ELEM313 ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM selected terms defined and confined in the

Topics 1 & 2 context of pure mechanism.

ME 313 Machine Elements
Description: The topics covered here is intended to 1.4.1 Machine is a combination of resistant bodies so
introduce to the students, for the first time, to the world arranged that by their means, the mechanical forces of
of machines and its mechanisms. Here the machines are nature can be compelled to produce some effect or work
broken down into the detailed sub mechanical parts and accompanied with certain determinate motions. In
the motion analysis of velocity and acceleration is general, it may properly be said that a machine is an
discussed. assemblage of parts interposed between the source of
Purpose: This subject is a prelude to Machine Design 1, power and the work, for the purpose of adapting the one
the students are expected to learn the nomenclature of to the other.
the different mechanisms and linkages in the mechanical Cranks, levers, bearings, journals, shafts, cams, gears,
world of machines. They will be able to understand screws, ropes, chains, belts, pulleys, wheels, keys, collars,
complex motions between linkages. This will prepare cylinders, pistons, connecting rods and piston rods are
them to understand the language of Machine Design. forms of the parts which may be found in a machine.
No machine can move by itself nor can it create motive
TOPIC 1 – Introduction to Elements of Mechanism power; this power must be derived from external source.
1. Science of Mechanism – the study of the laws An engine is an example of a machine; it is able to do
governing the motion of the parts of a machine certain works provided that some external force acts
and the forces transmitted by these parts. upon it, setting the parts in motion. It consist of a fixed
2. Kinematics of Machines or Pure Mechanism – frame supporting the moving parts, of which some cause
the study of the motion and forms of the parts of the rotation of the engine crankshaft, others move the
a machine, and the manner of supporting and valves to allow fuel in and exhaust gas out of the
guiding them, independent of their strength. combustion chamber. And still others have other defined
3. Machine Design or Constructive Mechanism – functions. These moving parts are so arranged that they
involves the calculation of the forces acting on have certain definite motions relative to one another
different parts of the machine, the selection of when an external force is applied to the piston.
the materials on the basis of strength, durability,
and other physical properties in order to 1.4.2 A Structure is a combination of resistant bodies
withstand these forces, the convenience for capable of transmitting forces or carrying loads but
repairs and facilities for manufacturing are being having no relative motion between parts. An example of
taken into account. a structure is the frame of the machine consisting of
Note: In this subject ME 313, the topics will be several parts welded, bolted or riveted together with no
confined to the Kinematics of Machines or Pure relative motion between the parts.
Mechanism. Machine Design will be a subject to be 1.4.3 A Mechanism is a combination of rigid bodies so
taken later on with ME 313 as an important pre- arranged that the motion of one compels the motion of
requisite. the others, according to a law depending on the nature of
1.4 DEFINITION OF TERMS the combination. The terms mechanism and machine are
As this is the first time that we will be dealing often used synonymously, but actually the combination is
with machine and mechanism with real a mechanism when used to transmit or modify motion
mechanical perspective, we will have to be and a machine if energy is transferred or work is done.
thorough and exact in our understanding of the
intrinsic technical terms used in the ideal and real 1.4.4 A Rigid Body is one whose component particles
perceptions of kinematics. Hence, hereunder are remain at a constant distance from one another; that is
the body is assumed not to suffer from any distortion by
the forces that may act on it. 1. A straight line which allows straight translation
For the purpose of kinematic study, a line may be 2. A circle, which allows rotation or revolution
considered as being of indefinite length and a body of 3. A helix which allows a combination of rotation
indefinite magnitude. In analyzing the motion of a body, and straight translation.
it may be necessary to consider the motion of a point
which is a part of that body but beyond the limits of the
actual body. Such a point on the extension of a body
must have all the properties common to all other points
on the same body.
1.4.5 Driver and Follower is that piece of mechanism
which causes motion is called the driver and the one
whose motion is effected, is called the follower.
1.4.6 Modes of Transmission. If the action of natural
forces of attraction and repulsion is not considered, one
piece cannot move another unless the two are in contact
or are connected to each other by some intervening body
that is capable of communicating the motion of the one
to the other. Motion can be transmitted from driver to
follower by
a. direct contact, either by sliding or rolling
b. intermediate connectors that may be rigid, flexible or
fluid.
If an intermediate connector is rigid, it is called a link, and
it can either push or pull such as the connecting rod of an b. Higher Pairs. The pair is not closed since the
internal combustion engine. Pivots or other joints are elementary bodies do not enclose each other. Such a pair
necessary to connect the link to the driver and follower. If is called a higher pair and the elements are either in point
the connector is flexible, it is called a band, which is or in line contact. Ball and roller bearings are examples of
supposed to be inextensible, and is capable only of higher pair.
transmitting a pull. A fluid confined in a suitable
receptacle may also serve as a connector, as in hydraulic
press.
1.4.7 Pairs of Elements.
a. Closed or Lower Pair. If one element not only forms
the envelope of the other, but also encloses it, the forms
of the elements being geometrically identical, the one
being solid or full, and the other being hollow or open,
we have a closed pair or a lower pair. Surface contact
exist between the two members.
c. Incomplete Pairs of Elements. It has been assumed
On the surface of two bodies forming a closed pair,
that the reciprocal restraint of the two elements forming
coincident lines maybe drawn, one on each surface; and
a pair is always complete: that is, that each of the two
if these lines are of such form as to allow them to move
bodies, by the rigidity of its materials and the form given
along each other, that is, allow a certain motion of the
to it, restrained the other. Sometimes it is only necessary
two bodies paired, three forms only can exist:
to prevent forces having a certain definite direction from
affecting the pair, and then it is no longer absolutely the surfaces of the moving pieces are called
necessary to make the pair complete; one element can slides; those of the fixed pieces, guides.
be cut away where it is not needed to resist the forces. 2. For Rotation, or turning, the bearings must have
The bearings for railway axles, the thrust bearings for surfaces of circular cylinders, cones or flat disks.
hydraulic turbine shafts and railway wheels kept in The surface of the solid or full piece is called a
contact with the rails by the force of gravity are examples journal, neck, spindle, or pivot; that of the hollow
of incomplete pairs in which the elements are kept in or open piece, a bearing, pedestal, plumber
contact by external force. block, pillow block or bushing.
3. For Rotation and Translation combined (helical
d. Inversion of Pairs. If A and B are paired elements, such motion), they must have a helical or screw shape.
that if B is made the fixed piece, then A will move in a The full piece is called a screw and the open
straight line or in a defined path. Then if A were made the piece, a nut.
fixed piece, then B also will move in a straight line or in 1.4.9 Collars and Keys. It is often required that
exactly the same defined path as A moved earlier. In pulleys or wheels turn freely along their cylindrical
other words, the absolute motion of the moving piece is shafts and at the same time have no motion along
the same, whichever piece is fixed. them. For this purpose, rings or collars are used.
This exchange of the fixedness of an element with its (refer to Fig. 1-8 page 7, Elements of Mechanism by
partner is` called inversion of the pair and in any closed Doughtie and James).
or lower pair it does not affect either the absolute or Sometimes, pulleys or couplings must be free to slide
relative motion. along their shafts but at the same time must turn with
In the case of higher pair, the absolute motion of a point them; they must then be changed to sliding pair. This is
on one piece as it moves is different from the absolute often done by fitting to the shaft and pulley or sliding
motion of a point on the other piece when it moves. piece a key parallel to the axis of rotation of the shaft.
(refer to Fig. 1-7 page 6 Elements of Mechanism by: The key may be made fastened or integral part to either
Doughtie and James). piece, the other having a groove in which it can slide
freely.

1.4.8 Bearings. The word bearing is applied to the

surfaces of contact between two pieces that have relative
motion, one of which supports or partially supports the
other. One of the pieces may be stationary in which case
1.4.10 Cranks and Levers. A crank may be defined as an
the bearing may be called a stationary bearing, or both
arm rotating or oscillating about an axis. When two
bearings maybe moving.
cranks on the same axis are rigidly connected to each
Three classes of bearing arrangement according to their
other, the combination is called a lever, particularly when
relative motion
the motion is oscillating over a relatively small angle.
1. Straight Translation, the bearings must have
plane or cylindrical surfaces. If one piece is fixed
When the angle between the two arms or cranks is less attached to or a part of a stationary piece 1, and the
than 90 degrees, it is often called a Bell Crank Lever. moving pair members k1 and k2 connected to each other
When the angle between the two arms or cranks is more by a rigid rod or bar called the connecting rod or floating
than 90 degrees it is often called a Rocker. However, link. The four pieces 1, 2, 3, and 4 are called links.
these terms are used rather loosely and somewhat The essential part of a link, from a kinematic standpoint,
interchangeably. is its centerline, and it is convenient in studying a linkage
to represent by the centerlines of its links, that is, the
lines connecting the four pairs of elements. Figure 1-20
represents the linkage shown in Figure 1-19.

1.4.11 Link & Linkage. Link is a rigid piece or a non-elastic

substance which serves to transmit to transmit force
from one piece to the other or to cause or control
motion. For example, that part of a belt or chain running
from the driven to the driving wheel, the connecting rod 2.0 Motion is change of position. Motion and rest are
of an engine and the fluid in the cylinder of a hydraulic necessarily relative terms within the limits of our
press would be links according to the above definition. In knowledge. A body may be conceived as fixed in space,
ordinary practice, the name is applied to a rigid but it is not known that it is so fixed. If the two bodies,
connector that may be fixed or in motion. both moving in space, remain in the same position
A Linkage consists of a number of pairs of elements relative to each other, they are said to be at rest, one
connected by links. If the combination is such that relatively to the other; if they do not remain in the same
relative motion of the links is possible, and the motion of position with each other, either may be said to be in
each piece relative to the other is definite, the linkage motion relative to the other.
becomes a kinematic chain. If one of the links of a Motion may thus be relative, or may be absolute,
kinematic chain is fixed, then the chain becomes a provided that some point is assumed to be fixed.
mechanism. Ordinarily, the earth is assumed to be at rest and motions
referred to is considered as absolute.
Motion consists of three elements: displacement, velocity
and acceleration.

2.1 Types of Motion

2.1.1 Continuous Motion. When a point continues to

move indefinitely in a given path in the same sense, its
motion is said to be continuous. In this case the path
must return on itself, as a circle or other closed curve. An
1.4.12 Four Bar Linkage consist of two cranks, 2 and 4, example is a wheel turning on its bearing.
(Fig. 1-19 page 11 Elements of Mechanism by Doughtie &
James), having their stationary pair-members g1 and g2
2.1.2 Reciprocating Motion. When a point traverses the
same path and reverses its motion at the ends of such
path, the motion is to be reciprocating.
2.1.3 Oscillating Motion. A term applied to reciprocating
circular motion is oscillation. An example is a clock
pendulum.

2.1.4 Intermittent Motion. When a motion of a point is

interrupted by periods of rest, its motion is said to be
intermittent.

2.1.5 Revolving and Rotating Motion. A point is said to

revolve about an axis when it describes a circle or an
ellipse of which the center is in the axis and of which the
plane is perpendicular to that axis. When all the points of
a body thus move, the body is said to be revolving about
the axis.

2.1.6 Miscellaneous definitions

a. Path. A point moving in space describes a line called its

path, which maybe rectilinear or curvilinear. The motion
of a body is determined by the paths of three of its points
not on a straight line. If the motion is in a plane, two
points suffice, and if rectilinear, one point suffices, to
determine the motion.

b. Direction of Rotation or Revolution is defined by

giving the direction of the axis, and the sense is given by
stating whether the turning is right handed (clockwise) or
left handed (counter clockwise), when viewed from a
specified side of the plane of motion.

c. An Axis of Rotation or Revolution is a line whose

direction is not changed by the rotation, a fixed axis is
one whose position as well as direction remains
unchanged.

d. Coplanar Motion. A body or a series of bodies, maybe

said to have coplanar motion when all of their
component particles are moving in the same plane or in
parallel planes.
 3.4 Linear Acceleration is the time rate of change of
e. Cycle of Motions. When a mechanism is set in motion linear velocity. Since velocity involves direction as well as
and its parts go through a series of movements that are rate of motion, linear acceleration may involve a change
repeated over and over, the relations between and order in speed or direction, or both. Any change in the speed
of the different divisions of the series being the same for takes place in a direction tangent to the path of the point
each repetition, one of these series is called a cycle of and is called tangential acceleration; a change in
motion or kinematic cycle. For example, one revolution of direction takes place normal to the path and is called
the crank of a gasoline engine causes a series of different normal acceleration. Acceleration may either be positive
positions of the piston, and this series of positions is or negative. If the speed is increasing the acceleration is
repeated over and over for each revolution of the crank. positive; if the speed is decreasing the acceleration is
f. Period of Motion is the time occupied in completing negative and is called retardation or deceleration. If the
one cycle. speed changes by the same amount during all equal time
intervals the acceleration is uniform, but if the speed
3.0 Velocity is a word often used synonymously with changes by different amounts during equal intervals of
speed. This is incorrect, since velocity includes direction time the acceleration is variable.
and sense as well as speed. The linear velocity of a point
is not fully defined unless the direction and sense in 3.5 Angular Acceleration is the rate change of angular
which it is moving and the rate at which it is moving are velocity. As in linear acceleration, a change in either
known. speed or direction of rotation, or both, may be involved.
Angular acceleration is expressed in angular unit change
3.1 Linear Speed is the time rate of motion of a point of speed per unit time (such as radians, degrees, or
along its path, or the rate at which a point is approaching revolutions per minute each minute).
or receding from another point in its path. If the point to
which the motion of the moving point is referred is fixed, 3.6 Translation. A body is said to have motion of
then the speed is the absolute speed of the point. If the translation when all its component particles have the
reference point is itself in motion, the speed of the point same velocity, as regards to both speed and direction;
in question is relative. Linear speed is expressed in linear that is, all the points on the body are, for the instant at
units per unit of time. least, moving in the same direction with equal speeds. If
all the particles move in straight lines, as in the piston of
3.2 Angular Speed is the time rate of turning of a body an engine, the body has rectilinear translation, and if they
about an axis, or the rate at which a line on a revolving move in a curved path, as in the motion of the parallel
body is changing direction, and is expressed in angular rod of a locomotive, the body has curvilinear translation.
units per unit of time. If a body is revolving about an axis,
any point in the body has only linear speed; but a line, 3.7 Turning Bodies. All motions consist of translation,
real or imaginary, joining the point to the axis of turning about an axis, or a combination of the two. It is
revolution has angular speed; also a line joining any two customary to refer to motion of turning as revolving or
points on the body has angular speed. rotating. These terms are used more or less
interchangeably although sometimes a distinction is
3.3 Uniform and Variable Speed. Speed is uniform when made.
equal spaces are passed over in equal times, however
small the intervals into which the time is divided. Speed is 3.8 Analysis of Angular Speed. A circular cylinder or a
variable when unequal spaces are passed over in equal wheel, supported on a shaft which in turn is supported in
intervals of time. fixed bearings, may be made fastened to the shaft and
the two turns as a unit or one body, as in Fig. 2-1, or the
shaft maybe held stationary and the wheel turns on it as turned through in a given time by these lines depend not
in Fig. only on the speed at which the arm is turning about C but
also upon the speed at which M is turning about the axis
2-2. The speed at which the wheel turns is the rate at S relative to the arm.
which any line on it (radial or otherwise) changes
direction. If the wheel makes N complete turns in 1
minute then its angular speed N revolutions per minute
(written N rpm).

3.9 Analysis of Linear Speed of a Point on a Revolving

Body. Consider a particle A on the circumference of the
wheel in Fig. 2.1. For every revolution of the wheel, A
moves over the circumference of a circle of radius Ra, so
In many computations it is necessary to use as a unit of that for N turns A and moves a distance 2πRaN linear
angular motion the radian, which is the angle subtended units. Let Va = Linear speed of A. Then
by the arc of a circle equal in length to its radius is Equation 2: Va = 2πRaN
contained in the circumference 2π times, there must be From equation 1, ω= 2πN or N = ω/2π. By substituting
2π radians in 360 degrees, or 1 radian is equal to 57.296 this value of N in equation 2,
degrees. Equation 3: Va = ωRa
1 revolution = 2π radians Consider another point B at distance Rb from the axis.
If N represents the angular speed in revolutions per unit Let Vb represent its speed. Then
of time and ω the angular speed in radians per same unit g Vb = ωRb
of time then Or
Equation 1: ω = 2πN Equation 4: Vb/Va = Rb/Ra
Referring to Fig. 2-3, let the body M be rigidly attached to The linear speed of a point on the circumference of a
an arm which is turning around the axis C, the arm and M revolving wheel is often referred to as the periphery
revolving together. speed or surface speed.
Then the lines CA and CB which join any two points A and Take another case, that of two wheels fastened to the
B to the axis have angular speed about C, and since the same shaft, as shown in Fig. 2-5. The weight P is
entire body is rigid and the angle ACB is constant, CA and supposed to be hung from a very thin steel band which is
CB each have the same angular speed as the arm. wound on the outside of the wheel A and the weight W
Moreover, since, as the body revolves, the line AB from another steel band wound on the outside of wheel
constantly changes direction, it may also be said to have B. Suppose that the shaft starts to turn in the direction
angular speed, which, in this case, is the same as that of shown by the arrow. Then the band which supports P will
the lines CA and CB. unwind at a speed equal to the periphery speed of A, and
If M is not rigidly attached to the arm but is rotating the weight P will descend at that speed. At the same
relative to the arm on the axis S which carried by the arm, time, the other band will be winding onto the wheel B. If
as in Fig. 2-4, the lines CA, CB and AB will no longer N represents the number of turns per unit of time of the
necessarily have the same angular speed. The angles
shaft, Ra the radius of A, and Rb the radius of B, then Vp = linear units, divided by the time t, in time units,
2πRaN and Vw = 2πRbN, or required to traverse the path, or
Equation 5: Vp/Vw = Ra/Rb Equation 6: V = s/t
Which is the same equation found when both points Where V is expressed in linear units per unit of time.
were in the same wheel. The linear units of V and s must be the same and the time
unit of V must be same as t.

A. Uniformly Varying Motion. In this case the

acceleration is constant; that is, the speed
changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of
time, like that of a falling body under the action
of gravity.
Let A represent the acceleration, that is, the number of
speed units added per unit of time (a minus sign must
precede A if the speed is decreasing). Then, during a time
3.10 Motion Classified. Since the motion of the body is t the change in speed is At, and if at the beginning of that
determined by the motion of not more than three of its time interval the speed is Vo, then at the end of time the
component particles, not lying in a straight line, it is speed will be Vo + At. Therefore
essential before beginning the analysis of the motion of Equation 7: V = Vo + At
rigid bodies that the laws governing the motion of a From this it follows that the average speed is
particle be fully understood. For this purpose it is Equation 7: (Vo + Vo + At)1/2 or Vo + 1/2At
convenient to classify motion as applied to a particle or And since the distance moved is the average speed
point according to the kind of acceleration which the multiplied by the time
moving particle has: S = [Vo + 1/2At]t = Vot + 1/2At^2
1. Acceleration zero. From equations 7 and 8,
2. Acceleration constant. Equation 9: V^2 – Vo^2 = 2As
3. Acceleration variable.
A. Variable Acceleration. The acceleration of a
a. According to some simple law which may be moving particle may vary as some function of
expressed in terms of s, v or t. distance moved, velocity, or time. When this
b. In a manner which can be expressed only by a graph condition exists; definite equations may be
or similar means. written expressing the relations between A, s, V
and t.
A brief consideration will now be given to the methods of Three cases will be considered: (1) A = a function of t; (2)
analyzing each of these cases for a particle having A = a function of V; (3) A = a function of s.
rectilinear motion. Later on it will appear that the same
general principles, with proper modifications, will apply
to a particle moving in a curved path and to the angular
motion of a line.
A. Uniform Motion. When the acceleration is zero,
the velocity is constant and the moving particle
continues to move in a straight line over equal
distances in equal intervals of time. The velocity
therefore is equal to the length of the path s, in
1. Axes Q2 and Q4 are fixed. Q2A= 1.5 in., Q2B = 2 in.
and Q2Q4 = 3 in. AB is a length such that when the
driving crank 2 is 30 degrees above Q2Q4, the driven
crank 4 is 60 degrees below the Q2Q4 as shown.
a) Find the length of AB
b) The extreme positions of Crank B.