Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 12 (7): 952-958, 2012

ISSN 1990-9233
© IDOSI Publications, 2012
DOI: 10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2012.12.7.1820

Immersion Program: State of the Art

Shaban Barimani-Varandi

Faculty of Life Sciences, Sari branch, Islamic Azad University, Sari, Sari, Iran

Abstract: Throughout the history of second/foreign language teaching methodology, it has undergone many
changes. Early methods of language teaching almost entirely lacked any theoretical base. In the 20th century,
however, methods emerged that were based on scientific theories. These methods borrowed their assumptions
mainly from the branches like psychology, linguistics and sociolinguistics. Most of such methods are mainly
form oriented and attempt to teach a second/foreign language in isolation. Since 1960s ‘immersion program’
a version of communicative approach has been innovated which is basically meaning oriented and unlike the
former methods, attempts to teach a second/foreign language integratively. In fact, in this rather newly
developed method learning a second/foreign language is not the main goal; it’s the medium of instruction. The
present paper tries to provide the reader with a brief account of this program. An elaborated introduction of the
program, its different types, characteristics, versions and goals are some of the most important parts of this
paper. Two-way immersion and dual immersion are also elaborated in coming pages. At the end, some problems
and the positive effects of the program are presented.

Key words: Immersion program Two-way immersion Dual immersion Language teaching Method

INTRODUCTION Defined in a simple way, immersion program is “a

method of second language instruction in which the
Throughout the history of second/foreign language regular school curriculum is instructed through the
teaching, a variety of methods and approaches have been medium of the target language”. Genesee [1] describes
developed and used with the purpose of helping the some of the important features of Immersion Program:
learners in learning/acquiring a second language. One of
the most recently innovated approaches and a very “Generally speaking, at least 50% of instruction
interesting innovation in second language education is during a given academic year must be provided
‘immersion program’, a specific type of integrated through the second language for the program to be
language teaching with the instruction of the regular regarded as immersion. Programs in which one-
school curriculum. In fact, in this method the school subject and language arts are taught through the
subject matters or contents are taught through the second language are generally identified as “enriched
medium of a second language. In their early childhood second language programs.” For instance, in English
education through an immersion program, the students immersion program, English is not the subject of
are provided with an opportunity to learn the elementary instruction; rather it is the medium through which the
academic subjects along with developing competence in school subject matters are taught”.
a second language. In immersion schools, the students
experience a cooperative learning through which they can Cummins [2] tries to look at ‘Immersion Program”
acquire a second language while they master the school from a different perspective and believes it is used in
subject matters or contents. In this method the target two different ways. He claims,
language is not the subject of instruction but a vehicle for
acquiring knowledge from different subject areas, content “ In the first sense ‘immersion programs’ are
instruction, as well as the object of instruction. Language organized and planned forms of bilingual education
is not taught in isolation, it is integrated with teaching in which students are ‘immersed’ in a second
content-subject matters. language instructional environment with the goal of

Corresponding Author: Dr. Shaban Barimani-Varandi, Faculty of Life Sciences,

Sari branch, Islamic Azad University, Sari, Sari, Iran .
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developing proficiency in two languages. origins of publicly-funded immersion education in Canada

First language instruction is typically introduced were in St. Lambert, Quebec, in the 1960s. An initial group
within a year or two of the start of the program and of 12 parents in St. Lambert met in October of 1963 to
forms an integral part of the overall plan. In its discuss their concerns regarding the failure of the existing
second sense, the term ‘immersion’ refers to the education system to produce graduateds with a
immersion of immigrant or minority language children communicative knowledge of French. Their concerns were
in a classroom environment where instruction is expressed within the context of growing recognition by
conducted exclusively through their second (or third) Quebec Anglophones of the importance of the French
language. He adds immersion program is a form of language in Quebec and in Canada. Olga Melikoff, one of
bilingual education that immerses students in a the founding members of the St. Lambert parents group,
second language instructional environment for reported that in 1963, the St. Lambert parents believed that
between 50 and 100% of instructional time with the “their children were being shortchanged and should have
goal of developing fluency and literacy in both the opportunity to become ‘bilingual’ within the school
languages”. system since it was so difficult to achieve this outside of
school.” After two years of meeting with other parents, of
Considering the above descriptions of immersion lobbying their school board and of consulting language
program, it seems that the term “Immersion” denotes any learning and teaching experts, the parents group finally
class or school that is taught through the medium of obtained the reluctant permission of the school board to
second or foreign language. The programs in which just set up one experimental French immersion kindergarten
some subjects such as maths, science, etc. are taught in class in September 1965. The initial years of the
a second or foreign language or those which do not reach ‘experiment’ were not easy, but the idea caught on and
the 50% threshold level are not ‘immersion’. They merit to has subsequently spread across Canada [11] and to
be referred to as “Content-enriched foreign language languages other than French.
classes” [3], “Language-enriched content classes” (ibid) There is also another account of the initiation and the
or “Content-based foreign language classes” [4]. Only the emergence of immersion program. In 1965, a group of
programs in which the students are surrounded by or English-speaking parents succeeded in initiating an
immersed in the second language are called ‘immersion’ experimental immersion kindergarten for their students.
[5] or ‘content-based instruction’ [6]. Whatever they are Their goal was to ensure that their children achieved a
called, focus on meaning and comprehensibility is the high level of French, as well as English, in Quebec where
primary feature of these programs, or as [7] says the French-speaking majority were asserting their rights
immersion program is “predominantly focused on and taking more power in the political and economic
meaning”. Therefore, making their language fields. Since then, French immersion has spread across the
comprehensible to the learners must be a primary concern country and is found in every province and territory. All
for the teachers because contents will be understandable of the above assertions bear testimony to the fact that the
to the students provided that the language of teachers is main birthplace of immersion program can be assumed to
comprehensible. be Canada.
So it can be claimed that Immersion education is most
The Origin of Immersion Program: There is a widespread and long-established in Canada. In Canada, a
general agreement on Canada as the birth place of Full immersion program means a bilingual program in
immersion program. For instance, Walker and Tedick which a second language (SL) is learned through other
[8], believe that language immersion program areas of curriculum and the two languages share equal
originated in Canada about 40 years ago and is today "a time-and which includes an initial period of total
language education program model used for a variety of immersion in which the entire instruction is in L2. Total
purposes and across a wide range of social, cultural and immersion, the initial language 'bath' that begins a full
political contexts". immersion program, is thought to be a necessary
Bostswick [9] states that although bilingual component of program design if the proper immersion
education can be traced back to 3000 BC, the form of effect is to be experienced [10].
bilingual education called immersion education that they
use at Katoh is generally accepted to have started in Characteristics of Immersion Program: The very
Quebec, Canada. Melikoff [10] also believe that the origin outstanding characteristic (some take it as an advantage)
of immersion program is in Canada. They argue that the of immersion program is the teaching of a second

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language along with its culture and content without the Types of Immersion Program: Since the first immersion
application of the learners’ first language. Of course, it program in Canada, a number of different immersion
should be kept in mind that the factor of cultural transfer programs have been implemented all over the world.
is a controversial issue by itself. Clearly, in some Immersion programs are categorized in different categories
communities there is a kind of resistance to the imported based on two factors:
culture. Therefore, it can hinder the successful
implementation of this program in such communities. The Age: it refers to the time at which the program is
other prominent characteristics of immersion program can initiated. In terms of time of initiation, immersion
be listed as follows: program is classified into four groups:

The curriculum of immersion program is the same as Early Immersion: in this type of immersion commencing
the local or non-immersion programs. This means that at the age of 5 or 6, students begin learning a second
the same curriculum in maths, science, social studies, language in pre-school, kindergarten, or first grade of
etc. is followed as outcome expectations of students primary school.
in regular “Non-immersion program”.
All materials are taught in immersion language and Middle Immersion (Delayed Immersion): it is initiated at
they are never re-taught in the students’ first the age of 9 or 10 when the students are at the later
language. primary school.
L2 is not taught explicitly as a “language subject”
rather it is used as the medium through which Late Immersion: it starts some time between the ages of
curricular content is conveyed. 11 and 14 when the learners are at the secondary school.
At least 50% of the content instruction is in the
target language. It is through this massive amount of Late Late Immersion: it begins at the university level.
L2 input that implicit acquisition of L2 is attained.
Swain and Johnson [12] summarize eight features of Extent: it refers to the percentage of curricular
immersion programs as follows: content covered in the L2. Based on this factor
The L2 is a medium of instruction. immersion programs can be divided into two types:
The curriculum parallels the local L1 curriculum.
Overt support exists for L1. Total Immersion: the programs in which the entire
The program aims for additive bilingualism. curriculum is taught in the L2 are classified as total or full
Exposure to the L2 is largely confined to the immersion. In this type of immersion almost 100% of class,
classroom. time is in the foreign language. Subject matters are taught
Students enter with similar (and limited) levels of L2 in foreign language. Target language is the only medium
proficiency. of instruction. In situations where comprehension is
The teachers are bilingual. hampered, the teachers apply some techniques like
The classroom culture is that of the local L1 dramatization, demonstration, definition and use of realia,
community. to resolve incomprehensibility. Since all subjects are
delivered in the target language, the learners acquire a
Immersion program is not an easily employed method. threshold level of proficiency. In all English total
In comparison to other modern or innovative methods, immersion classes, English is taught as a subject along
this program needs the committed supports of many to be with the other subjects. The instructors have two reasons
characterized as a successful program. So implementation for teaching English as a subject. a) To enhance the
of this program may create some struggles on the side of learners’ mastery on some skills like writing academically.
learners, teachers, or even parents. In general, according Of course this enhancement would be at the service of
to Met [13] a successful immersion program can be comprehension of other contents. b) To teach the
characterized by 1) administrative support 2) community literature this is at much higher level than the ordinary
and parental support 3) qualified teachers 4) appropriate language. They get familiar with the different ways of
materials in the foreign language 5) time for teachers to expressing an idea such as prose, poetry and anecdote.
prepare instructional materials in the language and finally Definitely, these genres are not acquired through teaching
6) ongoing staff development. contents like maths or science in English.

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Partial Immersion: In partial immersion program, about modification to both courses [16]. Although these models
half of the class time is spent in teaching the subject of immersion program may seem different, they have some
matters in the foreign language. In other words, at least common and distinguishing features. As for their
50% of the curriculum is delivered through the target commonalities, we can refer to the common features
language. mentioned by [14], which include a) content: the
organized and principled curriculum b) objectives: the
Models of Immersion Program: According to Krueger mastery on language and content c) authenticity: the
and Ryan [14], there are three different models of authentic language materials and tasks d) accommodation:
immersion program: the provided aid for the second language learners learns
better. As for the distinguishing features of the models,
Theme-Based Model: In this model the syllabus is Krueger and Ryan [14] mention the followings:
organized around themes or topics such as ‘pollution’,
‘human rights’, etc. The language syllabus is Learning focus and purpose: Purpose is treated
subordinated to the more general theme. The activities to differently in these models. In sheltered model, the
be performed are mainly based on the problems caused by main focus is on leaning content, mastery on subject
the use of authentic materials, not around the grammatical materials is the primary purpose; in theme-based
or syntactic matters. In this model a general theme such as model, learning the second language is focused over
‘the green house effect’ can provide organizing topic for mastery on content; in adjunct or liked model, the
some sessions. Briton et al. [15] say, “Language analysis purpose is to learn both content and language. In
and practice evolve out of topics that form the framework other words, both learning the language and mastery
for the course. A topic might be introduced through a on content are focused in the last model.
reading, vocabulary developed through guided The role and responsibility of instructors regarding
discussion, audio or video material on the same topic language and content instruction: In the theme-based
used for listening comprehension, followed by written model, the instructors teach language besides
assignments integrating information from several different content. In the sheltered model, the instructors
sources. Most of the materials used will typically be present subject matters through the vehicle of L2 so
teacher-generated and the topic treated will cross all that they will support language learning. In adjunct
skills” [16]. or linked model, each instructor teaches his or her
own course while s/he cooperates with the other.
Sheltered Model: This model refers to the situation in Level of proficiency: No special prerequisite level of
which the regular school curriculum is presented through proficiency is required for the learners in the theme-
the medium of target (second) language. Since mastery on based model. On the other hand, in sheltered model,
content is the main goal of instruction, the instructor will because of some probable complexity in the subject
be required to present the content in a way which is matters, the learners are required to have an
comprehensible to second language learners and in the advanced level of listening and reading skills. In
process use language and tasks at an appropriate level of adjunct model, Briton et al. [15] believe “the presence
difficulty. What happens at the immersion schools are the of native speakers makes it necessary that L2
instances of sheltered model. As [15] state, “sheltered speakers have even higher proficiency levels”.
instruction takes place to provide a low-anxiety learning
environment for students learning content in their L2. Goals of Immersion Program: Most Immersion program
This means that the sheltered students are separated from experts divide its goals into two types: short range and
native speaking students.” long range ones.

Adjunct or Linked Model: In this model, students are Short Range: The short-range goal of immersion
enrolled in two linked courses, one a content course and program is to help the learners to understand the
one a language course, with both courses sharing the language used as the medium of instruction. In English
same content base and complementing each other in terms immersion, the initial concern is to make the content
of mutually coordinated assignments. Such a program comprehensible for the learners. For that reason, the
requires a large amount of coordination to ensure that the language will become meaningful so that language input
two curricula are interlocking and this may require becomes “i + 1” [17].

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Long Range: The long-range goals of an immersion Craig [21] stated that, two-way programs use both a
program can include 1) Developing high level of second and the first language to teach regular subject
proficiency in the foreign language skills such as matters to elementary school children. The classes are
listening, speaking, reading and writing. 2) Developing composed of both L1 speakers and children who are
positive attitudes toward the native speakers and native speakers of the second language, preferably in
their culture 3) Developing immersion learners’ first balanced numbers.
language arts as well as the non-immersion learners During the school year, different subjects are taught
4) Gaining mastery in skills, content and concepts and through each language, with at least 50% of the total
5) Gaining a greater understanding and appreciation of academic instruction being taught through the second
other cultures. language. This can be done differently, for example, all
instruction in the morning may be in L1 while afternoon
Versions of Immersion Program: According to Wesche classes may be held in L2. Or certain subjects, such as
and Skehan [18], an immersion program has two main science and social studies, may be taught in L1 while
versions, strong and weak. Strong Version is the one in mathematics and language arts may be in L2. Another
which the primary purpose is to teach the subject matters variation is to teach all classes in L1 one day and in L2 the
and the secondary purpose is to teach language. Content- next day.
based instruction (CBI) is an example of the strong
version of Immersion Program. Weak Version is the one in Goals of Two-way Immersion Program: In spite of a
which mastery on content and gaining competence in considerable variation in the implementation and design
language are equally emphasized. Although the regular of the two-way immersion program, its goals are similar in
school curriculum is designed based on the subject all schools and areas. According to [ibid], by teaching
matters, both teachers and students are aware of the regular academic subjects through two languages to
language objectives. In fact learning the subject matters children with different native languages, the program aims
is the main concern in strong version whereas in weak for bilingual proficiency, academic achievement and
version the focus is on both language and subject matters cross-cultural understanding that are considered in
(content). below..

Two-way immersion Program: Two-way immersion is Bilingual Proficiency: to teach students to speak,
equal to the bilingual education in which it not only read and write in two languages. The main goal is to
helps the learners become bilingual but also widens promote proficiency in the L2 for both groups of
students’ cultural horizons and sensitizes them to students. Two-way immersion students achieve high
second culture and values [19]. The term bilingual levels of bilingual proficiency because both languages are
education refers to an organized and planned program used for learning regular subjects rather than simply being
that uses two (or more) languages of instruction [2]. studied as subjects themselves. At the lower grades,
The central defining feature of bilingual program, he kindergarten and students engage in group plays that
continues, is that the languages are used to teach teach L2 through songs, drama and dance.
subject matter content rather than just the languages
themselves. Two-way programs integrate language- Academic Achievement: the other aim of the two-way
minority and language-majority students for all or most of immersion program is that children learn the same subject-
the school day and strive to promote bilingualism and matter content as students in the regular L1 curriculum
biliteracy in addition to grade-level academic achievement and perform as well as they do in L1.
for all students [20]. The programs are to be characterized
as two-way should they meet these criteria are 1) Cross-Cultural Understanding: two-way immersion
Language-minority and language majority students are programs have also been successful in helping students
integrated for at least 50% of the day at all grade levels 2) to develop positive social attitudes towards the two
content and literacy instruction in both languages are languages and their speakers. In addition to learning
provided to all students and, 3) language minority and another language, both groups also have constant, daily
language-majority students are balanced, with each group opportunities to interact with children of their own age
making up one third to two thirds of the total student who are native speakers of the other language and thus
population. become acquainted with the other culture.

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Dual Immersion Program: Dual immersion is a form of Having an assessment advantage which means that
education in which students are taught literacy and success is measured by learned content rather than
content in two languages. Dual immersion programs use learned language [24,25].
the partner language for at least half of the instructional
day in the elementary years. The goal is to have bilingual Problems of an Immersion Program: Despite all the
students with mastery of two languages: the immersion positive effects of an immersion program, it has some
and partner ones. Dual immersion has its own variations. problems or deficiencies:
They are in terms of the amount of time spent in partner
language and the division of language. In terms of the The fundamental didactic problem is how to relate
former factor, it is either in full or partial type. In addition, concept with context in ways that are effective for
in terms of the latter factor, it happens either by schedule learning. The use of concepts (mathematical or
or by instructor. linguistic or whatever) requires the ability to actualize
their abstraction in meaningful contexts [14].
Indigenous Immersion Program: It is designed and Some deficiencies are dependent on rote learning and
applied in communities desiring to maintain the use of the on the teacher, inability to take independent notes,
native language by delivering elementary school through gather information and discriminate between
the medium of that language. essential information and details; and difficulty in
applying theory to problem solving and extracting
Positive Effects of an Immersion Program: Immersion information from diagrams and charts.
program like any other methods and approaches has its Sometimes too much focus on subject matter causes
own benefits and positive effects, which are as follows: relatively low attention to the formal, linguistic
accuracy.
Pairing language with other description raise the Cultural misunderstanding may also occur in this
students’ motivation to begin language study and to program as in any other program.
continue longer [14]. The degree to which students’ background
Using subject matter as the content maximizes knowledge would have an effect on their content
learners’ exposure to the second language. course performance, cannot be anticipated and this
Applying language knowledge to learn subject may be a problem.
maters demonstrate to students the importance of Lack of specific teacher preparation (content teachers
second language within the university as a whole for L2 learners or language teachers for content
and beyond. instruction) is another problem of the program.
Successful learning of the content of an academic The other problem is related to of knowledge: in order
discipline by the students and improving their to make use of language, learners should apply it to
foreign language proficiency at the same time is the subjects they know something about in that
fundamental premise. language [26].
Being successful in three key domains: improving Feeling is another equally important problem:
second language proficiency, imparting content area learners’ feeling that a subject really matters in some
knowledge and changing attitudes toward language way that relates to their personal values and beliefs.
learning and use. The learners’ need not only to know about subjects,
Bringing a greater subject area expertise, background but also to care about them [25].
knowledge and metacognitive awareness by learners
to material in their own fields enhance their ability to CONCLUSION
read and comprehend second language texts [22].
Providing a theoretical basis for the idea that L2 Immersion program is one of the efficient methods in
proficiency can improve by concentrating on the second language acquisition which has got considerable
content of an academic discipline through that success in bilingualism development. The various studies
language by taking into consideration the done by researches and the implementation of different
Krashen’s “input hypothesis” which maintains that methods have shown that immersion program in SL or FL
language is acquired most effectively through rich acquisition provides an opportunity to gain an
comprehensible input with the conscious focus on appropriate level of proficiency and fluency in L2 without
massage, not on form [23]. any harm or hindrance to the acquisition of the learners’

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first language or learning and understanding of content. 12. Swain, M. and R.K. Johnson, 1997.
As the researches illustrate the implementation of Immersion Education: International Perspectives.
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