National Junior College 2022 1 Current of Electricity

CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY
Content

• Electric Current
• Potential Difference
• Resistance and Resistivity
• Electromotive Force

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

(a) show an understanding that electric current is the rate of flow of charge

(b) derive and use the equation I = nAvq for a current-carrying conductor, where n is the number
density of charge carriers and v is the drift velocity

(c) recall and solve problems using the equation Q = I t

(d) recall and solve problems using V = W Q

(e) recall and solve problems using P = V I , P = I 2R and P = V 2 R

(f) define the resistance of a circuit component as the ratio of the potential difference across the
component to the current passing through it and solve problems using the equation V = I R

(g) sketch and explain the I -V characteristics of various electrical components such as an ohmic
resistor, a semiconductor diode, a filament lamp and a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor

(h) sketch the resistance-temperature characteristic of an NTC thermistor

(i) recall and solve problems using the equation R = rl A

(j) distinguish between electromotive force (e.m.f.) and potential difference (p.d.) using energy
considerations

(k) show an understanding of the effects of the internal resistance of a source of e.m.f. on the terminal
potential difference and output power.

Reference Books
1. College Physics, Hugh Young (9th Edition), Chapter 19 (pg 618-631)
2. Physics, Hutchings (2000) 2nd edition. P239, 530 HUT, University of Bath
 National Junior College 2022 2 Current of Electricity

11.1 Electric Current

11.1.1 Origin

In the simple model for metal, the material comprises a lattice of positive ions in a “sea” of delocalised
electrons. The delocalised electrons move randomly, at high speed, within the material randomly as
shown in Fig. 11.1(a). The electrons moving in the metal undergo frequent collisions with the massive
and almost stationary positive ions. In each such collision the electron’s direction changes randomly.
The electron will tend to return to its original position after several collisions. Hence, on average, there
is no net movement of electrons.

When an electric field (the detail is studied in the topic of “Electric Field”) is established within the
metal (e.g. the metal is connected to an external power source such as an accumulator or battery),
the mobile electrons are subjected to a constant electric force. In addition to the random motion, the
electrons will drift in the direction of the force as shown in Fig. 11.1(b).
direction of electric force
experienced by electrons

5
4 1
2 4
1 2 6
5
6 3 3

uniform electric field

(a) path of a mobile electron moving randomly (b) path of a mobile electron subjected to an
external field of force

Fig. 11.1: Model of a metallic conductor

Simulation of Microscopic View of Metallic Conductor:

http://iwant2study.org/lookangejss/05electricitynmagnetism_17current/ejss_model_driftvelocity/driftv
elocity_Simulation.xhtml

11.1.2 Definition of Current

The electric current I (conventional current) at a particular point (in the circuit) is the rate of flow of
positive charges.

Fig. 11.2: Conventional current

 National Junior College 2022 3 Current of Electricity
There is a current when there is a flow of charged particles. The direction of conventional current is
the direction that positive charge would flow as shown in Fig. 11.2.

Depending on the situation, positive charges, negative charges, or both may move. In metal wires,
for example, current is carried by electrons – that is, negative charges move – the direction of current
is opposite to the flow of the negative carrier shown in Fig. 11.3. In ionic solutions, such as saltwater,
both positive and negative charges move.

Fig.11.3: Direction of current for negative charge carriers

11.1.3 Mathematical Expression

Current I can be expressed as

Q
I=
t

where Q is the amount of charge, measured in coulombs (C), flowing past the point in a time t. The
S.I. unit for current is the Ampere (A), named after the French physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–
1836).

Ampere is also one of the seven base electrical quantity of which all other electrical quantities are
defined. Hence, the quantity of charge, measured in coulomb (C), is defined in terms of the Ampere.

One coulomb is defined as the charge passing a point in a circuit when there is a constant
current of one ampere for a time of one second.
 National Junior College 2022 4 Current of Electricity

Example 1
(a) What is the current involved when a truck battery sets in motion 720 C of charge in 4.00 s while
starting an engine?
(b) How long does it take 1.00 C of charge to flow through a handheld calculator if a 0.300 mA
current is flowing?
Strategy
Q
We can use the definition of current I = to determine the current in part (a), since charge and
t
time are given. In part (b), we rearrange the same expression and use the given values of charge
and current to determine the time required.
Solution
Q 720
(a) I= = = 180 A
t 4
Q 1
(b) t= = = 3.33 ´ 103 s
I 0.3 ´ 10-3
Discussion
This large value for current in (a) illustrates the fact that a large charge is moved in a small amount
of time. The currents in these “starter motors” are fairly large because large frictional forces need
to be overcome when setting something in motion.
The time in (b) is slightly less than an hour. The small current used by the calculator takes a much
longer time to move a smaller amount of charge than the large current of the truck starter.
Calculators require very little energy and current (we will see later that the electricity is associated
with energy) to operate allowing handheld calculators to operate from solar cells or to get many
hours of use out of small batteries. Remember, calculators do not have moving parts in the same
way that a truck engine has with cylinders and pistons, so the technology requires smaller currents.

Example 2
If the 0.300 mA current through the calculator in example 8.1 is carried by electrons, how many
electrons per second pass through it? Each electron carry a charge of e = -1.6 ´ 10-19 C .
Strategy
The current calculated in the previous example was defined for the flow of positive charge. For
electrons, the sign is opposite, hence current is opposite to the flow of the electrons. With this
understanding, we can use the magnitude of the electronic charge in our calculations. The amount
of charge flowing is the product of the number of electrons and the electronic charge.
Solution
Let the number of electrons flowing in time t be n.
Q n´e
I= =
t t
n I 0.3 ´ 10-3
\number of electons per unit time = = = 1.88 ´ 1015 s-1
t e 1.6 ´ 10-19
Discussion
There are so many charged particles moving, even in small currents, that individual charges are
not noticed, just as individual water molecules are not noticed in water flow. Even more amazing is
that they do not always keep moving forward which we will see later. Rather they are like a crowd
 National Junior College 2022 5 Current of Electricity
of people with movement in different directions but a general trend to move forward. There are lots
of collisions with atoms in the metal wire and, of course, with other electrons.

11.1.4 Drift Velocity

We discussed, in section 11.1.1, that when free electrons move through a conductor, the distance
that an individual electron can move between collisions with atoms or other electrons is quite small.
The electron paths thus appear nearly random, like the motion of atoms in a gas. With an electric field
in the conductor, the electrons will drift with a velocity. Drift velocity v is the average velocity of the
charge carriers.

We can obtain an expression for the relationship between the current and the drift velocity.

Consider the number of free charges in a segment of wire of cross section area A, as illustrated in
Figure 11.4. The number of free charge carriers per unit volume is n and it depends on the material.

v v

P
Fig. 11.4

In one second, the charge carriers within a distance of v metres to the left of the plane at P will flow
through plane P. (Note that v is the drift velocity) This is equivalent to the charge carriers in the
volume Av, which will flow through P in one second.

This volume contains nAv charges and hence nAvq amount of charge, where q is the amount of
charge for one charge carrier.

Thus, a charge of nAvq per second passes P, and so the current I is given by

I = nAvq
 National Junior College 2022 6 Current of Electricity

Example 3
The number of copper atoms per unit volume is 8.3 ´1028 m-3 and there is one free electron per
copper atom. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in a copper wire, of diameter 2.053 mm,
carrying a 20.0 A current.
Strategy
We calculate the drift velocity using I = nAvq where n = 8.3 ´ 1028 m-3 , q = -1.6 ´ 10-19 C . Similar
to example 2, we can use the magnitude of the electronic charge in our calculations.
Solution
2
æ 2.053 ´ 10 -3 ö
20 = 8.3 ´ 10 ´ p ç
28
÷ ´ v ´ 1.6 ´ 10
-19

è 2 ø

v = 4.5 ´10-4 m s-1

Discussion
Electrical signals are known to move very rapidly. Telephone conversations carried by currents in
wires cover large distances without noticeable delays. Lights come on as soon as a switch is flicked.
Interestingly, the individual charges that make up the current move much more slowly on average,
typically drifting at speeds of the order 10−4 m s−1. How do we reconcile these two speeds, and what
does it tell us about standard conductors?
The high speed of electrical signals results from the fact that the force between charges acts rapidly
at a distance. Thus, when a free charge is forced into a wire, as shown below, the incoming charge
pushes other charges ahead of it, which in turn push on charges farther down the line. The density
of charge in a system cannot easily be increased, and so the signal is passed on rapidly.

Checkpoint 1

A current of 5.0 A passes through a resistor with a cross-sectional area of 3 × 10-6 m2 for
4.0 min. Calculate

a) the amount of charge passing through the cross-section of the resistor in this time[1200C]

b) the number of electrons passing through the cross-section of the resistor in this time.
[7.5 x 1021]

c) the drift velocity if the number of free electrons per unit volume is 8.0  1028 m−3 [1.3 x10-4 ms-1]
 National Junior College 2022 7 Current of Electricity
11.2 Potential Difference

11.2.1 What drives current?

We can propose a phenomenological1 explanation by looking at a simple circuit comprising an energy

source, wires and a light bulb, as shown in Fig. 11.5. The presence an energy source (e.g. battery,
generator, wall outlet, etc.) is necessary to maintain a current. We could say that the energy source
creates a potential difference in the circuit. A current will flow from a region of high to low potential.

high potential low potential

source

conventional current I wire

–e
–e –e

–e –e

light bulb

–e –e

–e
–e –e

–e
–e
conventional current I

Fig. 11.5

11.2.2 The energy connection

A potential difference creates an electric field – a concept in the topic of “Electric Field” – which in turn
exerts force on the charge carriers, causing them to drift and form a current. Fig. 11.6 illustrates the
effect of a potential difference accelerating negative charge carriers in a metallic conductor.

direction of electric force

experienced by electrons

high potential low potential

electric field in
the conductor

Fig. 11.6: Accelerating electrons in a metallic conductor

The moving charges produce an electric and magnetic field in space around the circuit to transport
energy along the wire, via electromagnetic means, to the other components in the circuit such as light

1
relating to the science of phenomena
 National Junior College 2022 8 Current of Electricity
bulb, heating coil or motor. At these components, electrical energy is converted into other forms such
as light, thermal energy or mechanical energy.

You are encouraged to view this video “Alice and Bob in Wonderland: How does a flashlight work?”
(https://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/videos/alice-and-bob-wonderland-how-does-flashlight-work)

11.2.3 Definition of Potential Difference

Consider two points A and B (or C and D) in the circuit, as shown in Fig. 11.7,

high potential low potential

wire
current I

light bulb

B
C
current I
D

Fig. 11.7

The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of energy per unit charge
converted from electrical energy to other forms of energy when the charge passes through an
electrical component.

11.2.4 Mathematical Expression

Mathematically, the potential difference (p.d.) V between the two points can be expressed as

W
W = QV or V =
Q

where W is the energy converted from electrical to other forms when a charge of Q passes from one
point to another.

The S.I. unit for p.d. is the Volt (V), named after the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827).

One volt is defined as the potential difference between two points in a circuit in which
one joule of electrical energy is converted to other forms of energy when a charge of one
coulomb passes the two points.
 National Junior College 2022 9 Current of Electricity

Example 4
A lamp has a p.d. of 12 V across it and a 2.5 A current flows through it. Calculate the electrical
energy transferred to the lamp when
(a) a charge of 400 C passes through it,
(b) the current passes through it for 30 s.
Strategy
The p.d. of 12 V indicates that electrical energy is converted to other forms – light and thermal
energy – in the lamp. Using energy conservation, the electrical energy transferred to the lamp must
equal energy converted. Hence, we can calculate the electrical energy transferred using drift
velocity using V = W Q for (a). For (b), the amount of charge can be calculated using Q = It .
Solution
(a) electrical energy transferred to the lamp W = QV = 400 ´12 = 4800 J
(b) amount of charge passing through the lamp Q = It = 2.5 ´ 30 = 75 C
electrical energy transferred to the lamp W = QV = 75 ´12 = 900 J

Checkpoint 2

A current passes through a resistor with a potential difference of 10 V. The amount of

energy dissipated in the resistor in 10 s is 500 J. Calculate

a) the amount of charge passing through the cross-section of the resistor in 10 s [50 C]

b) the current in the resistor [5.0 A]

 National Junior College 2022 10 Current of Electricity
11.3 Resistance and Resistivity

11.3.1 Ohm’s Theory of the Circuit

The German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854) was the first to demonstrate experimentally
that the current in a metal wire is directly proportional to the voltage applied:

I µV
To understand this, let us consider an experiment which can easily be done with modern apparatus.
As shown in Fig. 11.8(a), we connect the following apparatus:

• one or more sources S

• wire-wound resistor R
• variable resistance or rheostat P
• ammeter A to measure the current
• voltmeter V connected across R to measure the p.d.

electrical energy source S

(e.g. dry cell, accumulators)

A
wire of
I resistance R

rheostat P

(a) Circuit (b) Results

Fig. 11.8: Demonstration of Ohm’s Law

By adjusting the rheostat P, we vary the current I through the circuit, and at each value of I we
measure V. Plotting I against V gives a straight line through the origin, as shown in Fig. 11.8(b). This
shows that the potential difference across the resistor R is proportional to the current through it.

Taking into account that the resistance of a conductor depends on its temperature and on other
physical conditions such as mechanical strain, Ohm's law can be stated as follows

Under constant physical conditions (e.g. temperature, mechanical stress) the steady current flowing
through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between its ends.

V
It follows that = constant . The constant is the resistance of the metallic conductor.
I

Note: Not all conductors obey Ohm’s law, those that do not are known as “non-ohmic” conductors.
The graph of I against V for non-ohmic conductors, is NOT a straight line passing through origin.
 National Junior College 2022 11 Current of Electricity
11.3.2 Resistance

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of charge.

The resistance R of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential difference V across it to the
current I through it.

Mathematically,
V
R=
I

The S.I. unit for resistance is the Ohm (Ω), named after the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm.

One ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor when a current of one ampere
passes through it when the potential difference across it is one volt.

Example 5
The graph shows the variation with potential difference V of the current I in an electrical component.

The resistance is measured for current IY and for current IX.

What is the change in resistance of the component?
VY -VX VX VY VY - 0 VX - 0
A zero B C - D - (N09/1/27)
IY - I X IX IY IY IX
Strategy
We must use V = IR to determine the resistance of the component at the two points separately.
Solution
VX VY
RX = and RY =
IX IY
VX VY
Difference in resistance DR = RX - RY = -
IX IY
VY VX
Note: The difference can also be calculated with RY - R X = - . Therefore, you should select
IY IX
the best option that is the nearest to the correct form.
 National Junior College 2022 12 Current of Electricity
Checkpoint 3

When a p.d. of 10 V is applied across a resistor, a current of 8.0 A flows through it. When
the p.d. across the resistor is changed to 5.0 V, a current of 6.0 A flows through it.

Explain if the resistor is an ohmic conductor. [Clue: Calculate resistance and conclude.]

11.3.3 Resistance of Different Circuit Components

(a) Metallic Conductor (Ohmic Conductor)

A metallic conductor contains a large number of free electrons. As these electrons move through the
metal lattice, they collide with the vibrating metal ions. The collisions oppose the flow of electrons and
so the metal has resistance.

Circuit Symbol I-V graph Description

• straight line through the origin, i.e. I

I is proportional to V
• value of V/I (or resistance) is a
constant for all values of V and I,
I1
showing that wire is an ohmic
conductor
V • Ohmic conductor has constant
0 V1 resistance independent of the
current that is passing through it
resistance = V1 / I1

Note:
• To obtain this I-V characteristics graph, it is important that the physical conditions (e.g.
temperature, mechanical stress, etc) be the same throughout the experiment.
• For example, if the metal becomes hotter, the resistance of the metal has increased with
temperature.
 National Junior College 2022 13 Current of Electricity
(b) Filament Lamp

Circuit Symbol I-V graph Description

• non-ohmic device
• graph becomes less steep as the
I current increases
• value of V/I (or resistance) increases
as the current increases
• As the current increases, the metal
filament gets hotter, the metal ions
V vibrate faster and with greater
0 amplitude. It is thus more difficult for
the electrons to pass through the
lattice and the resistance of the lamp
rises.

(c) Semiconductor Diode

Circuit Symbol I-V graph Description

• There is almost no current when the

I voltage is applied in the reverse
direction – a very high resistance.
• In the forward direction, the current
increases very rapidly when the
voltage rises above a certain value
(about 0.7 V) – a very low
resistance above 0.7 V
0 V
0.7

The circuit symbol shows the direction of conventional current when the diode conducts. The diode
conducts only when it is forward-biased. When the diode is reverse-biased there is no current (less
than one mA).

Fig. 11.9: Effect of the connection of the diode on a simple circuit

 National Junior College 2022 14 Current of Electricity

(d) NTC Thermistor

The thermistor is an important semiconducting component. The resistance of many semiconducting

materials decreases as their temperature rises. These materials have a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance (NTC).

In semiconductors, the number of free electrons is small compared to that in metals.

Thus, at low temperatures it is a poor conductor. As its temperature rises, more and more
electrons break free from the atoms and contribute to the conduction of electricity, so the
semiconductor becomes a better conductor.

Fig. 11.10(b) shows the variation of the resistance of an NTC thermistor with temperature. The change
in resistance of a metal wire is also shown.

(a) Circuit Symbol (b) Variation of resistance with temperation

Fig. 11.10
 National Junior College 2022 15 Current of Electricity

Example 6
The graph plots current I against potential difference V for a
filament lamp.
Determine the resistance of the lamp
(a) when the resistance when the potential difference across
the lamp is 6 V,
(b) when the current is 3 A. (adapted N10/1/28)

Strategy
We can use V = IR to determine the resistance. The values of the current and the p.d. must be
read-off the graph.
Solution
V 6
(a) V = 6 V and I = 3.5 A, \R = = = 1.7 W
I 3.5
V 4
(b) I = 3 A and V = 4 V, \R = = = 1.3 W
I 3
Discussion
Comparing the resistance of (a) and (b), it can be deduced that the resistance is higher when the
current is higher. As the current increases, the metal filament gets hotter and the resistance of the
lamp rises.
 National Junior College 2022 16 Current of Electricity
11.3.4 Resistivity

Ohm showed, by using wires of different length and diameter, that the resistance R of a wire is
proportional to its length L and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area A. For a given wire
L
R µ , and we may therefore write
A

L
R=r
A

where r is a constant for the material of the wire known as the resistivity of that material. The unit
for resistivity is the ohm-metre (Ω m).

Fig. 11.11

Resistivity enables comparisons to be made between the conducting ability of different materials. A
good electrical conductor should have low resistivity.

Note: When using the expression, the length L of the conductor must be parallel to the flow of current
and the cross-sectional area A must be perpendicular to the flow of current.

Example 7
A car headlight filament is made of tungsten and has a cold resistance of 0.350 Ω. The filament is
a cylinder 4.00 cm long (it may be coiled to save space) and the resistivity of tungsten is
5.6 ´ 10-8 W m . Determine its diameter D.
Strategy
L
We can rearrange the equation R = r to find the cross-sectional area A of the filament from the
A
given information. Then its diameter can be found by assuming it has a uniform cross-section.
Solution
rL
Rearranging the expression for the resistance of a cylinder, we get A = . The cross-sectional
R
p D2
area A = .
4
p D2 rL
5.6 ´ 10-8 ´ 0.04
= =
4 R 0.35
-5
\ D = 9.0 ´ 10 m
 National Junior College 2022 17 Current of Electricity

Example 8
A sample of resistive material is prepared in the form of a thin square slab of side x.

x
x

For a given thickness, the resistance between the shaded faces of the sample is
A proportional to x2 B proportional to x
C independent of x D inversely proportional to x
E inversely proportional to x2
Strategy
L
We can use the equation R = r to find the resistance. The current will flow from one end of the
A
shaded face to the other. Hence, the length L equal x.
Solution
Let the thickness of the slab be t.
rx r
The resistance of the slab is R = = which is independent of x.
xt t

Checkpoint 4

A resistor X of length L and cross-sectional area A has a resistance R.

Another resistor Y made of the same material has twice the length and half the cross-sectional area.

What is the resistance of Y in terms of R? [4R]

 National Junior College 2022 18 Current of Electricity
11.4 Electrical Power and Energy

11.4.1 Power

Consider a resistor of resistance R in series with an electrical source, as shown in Fig. 11.12. The
potential difference (p.d.) across the resistance is V and the current through it is I.

I
R

V
Fig. 11.12

The amount of electrical energy converted at the resistor is W = QV .

W Q
If we consider the rate energy conversion (or power) P = and the current is I = , we have
t t

W = I t ´V
W
Þ = IV
t

\P = V I

From the definition of resistance, we obtain the other expressions for power.

V2
P = I 2R and P =
R
 National Junior College 2022 19 Current of Electricity

Example 9
The tungsten filament in Example 7 has a resistance of 4.80 Ω at 2850 oC and a resistance of
0.35 Ω at 27.0 oC. The car headlight is connected to a 12.0 V car battery. Determine for the cold
and hot filament
(a) the power dissipated by the headlight,
(b) the current through the filament.
Strategy
V2
For (a), use the equation P = since the p.d. and resistances are known. For (b), use V = I R .
R
Solution
122
(a) power dissipated by the cold filament Pcold = = 411 W
0.35
122
power dissipated by the hot filament Phot = = 30.0 W
4.8
V 12
(b) current in cold filament I cold = = = 34.3 A
R 0.35
V 12
current in hot filament Ihot = = = 2.50 A
R 4.8
Discussion
(a) The 30 W dissipated by the hot headlight is typical. But the 411 W when cold is surprisingly
higher. The initial power drawn by the bulb quickly decreases as its temperature increases and
its resistance increases.
(b) The cold current is remarkably higher than the steady-state value of 2.50 A, but the current will
quickly decline to that value as the bulb’s temperature and resistance increases. Most fuses
and circuit breakers (used to limit the current in a circuit) are designed to tolerate very high
currents briefly as a device comes on. In some cases, such as with electric motors, the current
remains high for several seconds, necessitating special “slow blow” fuses.

Example 10
An immersion heater is rated at 3000 W and is switched on for 2000 s. During this time a charge of
25000 C is supplied to the heater. Determine the potential difference across the heater.
Strategy
You can use the equation V = W Q to determine the p.d. by calculating the electrical energy
converted at the heater using W = Pt .
Solution
The amount of energy converted in 2000 s is W = Pt = 3000 ´ 2000 = 6 ´ 106 J

Potential difference V = W Q = 6 ´ 106 25000 = 240 V

 National Junior College 2022 20 Current of Electricity
11.4.2 Other measures of energy

(a) Consumption and cost of electrical energy

Electrical energy consumption is measured using kilowatt-hour (kWh). The kilowatt-hour is the
electrical energy transferred by a device working at a steady rate of one kilowatt for one hour.

( ) ( )
1 kwh = 1´ 103 W ´ 3600 s = 3.6 ´ 106 J

In Singapore, 1 kWh of electrical energy costs about 25 cents2.

(b) Energy at the atomic level

The electronvolt (eV) is used to measure energies for atomic and nuclear particles. One electronvolt
is the energy transferred when an electron is moved through a potential difference of one volt.

( ) ( )
1 eV = 1.6 ´ 10-19 C ´ 1 V = 1.6 ´ 10-19 J

Example 11
An electric hotplate, designed to operate on a 250 V supply, has two coils of nichrome wire. Each
coil consists of 16 m of wire of cross-sectional area 0.20 mm2. The resistivity of nichrome wire is
1.1´10-6 W m. For one of the coils, calculate
(a) the resistance,
(b) the power dissipation when the 250 V supply is connected across the coil, assuming its
resistance does not change with temperature,
(c) the cost of running it for 5 hours if electricity costs $0.25 per kWh.
Strategy
For (a), use R = rL A to calculate the resistance of the coil.

For (b) use P = V 2 R to calculate the power dissipated since the p.d. and resistances are known.
For (c), cost = power in kWh ´ time ´ cost per kWh .
Solution
rL 1.1´ 10-6 ´ 16
(a) resistance R = = = 88 W
A 0.2 ´ 10-6
V 2 2502
(b) power dissipated P = = = 710 W
R 88
710.22  5  3600
(c) cost = power in kWh  time  cost per kWh =  0.25 = $0.89
1000  3600

2
Electrical tariff between October and December 2019. This tariff comprises two key components –
fuel cost and non-fuel cost. Fuel cost is calculated using the average of daily natural gas prices in the
first two-and-a-half month period in the preceding quarter (e.g. the average natural gas price between
April and June is used to set the tariff for July to September). Non-fuel cost includes power generation
cost, network cost, market support services, and power system operation and market administration
fees. Refer to https://www.ema.gov.sg/Residential_Electricity_Tariffs.aspx.
 National Junior College 2022 21 Current of Electricity

Checkpoint 5

A 20 Ω bulb generates a power of 5.0 W. Calculate the amount of charge passing through the bulb in
10 s. [5.0 C]

11.5 Electromotive Force (or e.m.f.)

11.5.1 Definition of e.m.f

In a simple circuit, an electrical energy source (e.g. batteries, generators, wall outlets, etc.) is
connected to electrical component(s) using wires. The source maintains a potential difference and
drives a current in the circuit. This special type of potential difference is known as electromotive
force (e.m.f.). The e.m.f. is not a force but the term “electromotive force” is used for historical reasons.
It was coined by Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, when he invented the first battery.

From energy perspective, the circulation of an electric current leads to the continual dissipation of
electrical energy by the circuit components as other forms of energy (e.g. thermal, light, mechanical),
as discussed in the earlier sections. All this energy must be continuously supplied by the source(s) or
seat(s) of e.m.f. that maintains the flow of current.

Similar to the definition of potential difference, we define e.m.f. as

The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source is the amount of energy converted per unit charge from
other forms to electrical energy when the source drives a charge round a complete circuit.

Note:
• The definition of e.m.f. does not depend on any assumptions about the nature of its source.
• There is a distinction between potential difference and e.m.f. The former is about the energy
conversion from electrical energy to other forms while the latter is about the energy conversion
from other forms to electrical.

From the definition, the e.m.f. E of a source can be expressed as

W
E=
Q

where W is the energy converted from other forms to electrical energy. The S.I. unit is the volt (V).
 National Junior College 2022 22 Current of Electricity
11.5.2 Internal Resistance

Consider some circuit components connected in series with an e.m.f. source, as shown in Fig. 11.13.
the current in the circuit is I and the p.d. across the component is Vi.

source of
e.m.f. E

V1 V2 VN

Fig. 11.13

Let us analyse the energy conversion in the circuit:

• amount of charge that circulates in the circuit is Q = I t

• energy generated by the source Wgenerated = QE = I Et
• (
energy dissipated by the components Wdissipated = QV1 + QV2 + ...+ QVN = I t V1 +V2 + ...+VN )
Note: The connecting wires in a circuit are usually assumed to be ideal, i.e. zero resistance.
The p.d. between the ends of each wire V = I R = I ´ 0= 0. There is no dissipation of energy.

• from energy conservation, \E = V1 +V2 + ...+VN

In practice, if the e.m.f. and the potential difference can be measured accurately, the value of the
e.m.f. generally does not equal to the sum of the components’ p.d. In other words, not all the electrical
energy generated is available to the external load because the source of e.m.f. has internal
resistance. In circuit diagram, we represent the internal resistance r in the source of e.m.f. E as
shown in Fig. 11.14.

E
r

Fig. 11.14
 National Junior College 2022 23 Current of Electricity
11.5.3 Circuit powered by an electrical source with internal resistance

(a) Power generated/delivered by an electrical source

Consider a power supply of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r connected to an external load of
resistance R. A steady current I flows in the circuit.

E r

Fig. 11.15

When the source of e.m.f. E drives a steady current I in a circuit for a time t, the charge that circulates
in the circuit is Q = I t .

Thus,

electrical energy generated by the source W = QE = I Et

W
electrical power generated P = = IE
t
P
We can now define e.m.f in terms of power and current as E = . The e.m.f. of an electrical source
I
is the ratio of the electrical power it generates to the current it delivers. If current is forced through the
source in opposition to its e.m.f., such as when charging a batter, then the above equation gives the
power consumed in overcoming the e.m.f.

(b) Calculating the current when the source has internal resistance

For the circuit in Fig. 11.15, consider the rate of change of energy in the circuit,

• electrical power supplied by the source, Psource = IE

• electrical power dissipated by the internal resistance Pr = I2r

• electrical power dissipated by the load PR = I2R

By conservation of energy,

rate of energy supplied by the source = rate of energy dissipated in r and R

I E = I 2 r + I 2R
E
\I =
r +R
(
or E = I r + R )
 National Junior College 2022 24 Current of Electricity
(c) Terminal potential difference (p.d.)

Suppose an external resistor, known as the load resistance R, is connected to a battery, as shown
in Fig. 11.16.

E
r
a c
b

R
e d

Fig. 11.16

The battery has an e.m.f. E and internal resistance r. Using conventional current flow, positive charges
leave the positive terminal of the battery, travel through the resistor, and return to the negative terminal
of the battery. When current I runs through the circuit,

potential difference across internal resistance Vr = I r

potential difference across load resistor VR = I R

A graph of the potential of each element in the circuit is shown in Fig. 11.17.

potential
battery

E
ΔV = Ir
E – Ir

ΔV = IR

a b c d e

E r R

Fig. 11.17

The potential difference between the point a and c is known as the terminal potential difference (p.d.)
and is expressed as
Vterminal = E - I r
 National Junior College 2022 25 Current of Electricity

From Fig. 11.17, it is not difficult to see that the terminal p.d. must equal to the potential drop IR
( )
across the load resistor, i.e. Vterminal = E - I r = I R .

Plotting the terminal p.d. against the current in the circuit, a straight line is obtained (Fig. 11.18). We
can conclude from the graph the following:

• When there is no current in the circuit, the terminal p.d. equals to its e.m.f. Therefore, the y-
intercept on the terminal potential difference axis gives the cell’s e.m.f.
• The gradient of the graph represents the internal resistance r.

Vterminal / V

y-intercept = E

E
gradient = r

I/A
Fig. 11.18

Example 12
A battery has an e.m.f. of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 0.100 Ω. Calculate its terminal p.d.
when it is connected to a load of (a) 0.500 Ω, (b) 10.0 Ω, and (c) 1000 Ω.
Strategy
The analysis gives an expression for the current when the internal resistance is taken into account.
Once the current is found, the terminal p.d. is calculated by using the equation Vterminal = E - I r .

12 V

r = 0.100 Ω

Solution
(a) Terminal p.d. (Vterminal = E - I r ) is equal to the potential drop across the load resistor
 National Junior College 2022 26 Current of Electricity

E - Ir = IR
E 12
ÞI= = = 20 A
R+r 0.5 + 0.1
Terminal p.d. Vterminal = E - I r = 12 - 20 ´ 0.1= 10.0 V

E 12 12
(b) Similar analysis gives the current I = = =
R+r 10 + 0.1 10.1
12
Terminal p.d. Vterminal = E - I r = 12 - ´ 0.1= 11.9 V
10.1
E 12 12
(c) Similar analysis gives the current I = = =
R+r 1000 + 0.1 1000.1
12
Terminal p.d. Vterminal = E - I r = 12 - ´ 0.1= 12.0 V
1000.1
Discussion
In (a), the terminal p.d. exhibits a significant reduction compared with the e.m.f. while in (c), the
terminal p.d. is approximately equal to the e.m.f. Therefore, the terminal p.d. is dependent on the
load resistance. When the load resistance is significantly higher than the internal resistance
(R >> r), the terminal p.d. approaches the actual e.m.f. due to a smaller current drawn by the load.
The voltmeter or digital multimeter has very high resistance (~ 10 MΩ). Hence, when these devices
are connected across the terminals of the electrical source, they give readings that, for practical
purpose, equal to the e.m.f.

Example 13 E r
A power supply of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r is
connected to resistor and a voltmeter as shown. The
voltmeter has infinite resistance. The resistor has
resistance 120 Ω.
When the switch is open the voltmeter reading is 12.0 V. V
When the switch is closed the voltmeter reading is 10.8 V.

Determine the values of E and r.

120 Ω

Strategy
The infinite resistance voltmeter measures the terminal p.d. of the power supply. The opening and
closing of the switch affects the current in the circuit and the terminal p.d. calculated using
Vterminal = E - I r .
Solution
When the switch is open,
No current flows so terminal p.d. equals e.m.f. of the power supply (∵ Vterminal = E - 0 ´ r = E )

The voltmeter reading equals the terminal p.d. and therefore gives the e.m.f E = 12.0 V
 National Junior College 2022 27 Current of Electricity

When the switch is closed,

A current I is in the circuit so terminal p.d. Vterminal = 12 - I r

The voltmeter reading equals the terminal p.d.

\10.8 = 12 - I r
…… (1)
Þ I r = 1.2
Since the terminal p.d. equals to the potential drop across the external load,
Vterminal = I R
Þ 10.8 = I ´ 120
Þ I = 0.09 A
1.2 1.2
Substitute the current into (1) \r = = = 13.3 W
I 0.09
E 12
OR current in the circuit I = =
R + r 120 + r
12r
Vterminal = 12 - I r Þ 10.8 = 12 - Þ r = 13.3 W
120 + r

Checkpoint 6

A battery with internal resistance r is connected to a resistor R. A voltmeter is placed across the
battery. Explain how the reading on the voltmeter will change as R is increased.
 National Junior College 2022 28 Current of Electricity
(d) Efficiency and Maximum Power Theorem

The power delivered to the load in Fig. 11.15 is called the output power Pout and its value is

Pout = IVload = I 2R

The power generated by the source is Pgen = I E .

The difference between the power generated and the output is the power wasted as heat in the source
I2r. The ratio of the power output to the power generated is the efficiency η of the circuit given by

Pout I 2R I R
h= = =
Pgen IE E

E R
Since I = , \h =
R+r R+r

The efficiency of the circuit efficiency η

• increases with load resistance 1.0

• is 0.5 or 50% when load resistance equals to the
internal resistance (R = r)
• tends to 100% when the load resistance R tends to 0.5
infinity.

R
0 r

E E 2R Pout
Since I = , the output power Pout = I 2R =
R+r ( )
2
R+r

dPout
Maximum output power3 when = 0 i.e. R = r
dR

The maximum power theorem4 states that a given source of

e.m.f. delivers the maximum amount of power to a load when R
0 r
the resistance of the load is equal to the internal resistance of
the source.

3
dPout
=
E2
-
2E 2R
=
(
E2 r - R )
dR ( ) (R + r ) (R + r )
2 3 2
R+r
4
The derivation of the theorem is not required at A-level. However, you should be aware of the
implication of the theorem for the questions in N2011/P3/Q8c-e and N2013/P3/Q2.
 National Junior College 2022 29 Current of Electricity

Example 14
A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 0.014 Ω delivers a current of 110 A when it is
connected to a motor. Determine
(a) the resistance of the motor,
(b) the fraction of the total power which is dissipated in the battery.
Strategy
12 V
r = 0.014 Ω

110 A

motor
R

E
For (a), we can use I = to calculate the resistance of the motor because all the quantities are
R+r
known. For (b), consider the power dissipated in the battery through the internal resistance and the
power generated by the battery to calculate the required fraction.
Solution
E 12
(a) I= Þ 110 =
R+r R + 0.014
\R = 0.095 W
(b) power dissipated in the battery is the power dissipated in the internal resistance Pr = I2r
power generated by the battery Pbattery = IE
I 2r I r 110 ´ 0.014
fraction of the total power which is dissipated in the battery = = = = 0.13
IE E 12
 National Junior College 2022 30 Current of Electricity

Example 15
A battery has an e.m.f. of 12.0 V and unknown internal resistance r. A variable resistor of resistance
R is connected across terminals of the battery. The variation with R of the power P dissipated in
the variable resistor is shown below.
12 V
r

(a) State the internal resistance of the battery.

(b) State the two values of R which the power dissipated in the variable resistor is 9.0 W.
(c) For the two values in (b), calculate the efficiency of the power transfer from the power supply
to the variable resistor.
æ power output ö
efficiency = ç ´ 100%
è power supplied ÷ø
(d) Use your answers in (c), explain the condition for the variable resistor to provide maximum
efficiency of energy transfer to it.
Strategy
For (a), we can use the maximum power theorem to deduce the internal resistance. For (c), the
power supplied by the battery is Pbattery = IE.
Solution
(a) Maximum amount of power is delivered to the variable resistor when its resistance is equal to
the internal resistance of the battery \r = 3.0 W
(b) R = 1.0 Ω and 9.0 Ω
(c) For R = 1.0 Ω,
current = 12 / (1+3) = 3 A
æ 9.0 ö
efficiency = ç ´ 100% = 25%
è 3 ´ 12 ÷ø
For R = 9.0 Ω,
current = 12 / (9+3) = 1 A
æ 9.0 ö
efficiency = ç ´ 100% = 75%
è 1´ 12 ÷ø
(d) In (c), the efficiency increases when the resistance of the variable resistor increases. To obtain
maximum efficiency, the resistance of the variable resistor should be much greater than the
internal resistance of the battery.