10-4, the applied moment will cause the link to undergo an angular acceleration. By applying the force as shown in Figure 8.13(c), F also causes a moment, Mc, about the mass center inthe counterclockwise direction and as a result causes the link to accelerate in the same direction. We recognize that 5 Mel = Flip 682) where p is the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from G. Combining Equations (2.10-4), (8.8-1), and (8.8-2), IMol = IFip = mlaclp = Ill oa) ‘Combining Equations (2.12-6), (2.12-9), and (8.8-3), [Mol _ fell _ WM! | Fl miacl Fin | 84) ‘Substituting given motions in Equation (8.8-4), we may calculate p, which indicates how far distant F must be placed from G in order to produce both the given linear and an- gular accelerations. As a guide, we draw an inertia circle of radius p, centered at G, as shown in Figure 8.13(c). Placing F tangent to the inertia circle ensures thatthe perpendic- ular distance isp. Timust be recognized, however, that acceleration ofthe link is not caused by F. Rather, forthe current illustration, forces are actually applied through taming pairs of adjacent links. Figure 8.13(d) ilustrates forces F and F at the two turning pais ofthe lin, for Which i is required that it 885) ‘Therefore, instead of F, we introduce an inertia force that has the same line of action as F but points in the opposite direction, as shown in Figure 8.13(d). This inertia force when combined with forees F and F, must sum to zero, that is, F+ P= 686) Also, the inertia force produces an inertia moment in a direction that is opposite to that pro- duced by the actual forces, such that My =—Mo 87 Mc + Miy =0 89) The form of Equations (8.8-6) and (8.8-8) is similar to that of a static problem when we consider one of the forces as an inertia force and one of the moments as an inertia322 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS ‘moment. This link may be considered as a three-force member in which one of the forces is the inertia force. ‘The Principle of Superposition, presented in Section 8.7, may be used for dynamic analyses, where inertia forces would be considered one at a time, and the results could then bbe superimposed to find their combined effect. 8.9 DYNAMIC FORCE ANALYSIS USING FORCE POLYGON METHOD. To perform a dynamic force analysis of a mechanism, the following general steps are required: |. Draw a diagram of the mechanism to scale, in the configuration for which the analysis is required. 2. Using prescribed input motion(s), construct an acceleration polygon and determine the linear accelerations of link mass centers, the link angular accelerations, the inertia forces, and the inertia moments. 3. Indicate on the diagram of the mechanism all externally applied and inertia forces (offset each inertia force from the mass center to provide the required inertia moment). 4, ‘Treat each inertia force and extemally applied load individually, draw force poly- gons for each, and determine the effect of each throughout the mechanism. 5. IF the combined effect of more than one force is to be determined, employ the Principle of Superposition. EXAMPLE 8.5 Dynamic Force Analysis of a Slider Crank Mechanism For the slider crank mechanism shown in Figure 8.14(a), the link lengths are roe =r reo =1s=9.0in; rac, = 4.5in ‘nd the constant input rotational speed is 82 = 500 pm CCW = 52.4 radisee CCW An outline of the acceleration polygon is given in Figure 8.14(b).. The coupler, link 3, has the shape of a uniform slender rod (see Appendix D, Sec- tion D.9) and has the following properties: m$=3.0lbm; 1g, = 47.0lbm-in*® For the position shown, determine the forces on link 3 at the turning pairs due to the inertia of link 3. Since the coupler has the shape of a uniform slender link, we locate the position of the center of mass as midway between B and D on the acceleration polygon, as shown in8.9 Dynamic Force Analysis Using Force Polygon Method 323 6, = S24 radsece (const) By = 814 rdsec* CCW @ Free body diagram, Tink Fs fe 3.1 Foe Fay 423 16) @ ) mechanism, (b) acceleration polygon, (c) mechanism Figure 8.14 Dynamic force analysis ofa slider crank mechanis ‘with inertia citele, (4) force polygon. Figure 8.14(b). The magnitude of the acceleration of the center of mass is 50 insec* las] and the tangential acceleration component between points B and D is 7,330 in/sec? abs ‘The angular acceleration of link 3 is then aby _ 7.330 [sec CCW Tpp 9.0 ee if ‘The units of the quantities employed in this example correspond to the third set listed in Table 2.3. In the calculation of the inertia force, we substitute the corresponding value of324 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS, the gravitational constant, ge, in Eq force: (2.12-6) to calculate the magnitude of the inertia, ___301bm © (386 ibm-in/ib-sec*) (Ful = mslao,l = — los! Be From Equation (2.12-9), the magnitude of the inertia moment is 47.0 1bm- 47.0 borin 14 raatsec? = 9.1 int GaG tom-innb 562) nh ane (Mov = Zosl = 218 ‘Using Equation (8.8-4), the radius ofthe inertia circle is [Mavis _ 99-1inb 4 9. Fh 7 94 77° ps The inertia force, Fy, is added to the drawing ofthe mechanism, offset by the radius of the inertia circle. The direction of Fj is opposite to that of Zi, In this example the link has an angular acceleration in the counterclockwise direction. Thus, the forces at the turn- ing pairs are providing a moment in the counterclockwise direction. Therefore, we place the inertia force as shown in Figure 8.14(c) so that it applies an inertia moment in the clockwise direction, opposite o that of the actual moment. The sum ofthe moments is then 2et0, Since the mass ofthe slider is not considered in the analysis, the slider (link 4) is a two-foree member, The direction of the force transmitted from the slider onto link 3 is perpendicular to the direction of the slide. The lines of action of the inertia force and that from the slider intersect at K. The third line of action, through the turing pair at B, must pass through the same intersection point. Using the inertia force and the other two lines of action, the force polygon is completed, as shown in Figure 8.14(d). The magnitudes ofthe forces located at B and D as a result ofthe inertia in link 3 are WFag| = 13.11; [Fos] = 42.31b ‘The directions of these forces are indicated in the force polygon. EXAMPLE 8.6 Dynamic Force Analysis of a Four-Bar Mechanism Figure 8.15(a) shows a four-bar mechanism. Link 2 rotates at a constant rotational speed of 120 rad/sec in the counterclockwise direction. Also indicated in the figure are the results of the acceleration analysis. Pertinent properties of links 3 and 4 are listed in Table 8.1 Determine the magnitude and sense of the moment to be applied to link 2 from base link 1 to overcome the inertias of links 3 and 4. ri =90cm; 2 =200m; y= 1300m; Oem ailRomie ‘We will solve this problem using the Principle of Superposition. For the first part of the solution, only the inertia of link 3 will be considered. In the second part, only the effects of the inertia of link 4 will be evaluated. Finally, the results will be superimposed. The units of the quantities employed in this example correspond to the second set listed in Table 2.2, for which ge = 1. FFor the first part of the problem, using the acceleration parameters given in Fig- ture 8.15(a), the magnitude of the inertia force of link 3 is (Fults 18N (aso mec) @ Foy o Figure 8.18 Dynamic force analysis ofa four-bar mechanism: (a) input parameters and results of acceleration analysis, (effect of inertia of lnk 3.326 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS (Fin 8328) Tworforce member, F@w oud m Fado) Figure 8.15 (Continued) Dynamie force analysis of a four-bar mechanism: (c) effect of inertia of link 4, (G) superimposed result TABLE 8.1. Parameters of the Four-Bar Mechanism, ‘Shown in Figure 8.15 : tink 3 tink 4 a sp) 0.50 0.80) He hg) 252x107 | &00x 10" ‘The magnitude of the inertia moment of link 3 is Tyg _ 252. 107 kg-m? Meng, = 252 ™ 10 he IMivls = bo,8: 5 To x TS radsec? = L.83N-m ra8.9 Dynamic Force Analysis Using Force Polygon Method _ 327 ‘The radius of the inertia circle of link 3 is {Marly _ 1.83N-m 0.0155m = 1.55em lFv USN Figure 8.15(b) shows the corresponding analysis in which only the inertia associated with link 3 is considered. This link is treated as a three-force member. Link 4 is assumed to have no mass and is treated as a two-force member. From this analysis, we determine Fn)s = Fads For the second part ofthe problem, only the inertia of link 4s considered. Inthisinstance, link 4s treated as a three-force member, and link 3 is treated as atwo-force member. Carrying ‘out analyses similar to those completed for link 3 gives (Fivla=83.2N; — [Mylg = 1.66N-m; pg = 2.000m Figure 8.15(c) shows the force analysis for this part of the problem. The analysis provides (Fx) ‘The superimposed results are illustrated in Figure 8.15(4). They include —Fas)s Fal = ‘ads +(Fxo)l = 160N; d= 0.014 where dis the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of forces Fs2 and, ‘moment required from the base link on link 2 is then 2-The My = [Fsald = 160 x 0.014 = 2.24N-mCW Results of this example show that the moment to be supplied from the base link onto link 2is in the clockwise direction, opposite to its direction of rotational speed. A dynamic force analysis of the same mechanism throughout a complete cycle of motion is provided through [Model 8.16]. During the cycle, the driving moment takes on positive and nega- tive values, Positive values correspond to the counterclockwise direction. With this model it is possible to adjust values of the masses and, consequently, values of polar mass mo- ‘ments of inertia about the mass centers. Figure 8.16(a) shows the torque curve when both links 3 and 4 have mass. Figure 8.16(b) shows the case where the mass of link 3 has been set to zero, and only the mass of link 4 remains. In this instance, link 3 acts as a two-force ‘member, and as a result asl = VF Figure 8.16(c) shows the case where the mass of link 4 has been set to zero, and only the ‘mass of link 3 remains. In this instance328 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS Fractionofm3 Fracionofms ——|F23 cost |r 34) = 11468 1 Tr Mowortorue 224 = 13800" lea) = 16442 @ [F23] = 76.12 |e34| = 76.12 8 = 13500" lea] = 112.98 » (F231 = 9786 34) = 5186, Fr Motortarque -0.80 8 0) = 135.0" (ta) = 51.86 © Figure 8.16 Dynamic analysis of a four-bar mechanism [Model 8.16] (a) links 3 and 4 have mass, (b) only ink 4 has mass, () ony link 3 has mass.Problems PROBLEMS P81 Assuming the mechanism shown in Figure P8.1 is in static equilibrium, determine forces @ and Fur roe =4.0em 2 For he vise grip mechanism shown in Figure P82, use force polygons o determine (@) the applied force F necessary to produce a force Gof magnitude 1201 (6) the force @ that can be produced by an applied force Fof magnitude 15N 329 (2) the driving torque required on link 2 () the bearing forces at O; and Os 400m ro Figure P83 Construct a compete set of force polygons for the mechanism in static equilibrium shown in Fig ure P84, and if = 150 Ih determine @F Fo Figure P8.2 8.3 For the quick retum mechanism shown in Fig- ture P83, the cutting force F has a magnitude of 30N. Neglecting inertia, determine Figure P8.4 Figure P8.S shows a scaled diagram of @ hand: ‘operated toggle clamp. Inthe position shown, draw the static force polygons. Determine the clamping330 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS force, when the hand force, P, of 25 1b is applied as shown, igure P8.S P86 Determine the torque required from the base link on link 2for static equilibrium ofthe mechanism shown in Figure P8.6. Force F has a magnitude of 20 Ib. 20in Bon? Bona Figure P86 PBT Determine the required cylinder pressure for static ‘C _quilibrium of the mechanism shown in Figute P87. ‘Torque Mis has a magnitude of 25 N-m, The diam- ter ofthe piston is 1.0 em reo = 60m P88 Determine the required input torque Mi for static ‘c , equilibrium ofthe mechanism shown in Figure P88. Force F has a magnitude of 1,000 N. Tos =3.00m Figure P88. P8.9 Determine the pressure required inthe 2.0 em diam- ‘c)) eter cylinder shown in Figure P8.9 t0 maintain static ‘equilibrium, The image shown i to scale. Figure P89 8.10 For the given position of the mechanism shown in ‘C__ Figure P8.10, determine the magnitude and sense of the torque required to be applied to crank OsE by the base fink, to maintain state equilibrium, rose = 70cm; roye = 30cm My = 50N-mCWProblems 331 Figure P8.12 Figure P8.10 Determine the instantaneous force F required to rode this motion assuming thatthe slider blocks 0.11 For the mechanism shown in Figure P8.11 deter are masses. mine the magnitude and sense ofthe torque 10 be rap =10.0%0; roo, =40in applied to ink 2 from the base lnk to overcome the Jey = 2.360iniec?, — inertia of ink 3. i" ron = 5.0m; rap = 10.06m ay = s92madsec? Cw Sem; my = 800gr 70.12 For the mechanism shown in Figure PS.13, a gas = Force of $,000 Ib acts to the lft on link 4. Determine Ne reesei © the magnitude and sense of the torque to be applied 2 = 600spm CCW (constant) to link 2 from base link 1 to overcome (@) the gas force () the inertia of link 3 % Satie of acceleration pol Figure P8.11 ative of prion of celeron polygon P8.12 For the mechanism shown in Figure P8.12, link 3 has me {#imass of 3 Thm and polar mass moment of inertia 6 008 Ib-in sec about its mass center Gy. Sliding ¥ block 2 has a constant velocity of 10 fUsec upward, Figure P8.13332 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS (c) the inertia of link 4 On (a) the combined effects of part (a, (B). and (@) 1 rosa = 1.50 I {2 = 1,800rpm CCW (constant) 1m =0.901bm . D Jo, = 0.010 1bin-sec* Outine of mg = 0.6016 acceleration polygon ay = 5.0% 10 Ivins? 0.14 For the given position of the mechanism shown in ‘C_. Figure P81, determine the magnitude and sense of i the torque required tobe applied to link 2by the base | link, to overcome the inertia of ink 3. oxo, = 100em; roe = 4.0em rao =9.06m; rag, = 6.0em Foy = 78cm; ms = 600 gr Perce gy = 15 x 10 gt | 4, =200mpmCCW; y= 100radlsec* COW 8.16 For the given position of the mechanism shown in Figure P8.16, determine the magnitude and sense of the torque required tobe applied to link 2 by the base link, to overcome Foy = 194 mise? 30° é (a) the inertia of tink 3 () the inertia of ink 4 8.15 For the given position of the mechanism shown in ‘c_,. Figure P8.15, determine the magnitude and sense of the torque required to be applied to link 2 by the base Tink, to overcome the inertia of link 5. Scale: in = 4000 nsec? roe = 300m; ree = 60cm F rea, = 30cm; ms =5.0gr a ‘Outline of eee satin aco | 3,000 rpm CW (constant) Figure P816 xProblems 333 (6) the inertia of links 3 and 4 ron = 1.0in 6, = 475 ppm CW (constant) sms =9.0lbm; Koy = 1.5 % 10-*Ibin-seo? my = 11.Sibm; fg, = 80 x 10°? Ib-in-sec® 117 For the given postion of the mechanism shown in ‘Figure P8.17, determine the magnitude and sense of the torque required to be applied to link 2 by the base link, to overcome (2) the inertia of link 3 : () the inertia of link 4 foutine of (6) the ineia of links 3 and 2X _/ Rectertonplyzon roe = 500m; reo = 10.0em ere cm; my = 400gr Ia, = 6.3 x 10 kg-m? P8.19 For the given position of the mechanism shown in Pen ‘Figure P8.1, determine the magnitude and sense of the torque require to be applied to link by the base 00 radisec? COW Tink, to overcome the inertia of link 6. s2misee’ 12> 50cm: soer 122 radiec! CW 7.8 see? <— 380em/sec?, 3° radisec? COW Figure P8.17 For the given position of the mechanism shown in ‘c Figure P8.18, determine the magnitude and sense of Figure P8.19 the torque required to be applied to link 2 by the base acm 8.20 For the given position of the mechanism shown in rose =$.0em; roy =8.0em ‘¢__ Figure P8.20, determine the magnitude and sense of ‘the torque required to be applied to crank O23 by the Fouds = 40m; ma = 0.508 ‘base link, to overcome the inertia of link S. Jog = 5.0% 10 kg? & 3: be 40cm; ms SOrpm CCW (constant) 9.2¢r 2 = 1,200 rpm CW (constant) ro.334 8 GRAPHICAL FORCE ANALYSIS OF PLANAR MECHANISMS To, = 6.0 x 107 kgm io, = 145 msec? 42° > 8s = 29.7 aasec? COW Owtine ot Figure P8.20 £8.21 For the given position ofthe mechanism shown in Figure P8.21, determine the magnitude and sense of te torque required tobe applied to crank Oz by the tase link, to overcome (@) the nena of ink 4 (@) the inertia of link 5 (6) the inertia of inks 4 and 5 ro8 =60em 4 = 12.0radsee CCW (constant) BO gr Io, = 6.0% 10-Skg-m Sgn Io, = 6.5 10S kgm? Figure P8.21{ ' § i t Analytical Force Analysis and 9 Balancing of Planar Mechanisms 9.1 INTRODUCTION 1m this chapter, analytical equations are presented for use in completing kinetic analyses of four-bar mechanisms and slider crank mechanisms. They are based on the governing equa- tions of motion (Section 2.10) and the analytical expressions of kinematics of the links (Chapter 4) With use of a computer, multiple analyses throughout cycles of motion may be readily completed. Also presented are methods for either reducing or eliminating the net force imparted tothe base link, called the shaking force, ceated by the unbalanced inertia of the moving links. In all of these analyses, we restrict ourselves to cases where the rotational speed of input link 2 is constant, We will prescribe 6; = w = constant 1-1) ‘Therefore, we can set 6: =f (912) Unless otherwise noted, we will assume that motions of all links of planar mechanisms take place in a single plane. 9.2 FORCE ANALYSIS OF A FOUR-BAR MECHANISM. Consider the four-bar mechanism illustrated in Figure 9.1(a). Locations ofthe centers of mass of links 2, 3, nd 4 with respect toa tuming pair are specitied by distances by (i = 2, 3, 4) and angles y (i = 2, 3, 4). Free body diagrams of individual links are shown in Figure 9.1(b). ‘The driving torque, Mya, is one of the quantities that must be determined. 335336 9 ANALYTICAL FORCE ANALYSIS AND BALANCING OF PLANAR MECHANISMS Figure 9.1. Dynamic analysis of a four-bar mechanism. To complete a kinetic analysis, we must determine accelerations of the centers of mass of the moving links. Referring to Figure 9.1(a), and implementing Equation (9.1-1), the results for link 2 are (ra,)x = br 609102 + a) (aa.)x = Ge)x = —b210* cos(Oy + dn) (ras)y = ba Sim(O> + ba) (agy)y = Fay)y = ba? sin(O> + dn) o29.2 Force Analy: _ 37 ‘The results for link 3 are (ray e = 72005 th + bs cOs(8s + dn) (ao)x = —720" cos 8; ~ b3[85 c05(@s + 3) + 8s sin(Os + 4] (res)y = 12 Sin Op + ba sin(By + &) oa (ac,)y = —r203" sin 8) — bs[84 sin(®s + 63) — 55 cos(6 + 4s)] The results for link 4 are Grad = rit becostte + du) (aq dx = —bal Bi c0s(0 + dy) + 8s sin(Oy + )] 023) (roa)y = basin( e+ 44) (ac dy = —baf Oi sin( By + du) — Bs cos(04 + ¢4)] “The governing equations of motion for link 2 are determined by considering the x and y components of Equation (2.10-1), as well as Equation (2.10-6). Referring to Fig- ure 9.1(b), (Fas — (Fide = alae, x (024) (Fay ~ (Fia)y = m2lae.) 25) —(Fan)72sin 8 + (Fin)yP2008 62 + Miz = 0 026) Similar equations may be generated for links 3 and 4. The governing equations of ‘motion of all moving links may then be combined in matrix form and expressed as (Alex) = (8) oan where “10 1 0 0 0 0 oo 0-10 1 0 0 000 0-0 As Ae 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 -1 0 0 00 i=] 0 0 0 -1 0 -1 0 0 0 9289 0 0 Aaa Ass Ass Age 0 0 0 ae 00 0 0 1 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 10 0 0 0 0 Ass Aye 0 0 09 ANALYTICAL FORCE ANALYSIS AND BALANCING OF PLANAR MECHANISMS Ass Ags = —bssin(®s +43); Asa Ags = rssin® — by sin(8s +45); Ase = —73005 0 + bs cos(s + da) rsin®s; Aas rysin®; Aye =< c05 (Fide mAaG,)x (Fi2dy mx(aG;)y (Fad o (Fa)y mlag)x (x}=] (Bids fi (B= 4 mslaas)y ee) (Faa)y 1c, 93 (Fide ma(ac,)x (Fiady malaG.)y Min (lo, + maba) Os ‘The above equations are functions of the angular displacements, angular velocities, and angular accelerations of links 3 and 4. These quantities may be determined using equa- tions provided in Section 4.3.3. Solving Equation (9.2-7) permits other results to be determined. The magnitude of the force transmitted through a turning pair between links i and jis 029) tan MF (Fidyh "Sy $7 | (92-10) ‘The shaking force is transmitted through the base pivots onto the base link and is expressed as 21) (Fads + (Fadel + 1G | 92-12)9.2 Force Analysis of a Fo Bar Mechanism 339 Figure 9.2 Four-bar mechanism, vin MY 1 i and its direction is 1 mT Sass} 9213) The shaking moment about the base pivot Op is due to the reaction of the driving torque tonto the base link and the pin force at base pivot Og, and itis expressed as 214 AAs an illustration of the application of the above equations, consider the four-bar mechanism shown in Figure 9.2. Link 2 is driven at w = 50 rad/sec CCW. The parameters Of the links are given in Table 9.1 Employing Equations (9.2-7) and (9.2-8), a plot of the driving torque is shown in Fig- ure 9.3, Employing Equations (9.2-12) and (9.2-13), Figure 9.4(a) shows a polar plot of the shaking force. Each point on the curve defines the magnitude and direction of the force for each value of 8. A typical shaking force vector is depicted for ® = 30°. The related cal- culated values are (Fide =747N; — (Fix)y =2.60N (Fads = -393N; (Fie) = -4.76N TABLE 9.1. Parameters of the Four-Bar Mechanism Shown in Figure 9.2 tink tink? tink 3 inka item) 6: 00. 2.00, 10.0 7.00 bye 100 5.00 350 =e _ = 6.24 312 21.8 degrees = ° ° o fa grem?) = = 260 89.0340 9 ANALYTICAL FORCE ANALYSIS AND BALANCING OF PLANAR MECHANISMS Figure 9.3 Driving torque. = (Pads + (Fadel + (Fay + (Rady = (1.47 —3.93)i + (2.60 — 4.76)7 = 3547 -2.167N das = tan 21((Farde + (Fardsh (UFandy + (Fan Ib = tan271(3.54, ~2.16) = ~31.4" Figure 9.4(b) shows the three moving links and the interactive forces acting on the base link. The shaking force for this configuration is also illustrated. Employing Equations (9.2-9) and (9.2-10), Figure 9.5 is a polar plot ofthe force atthe ‘umning pair between links 2 and 3. Employing Equation (9.2-14), Figure 9.6 is a plot of the shaking moment. ‘Undue shaking force transmitted to the base link generally creates an undesirable con dition. In Section 9.6, a procedure is presented whereby the net shaking force transmitted through the base pivots can be eliminated.9.3 Force Analysis of a Slider Crank Mechanism 341 (Fala 50) M, * 100m) -s0 Figure 9.5 Foree at turning par. Figure 9.6 Shaking moment. 9.3 FORCE ANALYSIS OF A SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM. Figure 9.7(a) shows a slider crank mechanism. The rotational speed, «, of the erank is con- stant, Locations of the centers of mass of links 2 and 3 with respect to a turning pair are specified by distances b, (i = 2,3) and angles (i = 2, 3). Free body diagrams of the links are shown in Figure 9.7(b). Based on these diagrams, we can generate a set of gov- ‘emning equations of motion expressed as [Alte = (8) 3-1) where -10 1 0 0 0 0 o Oo -1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ass Aye 0 0 001 0 0 -1 0 -1 0 0 0 = (03.20) =) 9 0 0 -1 0 -1 00 0 0 Aes Ase Ass Ass 0 0 o 0 0 0 1 0 Oo 0 0 0 0 0 1 70 Ags = —rsin dy; 7260802 = ry sin 8s — bs sin(® + $s); =r3008 8; + by cos(s + ds) Ags =—basin(0s + dn); Aug = bs cos(8s + ds)342 9 ANALYTICAL FORCE ANALYSIS AND BALANCING OF PLANAR MECHANISMS Fos mylag.)x (Fads mlac,)y (Fade 0 (Py mslagy)s : B= cof) 8) macys (Fy Toby (Fidy ma(ac,)s Ma 0 Figure 9.7 Dynamic analysis ofa sider crank mechanism, (93.20; 93-29)9.3 Force Analysis of a Slider Crank Mechanism 343 Equations (9.3-2) contain expressions for the angular displacement, angular velocity, and angular acceleration of link 3. They may be determined using Equations (4.3.77), (4.382), and (4.3-84). Equation (9.3-2c) is a function of the linear accelerations of the centers of mass of links 2, 3, and 4. Expressions for these accelerations may be deter- ‘mined using the procedure presented in Section 4.4. The results for link 2 are (ac,)e = —ba0? c0s() +2); (ag,)y = baw" sin(®y +4.) 3-3) ‘The results for link 3 are (a¢,)x = —F2t9? cos Bs + 85 [73.608 5 ~ by c0s(0 + 4)] + Bs [rs sin — by sin’ + 3)) Fi 2 2 034) (45)y = =r? sin bs + 05 rs sins — bs sin + $5] — bs [ry c05 0) — by cos(0s + 3)] ‘The result for link 4 is _ Tr20? 6090 — 82) +7305 (aoe = oat 035) ‘The shaking force is 036 ‘The magnitude and direction ofthe shaking force are [et ne eee eens | Fst = (C02 +10) + Fay} Ieee ais = tan 2“! ((Fau)s, {(Fardy + (Fads) ‘The magnitude and direction of a force transmitted through a turning pair may be found using Equations (9.2-12) and (9.2-13). The shaking moment is ‘May + (Far)("2008 Oy — 75.6080) | 038) EXAMPLE 9.1 Dynamic Force Analysis of a Slider Crank Mecha Figure 9.8 illustrates a slider crank mechanism, Link 2 is driven at w = 55 rad/see CCW. The associated parameters ae listed in Table 9.2. For one revolution of the crank, determine m (a) the plot of the driving torque (b) the polar plot of the shaking force348 9 ANALYTICAL FORCE ANALYSIS AND BALANCING OF PLANAR MECHANISMS rl Figure 9.8 Slider erank mechanism, TABLE 9.2 Parameters of the Slider Crank Mechanism Shown in Figure 9.8 tink 1 tink tink tink 4 ‘fom 0 2.50 too. = byem) = 125 661 = mig = 2.46 9.84 100 artdegreey | ° jeeitia = ee = 82.0 -- (©) the polar plot of the force atthe turning pair between inks 2 and 3 (@) the plot of the shaking moment (a) Employing Equations (9.3-1) and (9.3-2), the driving torque is shown in Figure 9.9. (b) Employing Equations (9.3-6) and (9.3-7), a polar plot of the shaking force is shown in Figure 9.10. (©) Employing Equations (9.2-12) and (9.2-13), a polar plot of the force between links 2 and 3 is shown in Figure 9.11. (@) Employing Equation (9.3-8), the shaking moment is shown in Figure 9.12. 360 piles) Figure 9.9 Driving vorque.9.4 Unbalance and Balancing 345 Fale 20 210 0 Figure 9.10 Shaking fore. 20 0 1 0 6, (dee) Mex 10? (Nem) ~aol- Figure 9.12. Shaking moment, 9.4 UNBALANCE AND BALANCING . Virtually ll machines contain rotating components. I the center of mass of a single rotat- ing component docs not coincide with its axis of rotation, then there is an unbalance. rotating component having unbalance will produce inertia forces that are transmitted to ‘connected links. Ifthe component is connected to the base link, a shaking force is created In most instances, it is desirable to have machines operate smoothly with minimum shaking force. Balancing is the process of designing or modifying machinery in order to reduce unbalance to an acceptable level. The most common approach to achieve balancing is by selectively adding mass to, or removing mass from, links ofthe machine Figure 9.13() shows a link turning at rotational velocity « about base pivot O, I i composed of two lumped masses, mq and my. The center of mass, G, is also illustrated, located distance e from the base pivot. The system shown in Figure 9.13¢a) is equivalent to that given in Figure 9.13(b), where M = ma +p. This system will produce a shaking force with magnitude Mew*, as shown in Figure 9.13(c). The direction of this force rotates at rate w and is transmitted tothe base link. To remove ths shaking force, a balance mass, ‘mc is added as shown, at distance r, from the base pivot. This mass is added diagonally346 9. ANALYTICAL FORCE ANALYSIS AND BALANCING OF PLANAR MECHANISMS @ ) Figure 9.13 Force balancing ofa rotating link, ‘opposite from the base pivot, as illustrated in Figure 9.13(d). For balancing, itis required that mre | oa ‘After balancing, the revised center of mass coincides with the axis of rotation. ‘The above is an illustration of rotating unbalance. Itcan occur as a result of pure rota- tional motion of a body about a fixed axis, Besides rotating unbalance, many mechanisms simultaneously generate reciprocating unbalance. This is caused by the inertial forces associated with a translating mass, Reciprocating unbalance may be generated by the translational motion of the slider of a slider crank mechanism. The coupler of a four-bar mechanism may also produce reciprocating unbalance. In the following sections, we will investigate conventional means of eliminating or reducing the shaking forces produced by four-bar and slider crank mechanisms 9.5 FORCE BALANCING OF A FOUR-BAR MECHANISM ‘This section presents a method of achieving a four-bar mechanism that is completely Force balanced (19]. This method involves determining an expression for the center of mass of the entire mechanism in terms of the link properties and angular displacement of the input link. This expression will be used to determine values of the link properties under which the center of mass of the entire mechanism remains stationary for all configurations of the mechanism. As a result, there will be no acceleration of the center of mass of the