Teachers Book PDF

4
Table of contents
Education today
Physics and Chemistry 4: principal features . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Key competences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Physics and Chemistry 4: organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Student’s Book: a new approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Teacher’s Book: specialised solutions
for many needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Teacher’s Book: well-organised units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Learner-centred classroom techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Techniques for developing competences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Teaching resources
1. Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2. Atoms and the periodic table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3. Chemical bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4. Carbon chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5. Chemical reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6. Examples of chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7. Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8. Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
9. Gravitational forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10. Forces in fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11. Work and energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
12. Energy and heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
ANNEX: The periodic table of the elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Student audio transcript. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Class audio transcript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
EDUCATION TODAY
Today's information society is becoming increasingly global and subject to constant, rapid
changes. This means that education makes a difference. We live in a world that poses big
questions, which deserve big answers. Today’s citizens need education to be able to build
tomorrow.
Traditionally, education has meant teaching content. It used to just be about knowing. Today’s
educators realise that we have to take a big step forward: knowledge is not enough. We
need to KNOW HOW. Competence-based learning is the model that Santillana–Richmond
has chosen to achieve the objectives that society believes are necessary: knowing how to
communicate, interpret, deduce, hypothesise, evaluate, select, choose, decide and make
a commitment.
We need to work with ideas, be capable of solving problems, and make decisions in changing
contexts. We need to be flexible, versatile and creative, and we need to be able to do this in
more than one language. Today's citizens need skills in their native language and at least one
foreign language.
To meet this great challenge, Santillana is offering its know-how and will support teachers and
students by providing materials, services and experience to guarantee success in an increasingly
global context.
4
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4:
PRINCIPAL FEATURES
Content and Language Integrated Learning, CLIL, means learning a subject through a foreign language. This
approach enables students to acquire key academic competences, while at the same time developing their
language skills. To achieve this goal, Physics and Chemistry 4 integrates these features:
LEARNER-CENTRED METHODOLOGY
ES0000000079391 880227_Phy-Chem_4_SB_81866
• Students take an active role: they ask questions,

do research, develop projects, etc.
• Activities develop real-life competences,
critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
• Focus on cooperative learning: pair work,
group work, projects.
• Learning situations link study with
service to the community and social
commitment.
This variety of approaches turns the
classroom into a starting point for
experiences that are enriching and
meaningful for the student.
www.santillana.es www.richmondelt.es
ES0000000079391 880227_Phy-Chem_4_SB_81866.indd 1 10/01/2019 8:25:06
ADAPTED TO LEARNER NEEDS
To achieve this goal, the Student’s Book has sections that reinforce skills such as speaking,
reading comprehension, writing and projects. The Teacher’s Book offers worksheets that
reinforce key concepts and others that extend understanding and develop research skills.
ASSESSMENT OPTIONS
Continuous, formative assessment enables the teacher to detect difficulties that students
may be experiencing and find appropriate solutions. For example, answer keys to all activities
and unit tests serve as a reference for assessing progress. A project rubric facilitates the
assessment of the students' work, such as slide shows, presentations or written reports,
posters or fact files, etc.
FOCUS ON TECHNOLOGY
Selected activities in the Student’s Book and the Teacher’s Book call for the use
of technology: internet searches using key words, slide presentations, etc.
LibroMedia provides additional support for digital teaching.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETENCES
Learners are given many opportunities to develop competences. Activities that are
especially relevant for a specific competence are labelled with the corresponding icon.
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. 5

KEY COMPETENCES
Key competences are a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to
different contexts and situations. These competences have the following characteristics:
• They encourage the development of skills rather than the assimilation of theoretical
content: individuals become ‘competent’ when they learn how to solve problems
effectively.
• Competences develop progressively and can be acquired in different learning situations
and institutions.
• They are interdisciplinary because they integrate knowledge that originates in different
academic disciplines.
Physics and Chemistry 4 provides a well-organised CLIL learning environment that enables
students to develop these competences through English.
Linguistic competence Social and civic competence

This is the ability to interpret and use This competence refers to the ability
language as a tool for oral and written to understand and participate successfully
communication. Verbal communication in the society in which we live. Students
is encouraged through the exchange learn about different societies, their history
of opinions, the narration of personal and culture.
experiences and oral presentations This competence promotes debate,
on different topics. The ability to search negotiation and conflict resolution.
for and understand information is reinforced. There are activities to promote civic
This competence is developed by reading and values education: environmental
simple texts, maps and graphics, awareness, healthy habits, responsible
and writing descriptions or short texts use of ICT, democratic principles,
explaining experiments. tolerance and respect towards others,
multiculturalism, etc.
Digital competence
Competence in Mathematics,
This is the ability to use computers Science and Technology
to obtain, process, exchange and transmit
information. Students learn how to use These competences include the ability
lists, tables, graphics and graphs to classify to use numbers, perform basic operations,
and present scientific information understand symbols and images related
in an accurate way. They develop confidence to mathematical, scientific and technical
and an ability to use Information contexts, and solve problems in order
and Communication Technology (ICT). to interpret the physical world. They
include knowledge and attitudes related
Cultural awareness and expression to mathematical processes, logical thinking
This competence involves the and the use of new technologies. These
interpretation of different cultural competences develop the ability to interact
elements and the appreciation of visual with the physical world and to explain
arts, music and literature. It enables natural phenomena by applying the
students to express themselves through scientific method. This includes performing
literature, art, music, etc. simple experiments, working out solutions,
analysing results and communicating
them accurately.
6 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4.

Learning to learn Initiative and entrepreneurship
This competence is acquired by learning Students are provided with the strategies
how to apply different techniques aimed they need to plan, organise, communicate
at selecting, organising, interpreting and evaluate their own personal or social
and memorising information. Students have projects. This competence develops
the opportunity to summarise what they creativity, innovative thinking and the
have learned and put it into practice at the ability to turn ideas into strategies to solve
end of the unit. They reflect on and evaluate specific problems.
their own learning process and that
of their classmates through group work
and cooperative learning techniques.
These key competences are developed throughout Physics and Chemistry 4. Examples
for two competences may help to clarify how they are integrated into the study of Physics
and Chemistry in a CLIL context:
• Linguistic competence: students use English as a tool for oral and written
communication, exchanging opinions and presenting the results of their research.
• Competence in Mathematics, Science and Technology: students use conversion
factors to convert quantities from the International System of Units; they learn how
to calculate gravitational force, solve dimensional equations, perform dimensional
analysis, and work out the absolute relative error of a measurement, for example.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4:
ORGANISATION
THE STUDENT’S BOOK: A NEW APPROACH
The CLIL teaching sequence proposed in Physics and Chemistry 4 is learner centred and
designed to encourage the acquisition of competences and creative thinking. Most
activities develop content through the use of language skills, such as reading and listening,
thus supporting simultaneous language and content development. Content is developed
through 12 units, each with these sections: 2.3. The third law of motion
• Unit opener: a full-colour image that captures the are
Forces student’s
a result attention and creates
of an interaction between two objects. Newton
interest in the unit topic. analysed this and proposed the third law of motion, known
as the law of action and reaction.
– How do we know? Students are encouraged to express opinions on the unit topic.
– Work with the image. Guided activities helpWhen students to discuss
an object exerts a the
forceimages in pairs.
called action on another object,
To do so, they use a variety of thinking skills:the second object
observing, exerts an
comparing equal
and and opposite
giving opinions.force called
reaction on the first.
– Starting points. Questions to build on prior knowledge.
The force of action and the force of reaction are equal in magnitud
1 and orientation, but they act in different directions. As they are ex HOW DO WE KNOW? How do we predict the weather?
Quantities and units We can check the weather forecast for the coming days on TV, on our phones
FIND OUT ABOUT

on different objects, they do not cancel each other out and they ha or online. We may even be able to guess what the weather is going to be like
just by looking at the sky. However, to make an accurate forecast, we need to
take a series of very precise measurements. We also need powerful computers
that are capable of processing the information that is gathered and predicting
• Scientific research.
• Quantities.
• Measurement and error.
different effects on each other. the behaviour of the clouds, the wind, etc.
• Data analysis.
KNOW HOW TO
• Evaluate sources of information.

A B
• Interpret tables and graphs.
• Use spreadsheets.
W
Images taken by artificial
satellites are used in many ways,
such as to predict rainfall.
The weather forecast is essential
for aeroplane pilots and air
traffic controllers.
Atmospheric pressure is Relative humidity in the air is
measured using a barometer. measured using a hygrometer.
N
Wl Weather forecasts allow us
to predict hurricanes, storms,
snowstorms or heavy rain,
so people in affected areas have
advance warning.
Nl
WORK WITH THE IMAGE STARTING POINTS
• Look at the scale on the rain gauge and describe it. • Do some research to find out what a weather vane is.
Does it look precise? What is the difference between a weather vane and
The Earth exerts a force called weight • Why does the thermometer have two scales?
Which of these is usually used in the weather
forecast?
The floor exerts a normal force N
an anemometer?
• What other measuring instruments do you know?

Are there any in your classroom? Explain what each
on the object. The object exerts on the box and the box exerts a dow
Temperature is measured Rainfall is measured using Wind speed is measured using • Why does the hygrometer scale go from 0 of them measures and the unit that the measurement
using a thermometer. a rain gauge. an anemometer. to 100? is usually expressed in.
an equal and opposite force force Nl on the floor. It is equal in ma

6 7
on the Earth. and in the opposite direction to N.

• Maths, Physics and Chemistry revision: well-organised and visual summary of previously
learned content.
6. SOLVED PROBLEM
– Essential knowledge for understanding the unit contents is presented clearly and concisely.
Calculate the value of the action and reaction force between
– Information is organised in short texts, in tables and in labelled images.
the Earth and an object of 2 kg. Then, do the calculations you nee
to describe
• Unit development: a well-coordinated combination the plus
of text effectimage.
of this force on the object and on the Earth
Data: ME = 6 · 1024 kg.
– Carefully written texts present content in English, using
Calculate the grammar
object's and syntax
weight force:
comparable to level B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). 2
W = m ⋅ g = 2 kg ⋅ 9.8 m/s = 19.6 N
– Abundant visual input supports textual information, and
This is the value of makes
the actionitforce,
easier
and for
also students
of the reaction force.
to understand the concepts. They both act in the same orientation but in the opposite direction.
The result of this force is that the 2 kg object will be in free fall, Chemical bonds 3
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY REVISION
Chemical elements can be found in nature as isolated

atoms, as molecules or as crystals.
with a UARM of a = -9.8
Molecules
1 m/s2. Chemical bonds in substances
Molecules are electrically neutral structures formed
Isolated atoms by a particular group of nonmetal atoms that are
Using the fundamental law of motion, calculate the acceleration of the Ear
always bonded in the same way. The atoms can As we already know, atoms are so tiny that when we look at a sample
Noble gases are the only chemical elements whose be the same (N2, Cℓ2, H2) or different (H2O, CO2). of a substance, we are actually seeing millions and millions of atoms
atoms remain isolated at room temperature, forming
of one or more chemical elements.
A molecular substance is formed by molecules.
gaseous substances. This is because their atoms are • The atoms of a crystalline solid are joined by a bond that maintains
A molecule is the smallest part of a substance that
under the action of this force:

very stable. a crystalline structure.
retains its chemical properties.
• The atoms of a molecular substance must be bonded together
A molecular substance can be solid, liquid or gaseous,
in order for the molecule to exist.
depending on the bonds between the molecules.
The image on • Some molecular substances may be in a liquid or solid state. In the gas phase,
F
the left represents For this to be possible, the molecules must be joined to one another. there are bonds
a mix of gases If the forces that bind these molecules are very weak, between atoms within
the substance will be in a gaseous state.
F = m? a " a =
a molecule, but there
formed by
are no bonds between
helium (He), molecules.
m
neon (Ne) and The forces holding the particles which form chemical species
argon (Ar) atoms. Ice Water Water together are called chemical bonds. There are two types:
vapour
• Chemical bonds between
atoms: forces which hold
Crystals Substitute the values and calculate: the atoms of a crystal

or a molecule together.
• Chemical bonds between
Bond between
H
O
Molecule
H
A crystal is a group of many atoms or ions with molecules or intermolecular atoms
W 19.6 N
an ordered internal structure that extends in all forces: a set of forces that
three spatial directions. hold molecules together. Bond between
aE = = = 3.27 ⋅ 10-24 m/s 2

They determine whether molecules
Crystalline substances are solid at room temperature. Water is a molecular substance. Each molecule H H
a substance is a solid, O
of water is formed by two hydrogen atoms In the liquid phase,
The crystal can be formed by the same or different
ME 6 ⋅ 10 24 kg
a liquid or a gas, and whether there are binding
atoms. There are three types of crystal. Each is formed and one oxygen atom (H2O).
one substance can be dissolved forces between
by a different type of atom. • In ice (a solid), the molecules are joined together, in another. molecules.
forming a rigid structure.
Ionic crystal Covalent crystal Metallic crystal
• In water (a liquid), a small number of molecules join
Metal +
together, which is what allows it to flow.
The Earth would move towards the object with such a low acceleration
Nonmetal Nonmetal Metal
• In water vapour (gas), molecules are isolated
REMEMBER
(anion + cation) Oil
and separated from one another.
Like electric charges repel
each other
that it would not be noticeable. In practice, the2 force

2 the object exerts
Water
F F
ACTIVITIES Water + Sulphur Water + Alcohol Water + Salt
1 Which of the following substances are Oil and sulphur do not dissolve Alcohol and salt dissolve in water
does not have a visible effect on the Earth. 1

in water because there are because intermolecular forces can
always solid or gaseous at room F F
temperature? 1 no intermolecular forces form between their particles
between their particles. and the water particles.
a) Na c) Aℓ e) CO2 g) Si
Unlike electric charges attract
b) Ne d) Ar f ) KCℓ h) Pt In this unit, we will learn about the different types of chemical bonds. each other.
The forces involved in chemical bonds are electrical. F F
Salt Diamond Gold 2 The substances below form crystals. In your
The type of bond in a substance depends on the characteristics 2 1
notebook, write if each substance is an ionic,
When a crystal is formed by different atoms, of its atoms.
covalent or metallic crystal.
the formula indicates the proportion of each type.
a) Cu c) NaF e) SiO2 g) FeS
The overall number of atoms depends on the size 49
of the crystal. b) C d) MgO f ) CaCℓ2 h) Ag
48

Forces 8
2.3. The third law of motion

WORK WITH THE IMAGE
Forces are a result of an interaction between two objects. Newton
analysed this and proposed the third law of motion, known Look at the person pushing the
as the law of action and reaction. car and the car's reaction force.
Both forces are equal in
When an object exerts a force called action on another object, magnitude and in the opposite
Several innovative
the second sections
object exerts an equal andstudents
help opposite force called
to work with the content.direction.
CLIL teachers
reaction
are on the first.
encouraged to select the most appropriate ones for their goals and learners.do both forces
• Therefore,
cancel each other out?
The Work
–force with and
of action the the
image.
force Using the are
of reaction keyequal
language and prompts provided, students, usually
in magnitude • What should F be for the car
in pairs, develop
and orientation, but they content and language
act in different directions.skills orally.
As they For example, they
are exerted formulate
to start moving?
Forces 8 questions,
on different answers
objects, they do or
notstatements, as they
cancel each other discuss
out and visual input.
they have
different effects on each other.
A B C
WORK WITH THE IMAGE
n
W Fl F
Look at the person pushing the
car and the car's reaction force. N
Wl
Both forces are equal in
magnitude and in the opposite
direction. Nl
• Therefore, do both forces

cancel each other out? The Earth exerts a force called weight The floor exerts a normal force N The person applies a force to the car
de on the object. The object exerts on the box and the box exerts a downward and it responds by exerting a force
• What should F be for the car
xerted an equal and opposite force force Nl on the floor. It is equal in magnitude equal in magnitude but in the opposite
to start moving?
ave on the Earth. and in the opposite direction to N. direction.
C
– Remember.
6. SOLVED PROBLEMConsolidation of facts learned previously that are useful in the study
ACTIVITIES
Fl F of the subject.
Calculate the value of the action and reaction force between 8 An object of 2 kg is
theTEarth
– hinkand
about it. Brief,
an object thought-provoking
of 2 kg. nuggets
Then, do the calculations you of content stimulate
need on higher order
an inclined plane at 45°
to describe
thinkingthe effect
skills of hypothesis,
like this force on the object and
analysis and on the Earth.
creativity. to the horizontal.
24
Data: ME = 6 · 10 kg.
– Activities.
Calculate A wide
the object's force: of activities develop several levels of critical thinking,
weightrange
for example,Wremembering, comparing, classifying, analysing, making models, drawing
2
= m ⋅ g = 2 kg ⋅ 9.8 m/s 2 = 19.6 N
kg
The person applies a force to the car or carrying out simple experiments. In addition, activities such as those mentioned
This is the value of the action force, and also of the reaction force.
wnward and it responds by exerting a force below offer valuable opportunities for students to develop competences
They both act in the same orientation but in the opposite direction. 45º
agnitude equal in magnitude but in the opposite
through English.
direction. The result of this force is that the 2 kg object will be in free fall,
■ a
with SUARM
cientific
of aanalysis.
= -9.8 m/s2. ■ Mathematical reasoning. a) Study the pairs
of action‐reaction forces
Using
■ Ethe fundamental law of motion, calculate the■ acceleration of the Earth
thical analysis. Creative thinking. that originate at the object.
ACTIVITIES under the action of this force:
Indicate which agent exerts
– Listening activities. F
8 An object of 2 kg is F = m? a " a = the reaction force
m
ed on an inclined plane at 45° ■ Student's
Substitute the valuesaudio. Physics and Chemistry 4 features a
and calculate: variety of audioinmaterial
each case. for the
h. to the horizontal. students. Each W unit19.6includes
N a selection of tracks that are related to
b) the contents
Calculate that
the value
-24 2
aE = = = 3.27 ⋅ 10 m/s
are being studied.
ME ⋅ 10 24 kg tracks are marked in the relevant section ofof
6Audio each
the interaction.
book with
a CD
The Earth icon.
would They
move are the
towards available tosuch
object with listen toacceleration
a low on LibroMedia and can bec)downloaded
Draw the objectfrom
2
that itthe Santillana website.

would not be noticeable. In practice, the force the object exerts and the forces acting on it.
kg
does not have a visible effect on the Earth. Will it be in equilibrium?

45º
■ Class audio. In addition to the student’s audio tracks, teachers can use additional
class audio resources that are related to the content and activities in the student’s
a) Study the pairs book. All of the student’s audio and class audio transcripts can be found at the end 157
of action‐reaction forces of this book. There is also a carefully selected series of podcasts available, which
rth
that originate at the object. teachers can use to reinforce the contents of this book. These podcasts can be found
Indicate which agent exerts on the E-vocacion website and in the digital version of LibroMedia for teachers.
the reaction force
in each case.
b) Calculate the value
of each interaction.
c) Draw the object
and the forces acting on it.
Will it be in equilibrium?
157

– Activity round-up. A bank of activities at the end of the unit provides an additional
review of unit content, but in a different way.
– Know how to. Scientific competence. This section reinforces key competences,
with special emphasis on mathematical, scientific and technology skills. After a brief
introduction, a variety of activities help to ensure that students have understood what
they have learned.
– Investigate. Cooperative project. Students are provided with step-by-step instructions
for carrying out experiments related to the unit content.
Energy and heat 12

INVESTIGATE COOPERATIVE PROJECT
MEASURING
MEASURINGTHE
THESPECIFIC
SPECIFICHEAT
HEATOF
OFAAMETAL
METAL
In this experiment, we are going to measure the specific heat of copper. We are going to use How is the water equivalent calculated?
a calorimeter, but first we are going to measure its water equivalent.
The energy balance is: Qcold water + Qcalorimeter + Qhot water = 0.
mcold water ? cwater ? (Teq - T1) + mwater eq cal ? cwater ? (Teq - T1) + mhot water ? cwater ? (Teq - T2) = 0
EQUIPMENT Unknown
• Calorimeter. • Hotplate. If we substitute the data and solve it, we get the water equivalent of the calorimeter, mwater eq cal.
• Hollow copper cylinder. • Stand and
• 2 thermometers. wooden tongs. B. MEASURING THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF COPPER
• 2 measuring cylinders (100 and 250 mL). • Scales.
To calculate the specific heat of copper, we will use a hollow copper
• 500 mL beaker. • Water. cylinder in order to heat it evenly.
• 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask.
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the mass of the copper cylinder using the scales.
A. MEASURING THE WATER EQUIVALENT OF THE CALORIMETER Record the mass: mcopper.
2. Set up the calorimeter like in the last experiment and
This determines the amount of water which absorbs the same amount of heat as the calorimeter.
pour 200 mL of water inside it using a measuring cylinder.
Data: cwater = 4180 J/(K ? kg).
Measure its temperature and record it: T1.
3. Use the 500 mL beaker as a water bath. To do this,
PROCEDURE place it on the hotplate and pour some water
1. Set up the calorimeter so that a thermometer (around 300 mL) inside.
and stirring rod can be put through the lid. 4. With the help of a stand, set up the copper cylinder so that
The other holes must be well covered. it is fully submerged in the water, without touching the sides
2. Measure 100 mL of water with the measuring cylinder or the bottom. Turn on the hotplate and heat the water
and pour it into the calorimeter. Measure in the water bath until it boils. Wait for a few minutes until
its temperature and record it: T1. the cylinder reaches the same temperature as the water,
100 °C.
3. Measure 80 mL of water and pour it
into the Erlenmeyer flask. 5. As fast as you can, but taking care not to burn yourself,
put the cylinder in the calorimeter and cover it.
4. Use the 500 mL beaker as a water bath. To do this,
Stir it a little and watch the temperature until it settles.
place it on the hotplate and pour some water
Record the temperature: Teq.
inside it. Put the Erlenmeyer flask inside the beaker,
making sure it stays in place.
How is it calculated?
5. With the help of a stand, set up a thermometer
so that its bulb is submerged in the water in the The energy balance is: Qcold water + Qcalorimeter + Qcopper cylinder = 0. Unknown
Erlenmeyer flask. Make sure that the thermometer mcold water ? cwater ? (Teq - T1) + mwater eq cal ? cwater ? (Teq - T1) + mcopper ? ccopper ? (Teq - 100) = 0
is not touching the bottom or sides of the flask.
6. Turn on the hotplate and heat the water in the If we substitute the data and solve it, we get the specific heat of copper, ccopper.
water bath until it boils. Keep applying heat until
the temperature in the Erlenmeyer flask has stayed
constant for 1 minute. Record this temperature: T2. ACTIVITIES
7. As fast as you can, but taking care not to burn 46 Compare the value for the specific heat of copper 47 Find the specific heats of aluminium and lead in the
yourself, pick up the Erlenmeyer flask with the which you have calculated in this experiment table at the beginning of the unit. If you had done the
tongs. Pour its contents into the calorimeter and with the one that appears at the beginning experiment with cylinders made of these metals instead,
cover it. Stir it a little and watch the temperature of this unit. Identify any errors which may have would the equilibrium temperature be higher or lower
until it settles. Record the temperature: Teq. been made and think about how to reduce them. than the temperature found with the copper cylinder?
240 241
THE TEACHER'S BOOK: SPECIALISED SOLUTIONS FOR MANY NEEDS
• Resources for each unit:

– Introduction and resources such as books, ES0000000081262 891464_Phy-Chem_4_TB_DEF_90451
websites, apps, etc.

–R
einforcement worksheets and extra activities
to revise key vocabulary and content.
–E
xtension worksheets to extend knowledge
through research and projects.
–S
olved problems to practise common calculations.
–E
xperiments to put the unit content into context.
– Assessment that can be adapted for different
groups of students.
• Language focus: examples of language functions
from each unit are summarised on pages 16 and 17.
Awareness of functions and language forms can
help to focus attention on how content
is communicated in English, and guide language ES0000000081262 891464_Phy-Chem_4_TB_DEF_90451.indd 1 25/06/2019 11:16:23
use in class, thus supporting the development

of linguistic competence.
• Audio transcripts.
• Rubrics and templates:
– Vocabulary organiser to make vocabulary acquisition more comprehensive.
– Project rubric to guide evaluation of student production: slide shows, reports, etc.

THE TEACHER'S BOOK:
WELL-ORGANISED UNITS
UNIT INTRODUCTION
• Introduction to unit content accompanied by Objectives, Find out about, Know how to
and Be able to.
• Special attention. Areas that may be challenging for students with suggestions on how
to deal with them.
• Recommended resources in English. Websites, books, apps and documentaries
with content relevant to the unit. Using materials like these enhances the CLIL context.
REINFORCEMENT WORKSHEETS AND EXTRA ACTIVITIES 2

REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
REINFORCEMENT ACTIVITIES
• A series of worksheets that include activities to reinforce Match each of the following sentences to the models Look at the following orbitals and state which type
1 5
they refer to: they are:
1. Thomson’s model. 3. Bohr’s model.
2. Rutherford’s model. 4. The quantum mechanical
model.
content and language and help ensure that students have

a) An atom has the same number of electrons as protons.
b) Atoms have a nucleus and a shell.
c) Electrons orbit around the nucleus.
d) Electrons move around in the shell occupying areas
called orbitals.
a thorough understanding of what they have learned.

e) Electrons only revolve in specific orbits.
f) Most of the atom is made up of a positively charged mass.
2 One of the most famous experiments in the history

of the atom showed that when a sheet of gold foil
was bombarded with (positively charged) alpha
particles, most of the particles passed through
the sheet without being deflected, and only one
• Photocopy and distribute the worksheets. Students can

in 10 000 were scattered after colliding with it.
Explain whether the following conclusions are 6 State which of the following orbitals are the same
true or false: shape and only differ in their size:
a) So few particles were deflected because protons are a) 2s c) 4s e) 3d g) 4f
very small.
b) 3p d) 5f f) 5s h) 2p
b) So few alpha particles were deflected because the
hand them in for marking or self-correct them using

protons are all concentrated in a very small nucleus.
7 State which of the following orbitals are a similar size:
c) Most of the alpha particles were not deflected because
the atoms are not neutral. a) 2s c) 4s e) 3d g) 4f
d) Most of the alpha particles were not deflected because b) 3p d) 5f f) 5s h) 2p
the atoms are virtually empty.
the Student's Book.

8 State which of the following orbitals can’t be found
3 The spectrum of an atom shows all the types of radiation in an atom:
it emits when it is in a high energy state. State which
a) 6s b) 1p c) 2d d) 6f
of the following sentences about spectra is false:
a) Atoms produce spectra because their electrons 9 An atom has electrons in its first two layers. State
are arranged in layers. which of these statements is correct and why:
b) Spectra can be used to identify which chemical
a) All of its electrons are in the second layer.
element atoms belong to.
c) Atomic spectra were discovered by Bohr. b) Its electrons can occupy no more than two orbitals.
d) The spectrum shows the radiation emitted by an c) Its electrons can occupy no more than four orbitals.
electron when it moves from one orbit to another. d) Its electrons can occupy no more than five orbitals.
4 The quantum mechanical model showed that the shell 10 Electrons are found in the orbitals in an atom’s shell.
EXTENSION WORKSHEETS
of an atom was organised in layers and that each layer
Imagine an atom in which the p orbitals of the second
could contain different types of orbitals: s, p, d and f.
layer are completely full. In those orbitals, there
a) State which types of orbital are found in each of the will be:
first five layers of an atom’s shell.
a) Two electrons. c) Four electrons.
b) Complete the table by stating how many of each
b) Three electrons. d) Six electrons.
different type of orbital there can be:
Type s p d f
Number
• Research activities and projects that lead to in-depth exploration 52 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. Photocopiable material © 2019 Santillana Educación, S. L.
of topics covered briefly in the Student's Book.

• Students, usually working in pairs or groups, produce slide shows,
posters, murals, drawings, slides for use with microscopes and models.
• Media rubrics can facilitate feedback and evaluation. See page 21.
• Detailed answers for the worksheets are provided at the end of this section.
1
SOLVED PROBLEMS
SOLVED PROBLEMS
QUANTITIES AND UNITS
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
When we want to take a very small measurement, we first take a measurement of the phenomenon on a larger
scale and then obtain the measurement we are looking for using a mathematical calculation.
For example, to measure the period of a pendulum, instead of measuring the time it takes to make one oscillation,
we can measure the time it takes to make 10 oscillations and divide the result by 10. This way, we reduce the
measurement error.
• Guided activities that take students step-by-step through the

The table below shows the time it takes a pendulum to make a number of oscillations. In each case, determine
the value of the period, indicating the absolute error and the relative error of each measurement:
No. of oscillations 2 5 10 20
Time (s) 3.55 9.05 21.15 40.08
processes that they should follow to solve common problems Approach and solution
We determine the absolute error of each measurement.
Since only one measurement has been taken, the error is the same as the precision of the stopwatch: E a = ! 0.01 s.
We calculate the relative error in each case:
in the physics classroom. No. of oscillations
Time (s)
Ea (s)
2
3.55
0.01
9.05
0.01
5 10
21.16
0.01
20
40.08
0.01
Ea
Er = 2.82 ? 10-3 1.11 ? 10-3 4.73 ? 10-4 2.50 ? 10-4
Vmeasured
• Solved problems are reinforced with practice activities. We calculate the period by dividing the time measured by the number of oscillations.
In each case, we divide the absolute error produced when measuring the oscillations by the number of oscillations.
This gives us the absolute error of the period.
Time (s) 3.55 9.05 21.16 40.08
Period (s) 1.78 1.81 2.12 2.00
Ea (s) 5 ? 10-3 2 ?10-3 1 ? 10-3 5 ? 10-4
Ea
Er = 2.81 ? 10-3 1.11 ? 10-3 4.72 ? 10-4 2.50 ? 10-4
T
EXPERIMENTS
We can observe that as the number of oscillations increases, the absolute error of the measurement of the period
of a pendulum is reduced.
ACTIVITIES
1 We use a ruler graduated in millimetres to measure 2 The hall in my house is 6.85 m long.
the length of a mobile object. It is 11.8 cm. Then, we a) What precision does the tape measure that I use need
use a tape measure graduated in centimetres to to have if I want the error to be less than 0.5 %?
• A series of practical activities to put what students have learned

measure the width of the classroom. It is 4.65 m.
Which of the two measurements is of better quality? b) What will the confidence interval (Vtrue + Ea)
of the measurement be?
Answer: the second
Answer: a) less than 4 cm; b) between 6.81 and 6.89
into a practical context.

42 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. Photocopiable material © 2019 Santillana Educación, S. L.
• These activities are designed to develop scientific competences, encourage good practice
in the science lab and develop observational and analytical skills.
ASSESSMENT
• Assessment reflects teaching, so a two-page model of objective assessment and a rubric

for evaluating student work are provided as starting points for personalised assessment.

LEARNER-CENTRED
CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES
These techniques encourage students to observe, analyse, hypothesise, draw conclusions
and discuss content. These thinking skills promote the development of content and language
that is the essence of CLIL. As a result, students can take an active role in their learning.
We recommend the following method for using these resources.
UNIT OPENER
• Title and unit contents.

– Read the title. Ask students what they think the unit will be about.
– Ask students to read the Find out about and Know how to sections.
Then ask them to rank the topics in order of interest or familiarity.
• Work with the image.
– Help students to describe the images and clarify doubts about any captions.
– Put students in groups or pairs to do the activities.
– Set a time limit. Afterwards, volunteers share their responses or questions.
• How do we know?
– Encourage students to share opinions in pairs or groups before class discussions.
• Starting points.
– These questions revise previous knowledge. Answers can be prepared in groups
and then a competition can be set up between groups.
• Maths, Physics and Chemistry revision.
– Ask students to discuss what they already know about the unit topic.
– Students take it in turns to read through the text paragraph by paragraph. Allow them
to ask questions if they have any doubts.
CONTENT PAGES
• Section title. Encourage students to relate the title to the images on the page, sharing
any prior knowledge.
• Images. Students observe and describe the images. They can even do this in their native
language, as a stress-free introduction to the page.
• The main text.
– Read the text aloud or assign paragraphs to volunteers.
– The words in bold are key terms. They could be used to create a personalised or class
vocabulary list.
– Students first try to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context,
and then use dictionaries as needed.
– To check comprehension, students can provide examples of key concepts.
– Help students to find examples of the key language functions for the unit in the text.
See Language focus, pages 16 and 17.
– After reading a section, students can build up a mind map or outline to summarise
content on the IWB, blackboard or in their notebooks.

• Activities including Work with the image, Learn more, Solved problems and
Think about it.
– Select the activities that meet your goals and the aptitudes and interests of your class.
– Focus activity objectives by drawing students' attention to any competence symbols:
digital competence, linguistic competence, etc.
– Clarify activity procedure by drawing students' attention to any language support:
terms in italics, examples, etc.
– Put students in pairs or groups to enhance understanding and generate more language.
• Listening comprehension activities: Student audio and Class audio. The transcripts
(after page 403 in this Teacher’s Book) indicate which recorded tracks are ideal for student
self-study, and which ones are teacher guided.
Student audio
–
■ se the recordings to elicit the students’ prior knowledge and develop their listening
U
comprehension before they open their books and work with the printed page.
■ Students can use them to reinforce pronunciation.
Class audio
–
■ In some instances, use the recording to present the activity.
■ Use other tracks to check answers or as extra activities.
• KNOW HOW TO.
– Ask students to skim-read the text and say what material, if any, is needed.
– Proceed as with other texts
and activities.
INVESTIGATE COOPERATIVE PROJECT
– Whenever possible, ask students THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
to give examples of how these Sometimes, when measuring the mass of the substances involved in a chemical reaction,
we find that the mass of the products is less than that of the initial reactants. This is because
these reactions produce gases which can’t be measured. They are invisible and diffuse in the air.
activities further scientific However, if we carry out these reactions carefully, we can still show that the mass stays the same.
EQUIPMENT
understanding and how they • Two 100 mL Erlenmeyer flasks.
• 2 M HCℓ solution.
can be useful in real life. • Test tube.

• Watch glass or a small beaker.
• Spatula.
• ACTIVITY ROUND-UP and • Digital scales.

• NaHCO3.
COOPERATIVE PROJECT. These

• Balloon to fit over the Erlenmeyer flask.
PROCEDURE A
sections are at the end of the unit, 1. Using the test tube, measure 25 mL of
2 M HCℓ and put it into the Erlenmeyer flask.
4. Using the spatula, add small amounts of NaHCO3
to the Erlenmeyer flask. Wait until the bubbling
but the activities can be used during

has stopped before adding any more.
2. Weigh the whole Erlenmeyer flask with
the solution inside. Record the result.
the unit as soon as content has been

presented.
– Encourage students to share 3. Weigh 4.2 g of NaHCO3 in the watch glass
5. Once you have added all the NaHCO3 and the bubbling
has stopped, weigh the Erlenmeyer flask with its contents
information and practise the terms or beaker. and record the result.
used in the activity.

– Students can present their work to
other groups or to the whole class. Analysis of the results
Encourage constructive comments.

Draw a table similar to this one in your notebook and write down the results of the experiment.
Mass of the Erlenmeyer flask Mass of the Erlenmeyer flask with 25 mL

Mass of the added NaHCO3
with 25 mL of 2 M HCℓ of 2 M HCℓ + the NaHCO3
• Answer keys. Available at

100
http://www.e-vocacion.es

The speed or average speed of a mobile object over time
is equal to the distance travelled per unit of time.
TECHNIQUES
speed FOR
=
distance travelled
time taken
=
Ds
=
1→ 2
Dt
s −s
t −t
2
2
1
DEVELOPING COMPETENCES
2.1. Average velocity and instantaneous velocity
The following techniques are aimed specifically at developing linguistic and digital
Suppose initiative
competence, that weandareentrepreneurship,
travelling from and Torrelodones
learning to learn. (Madrid)
to Benavente (Zamora) by car. The two towns are 237 km apart.
Our
TERMINOLOGY trip
FOR has taken 2VISUAL
DISCUSSING hours INPUT
and 30 minutes, therefore:
237 km
v averageenable
Photos, graphs, tables and diagrams = students =to94.8 km /h
do many things: understand content
2.5 h
quickly, see key vocabulary in context, develop observational skills, understand a process,
It is obvious
predict an outcome,that
etc.we have not
In general, they maintained
provide supportthe
and same
improvespeed throughout
understanding
ofthe
content presented as text.
whole journey. In the straight sections, we have gone faster.
In
• the curved
Familiarity sections,
with these weenable
terms will havestudents
gone slower.
to refer toThe car's
visuals speedometer
correctly: diagram,
photo, close-up, magnified image, cross-section, line graph, pie chart, table, map,
gives the speed at any given moment.
flow chart, etc. Students can prepare an illustrated class glossary of terms.
Look at the
To discuss graphs
an image, to analyse
students the
identify it difference
first: between both velocities.
This is a graph.
Y Y v Y v
A 1 2 3
A B A B
v
O X O X O X
Next, they describe its function, referring, if necessary, to captions or labels:

This
Thepie average
chart showsvelocity
which sources
(v of energy
) overare time
used to
isgenerate
a vector electricity
whosein Spain.
average
orientation
• Online isthat
dictionaries theinclude
samepronunciation
as the displacement
of terms as anand whose
audio file, anddirection
pronunciation
apps, are helpful classroom tools. Many are available, so students can be given the URL
is the same as the motion.
of those that are most appropriate for their needs.
Instantaneous velocity (v) is the velocity of an object at a given
moment. It is a vector whose orientation is tangential to the trajectory
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT USING TEXT IN THE STUDENT'S BOOK
at that moment, and whose direction is the same as the motion.
• Refer to the Language focus on pages 16 and 17 to see key functions and examples
of language in the unit.
– Ask students to find examples in the text for each function.
When several different language forms are provided for the same function, ask students
–
to rephrase the information:
The atoms are bonded together.
The atoms are joined by a bond.
The atoms are held together.
• Help students to understand that words can express different functions. For example,
through can express direction: The water in the reservoir flows through a channel to the
turbine.
It can also express manner: The energy released through combustion is used to heat the
water.
• Students, individually or as a class, can prepare a vocabulary file of key words from each
unit. The Vocabulary organiser on page 15 can be adapted to suit particular needs.

orientation
direction
Vocabulary organiser
Unit _______________________
English My language Pronunciation Association
THINK ABOUT IT
To represent instantaneous
velocity graphically, we have to
represent one moment in time,
i.e. a very small time interval
which is close to zero.
If A and B are some distance
apart (figure 1), measuring
the distance between them
gives us the average velocity.
If we take points that are
closer and closer together
(figures 2 and 3), we get closer
to measuring the instantaneous
velocity at point A.
Note that the orientation
of the instantaneous velocity
vector is tangential
to the trajectory.
127
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. Photocopiable material © 2019 Santillana Educación, S. L.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4: LANGUAGE FOCUS
Language focus Other language
1 Talking about history Talking about steps Expressing consideration

Ebola was discovered in the last quarter in a process They do not take into account
of the 20th century. Once a research topic has whether the quantity is scalar
Research into aerospace gained momentum been identified, the next step or vector.
in the middle of the 20th century. is to … Defining something
The map of elementary particles was completed Expressing a condition Dimensional analysis is a
early in the 21st century. Scientific theories are technique used to analyse
In 1960, scientists from 36 countries agreed accepted as long as there are equations.
upon an International System of Units (SI). no new discoveries.
2 Talking about scientific discoveries Expressing composition Talking about uses

In 1803, British scientist John Dalton established Matter is made up of various Xenon has many different
the atomic theory. chemical elements. uses.
John Dalton (1766-1844) proposed the atomic theory. Matter is formed by small In recent years, its use has
Thomson observed that they had the same properties. particles. increased dramatically.
Schrödinger's investigations led to the discovery Hypothetical situations Making conclusions
of the orbitals. Imagine that you (throw little We can therefore conclude
Erwin Schrödinger (1887‑1961) concluded that … balls) … that it is neutral.
3 Talking about connections Making a comparison Referring to previous

The atoms of a crystalline solid are joined by a bond. The harder the pencil, the topics
The atoms of a molecular substance must be clearer the writing and the As we already know, atoms
bonded together. more difficult it is to erase. are ...
The molecules must be joined to one another. Expressing a cause We have already learned that
This is because they are some liquids can be mixed.
If the forces that bind these molecules are very
weak … stable atoms. Expressing obligation
A set of forces that hold molecules together. Introducing an experiment The positive ions must be
Look at what happens when separated from the negative
Its atoms are bound by a metallic bond.
Cℓ atoms are combined: ones.
4 Superlatives Talking about advantages Today, it's almost impossible

The main hydrocarbon chain is the longest chain. One advantage of polyethylene, to look around us without
and plastics in general, is that seeing …
Numbering starts at the end nearest the double
bond. they can be recycled. Making exceptions
The most well-known are amines and amides. Qualifiers … with the exception
The plastic used to make of helium, which …
The most common are glucose and fructose.
bottles is relatively inert.
5 Comparatives Making recommendations Expressing a reason

AAA batteries are smaller than AA batteries. It's best to start by working This is the reason that some
Lithium button batteries are much lighter than other out the number of moles. reactions need energy to get
batteries. Expressing requirements started.
This is approximately equal to the mass of a proton. The reactants have to be This is why we apply soap
present in a specific ratio. directly onto the toughest
The volume ratio is the same as the mole ratio.
stains.
6 Talking about how substances move Expressing purpose The oxidation number
It produces gases that must be released into the air. This is what catalytic of the nonmetal can vary.
A mixture of air and fuel enters the engine. converters are for. Intensifiers
The catalytic converter emits less toxic gases. Expressing variations Pollution levels are so high
There are many different that many people wear
The cells of the stomach wall secrete gastric juices.
chemicals. masks.
Waste from industry flows directly into rivers.

Language focus Other language
7 Talking about movement Adverbs of position There are always four

When an object moves, it follows a path. They are sitting side by side. satellites above any particular
point on the planet.
Bodies move at a constant speed along a straight The person on the pavement
line. was next to the bus. Expressing consequences
The same amount of time to go around the bend. They are in front of the traffic Therefore, the displacement
lights. vector only has one
We let a ball roll down an inclined plane.
dimension.
The line graph moves upwards if the velocity Put the ball behind the card.
This means that we have to
is positive.
calculate its orientation and
direction.
8 Expressing the effects of one thing Adverbs of frequency Expressing lack

on another Forces are often applied … of consideration
… does not have a visible effect on the Earth. The movement of an object Regardless of an object's
Dynamic force makes the object speed up. is usually the result of … position, …
In free fall, only weight affects motion. Frictional force always An object with URM is in
opposes motion. equilibrium, even though it is
Weight causes its velocity to decrease.
not at rest.
The effect of weight depends on its direction.
9 Expressing distances Talking about calculations Talking about danger

All of them are way beyond the Earth's atmosphere. Kepler worked out the laws Thousands of fragments
The most distant satellites are (…) thousands of motion of celestial bodies. pose a threat to future space
of kilometres away. Its magnitude can be missions.
… farthest away from the celestial sphere. calculated using Newton's Space debris poses a serious
formula. danger to satellites.
The gravitational pull of nearby galaxies…
By isolating T we find out Expressing purpose
Brighter celestial bodies are closer to Earth.
the orbital period. Small rockets help correct
The Earth is near to the aphelion or the perihelion.
the positions of satellites.
10 Adverbs Expressing contrast The opposite is true if the

The liquid is evenly distributed. However, the force on the pressure is higher than
lower face … normal …
The particles move about completely freely.
On the other hand, if the Using the passive tense
Firmly lower the piston.
pressure is applied from The lift of the aeroplane
All the particles are tightly bonded.
one side … is controlled by the wing.
Slowly pour water through the top end of the tube.
This statement was made …
11 Expressing ability Quantitative adjectives Expressing objectives

The man (…) does not manage to move the box. Most of the energy we use Innovations are aimed at
We cannot take full advantage of the motor work comes from the Sun. reducing the energy needed.
done. Some energy is lost during Adding elements
We are able to use these devices by machines. transformations. … not only the amount
Energy can be transferred. All of the potential energy of work produced, but also
that the body initially had… the time it takes to do it.
It is impossible to isolate one body from another.
12 Comparatives Expressing movement of Introducing graphics

The particles in a substance move faster. energy The graph shows the
We say that the warmer body cools down. Radiation spreads heat efficiency of …
through electromagnetic We can see how they work
The level of oil is higher when the oil is hot.
waves. in the diagram below.
Balls have a bigger bounce in summer than they
Heat is transmitted by These tables show the
do in winter.
conduction. relationship between …
The density of water is higher at 4 °C than at 0 °C.

CLASSROOM LANGUAGE FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
Interactive classrooms require considerable use of procedural language by teachers

and students alike, for example, how to direct attention, ask for help, express and request
opinions. The actual forms that are needed will vary depending on the language level
of the classroom and personal speaking style.
The following examples were inspired by Class Talk, created by the Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya (CLIL Resources) and Teaching English through English by J. Willis (Longman, 1982).
More can be found online using key words such as CLIL classroom language.
• Starting the class or a presentation • Expressing conditions

– Hello, everyone. – If you have done this correctly, your
– Good (morning), class. conclusions are true.
– It's time to start. Are you ready? – If we had switched the light off, we
would have saved energy.
– Please pay attention.
– What will happen if we ...?
• Setting objectives
– Will the results be the same if we
– First, we are going to ... Next, we will ...
change the variables?
– Yesterday we looked at ... Today ...
• Expressing cause/effect, conclusions
– Today we are going to continue ...
– As a result, we can conclude that ...
– We are going to revise ...
– This experiment proves that ...
– Today we start a new topic ...
– Draw your conclusions.
– This presentation is about ...
• Giving additional information
• Clarifying organisation
– For more information, read ...
– There are two parts to this unit / this
presentation: quantities and units. – In addition to this, consider ...
– First, we'll revise ... – Furthermore, we can see that ...
and then we'll look at ... • Making comparisons
– We'll begin by looking at how scientific – Are all the results the same?
research is carried out, then we will
look at quantities and how they are – Which group is different?
measured. – These results are more complete.
– Towards the end of class, we'll – That example is better.
summarise our results.
• Rephrasing
– You can ask questions at the end.
– In other words, the Sun ...
• Signalling a new topic
– Let's say this a different way.
– We've finished part 2; let's go to part 3.
– We can look at the problem this way ...
– Let's look now at a new topic.
• Requesting or providing clarification
– Are you ready to continue with part 2?
– Could you explain that further, please?
• Giving examples
–
I couldn't hear that: could you repeat it?
– Some covalent substances form
crystals, for example, diamond. – Do you mean ... or ...?
– Crystals, such as diamond, have high – I meant X, not Y.
melting points. – I didn't understand/hear your question.
– Diamond is an example of a crystal. – Can you speak louder please?
• Expressing alternatives and options • Thinking
–
Although there are two options, this one ... – This contradicts your hypothesis.
– There are two options, ...
– We can deduce X from Y.
– These results seem conclusive, however, ...
– How do you know that is correct?
– What other alternatives are there?

• Drawing attention to materials • Organising group work
– Please look at the screen/slide/diagram. – Get into groups of three.
– We're going to watch a film about... – Work with a partner.
– Look at the first slide ... – Share with the person next to you.
– Look at the image at the top of the page. • Managing group work
– Let's read the paragraph at the bottom. – You have ... minutes to do Activity 2.
– In the centre of the screen, we can see... – You can use your notes.
• Expressing or requesting opinions – Each group member has a specific role.
– In my opinion, ... – Assign roles: secretary, reporter...
– What do you think about this issue? – Work silently for 10 minutes, then share
– I agree with ... . I disagree with that. your answers.
• Encouraging feedback • Asking about group work
– Do you understand what I'm saying? – How many people do we need in a group?
– Can you follow the presentation? – Do we have to work individually?
– Can you add something to that? – How much time do we have?
– Do you have any questions? – Can we use the computer?
– Am I going too fast? – How long should this be?
– Can you hear/see me well? – Have you finished Activity 3?
– Does anyone have any questions? • Discussing work
– Would you like to make a suggestion? – Let's hear from Group 1 first.
– Who can answer this? – Would anyone like to volunteer?
– Why do you think this is true? – How did you arrive at that conclusion?
– Why is this important? – Did everyone get the same results?
– Can you see the screen? – Can I make a suggestion?
– Can you all read this? – Can we look at Activity 2?
• Linking ideas or concepts – I have a question on the presentation.
– There is a connection between the two • Providing feedback

theories. – Well done. That was very clear.
– This theory links the properties of – That is correct / correct in part.
matter in different states. – You are on the right track.
– Can you see how this relates to your • Citing sources
experiment?
– This theory was developed by
• Postponing response or redirecting Copernicus.
– Can you save that question for later? – The map was made by NASA.
– Let's not talk about that now. – Here are the sources for each photo.
– I can't answer that now. I'll tell you later. – According to John Dalton, ...
– Let's consider other alternatives to that.
– Group 2 answered that question. Can
you repeat your answer, Group 2?

THE INTERNET AS A RESEARCH TOOL
• Before starting. Explain that activities with this

symbol require research on the internet.
• Collecting information.
To locate relevant information, students can
–
use the questions posed in the activity or make
their own: Locate the main chemical industries
which manufacture acids and/or bases in Spain
on a map.
When key words are provided, they should
be typed into the browser using quotation
marks or the + symbol to locate relevant
results: factory + acid + base + Spain.
Students should keep a record of the sources
–
of the information they collect (visual and
printed) and include it in the bibliography
of reports or projects.
• Processing information.
Students will need to express content in their
–
own words, so reference to dictionaries, key
language functions, etc. can be helpful.
It may be helpful to provide examples of how
–
font size, headings, captions, correct spelling
and simple uncluttered layouts facilitate
understanding.
• Communicating information.
Rubrics can be used to clarify presentation goals and evaluation.
–
Set time limits and encourage students to rehearse their presentations before giving them.
–
Presenters should allow time to answer questions from the class after a presentation.
–
RUBRICS TO GUIDE ASSESSMENT
• The Project rubric, on page 21, can be personalised to suit specific classroom needs.
For example, categories to be evaluated can be added or deleted; the requirements
for obtaining points can be edited to correlate more directly to the students' levels
of expertise and learning goals, etc.
• Rubrics can be used more successfully if students participate in elaborating them:
suggesting points, defining behaviours, etc.
• Providing students with the rubric before they carry out tasks will guide their work.
• For self, class or teacher evaluation, distribute photocopies of the rubric.
• Class evaluation of student projects can be done individually or in groups. When done
in groups, students need to explain their criteria and agree on points, which stimulates
self-expression.

Project rubric
Project objective: Find and communicate information on
• Information to be communicated with slides, posters, pre-existing graphics,
original graphics, videos, drawings, other:
Beginner: Novice: Junior expert: Expert: Class/Teacher

Self-evaluation
1 point 2 points 3 points 4 points evaluation
Little essential Some essential Sufficient essential Very complete

information: few information and information. coverage. Sources
Content
facts. basic facts. Some Elaboration well cited.

cited sources. sufficient to aid Stimulating
understanding. presentation.
Cited sources.
Includes Includes Includes at least Includes at least

slides, images, etc. slides, images, etc. slides, at slides, 5
or less. Few or less. Fewer least 3 graphics or more graphics
Requirements
graphics from than 3 graphics, from outside from outside

outside or original slides, etc. sources. Some sources. Has 5
sources. advanced features: or more advanced
Text size and
Inappropriate text transitions, video, features. Well-
images may not
and image size, or etc. sized images and
be appropriate
hard to read. legible, attractive
or it may be hard Good-sized images
text and layout.
to read. and legible text.
More than 5 3–4 grammatical 2–3 grammatical No errors in

grammatical errors, misspelt errors, misspelt grammar, spelling,
Language
errors, misspelt words, words, capitalisation or

words, capitalisation or capitalisation or punctuation.
capitalisation or punctuation punctuation
punctuation errors. errors. errors.
In general, does Works with others, Works well with Works well with
Cooperative work
not work with but finds it difficult others. others. Can

others. Does not to share decisions Participates in perform well in a
share decisions or or take decision-making. group and fulfill
take responsibility. responsibility. Contributes his/ responsibilities.
her share to group Motivates others
work. to work well.
Communicates Some difficulty in Communicates Communicates

with difficulty. voice projection, reasonably well. very well. Good
Oral skills
Speaks too quietly. incomplete work Can be heard. voice projection.

Work is or not prepared. Work is prepared. Good delivery
incomplete or not skills: pauses,
prepared. gestures, etc.
Points: 18–20 = Expert; 15–17 = Junior expert; 10–14= Novice; 6–9 = Beginner Total points
Adapted from: Multimedia Project Rubric. C. McMullen, SAS in School, Cary, N.C.

1
UNIT INTRODUCTION AND RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
1.
In this unit, we introduce the tools and methodology that 3. Then, we go on to study quantities and units, introducing
we will use throughout the year. dimensional analysis.
2. We begin the unit by looking at some aspects of scientific 4. Taking direct and indirect measurements and estimating
research that have not been studied in previous years, error are essential in scientific work. By analysing data
such as how to evaluate sources of information, and think shown in tables and graphs, we can establish a
critically when choosing different sources. mathematical relationship between the variables.
OBJECTIVES
• Understand that we use the scientific method to learn • Differentiate between direct and indirect measurements.
about the world and its phenomena, know why these • Be able to calculate and assess the absolute error
phenomena take place, and use this knowledge to solve and relative error of a measurement.
problems.
• Be able to present data from an experiment in tables
• Evaluate sources of information according to their origin. or graphs in a well‐organised way.
• Form a hypothesis correctly. • Analyse the relationship between the shape of a graph
• Differentiate between a hypothesis, a law and a theory. and the quantities represented.
• Know whether a quantity is a scalar or a vector quantity. • Associate the shape of a graph with simple mathematical
• Perform dimensional analysis on a simple mathematical equations.
equation.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • Scientific research.

• Sources of information.
• Hypotheses, laws and scientific theories.
• Scalar quantities and vector quantities. Derived quantities.
• The International System of Units.
• Dimensional equations.
• Direct measurements and indirect measurements.
• Absolute error and relative error.
• Data tables and graphs.
KNOW HOW TO • Evaluate a source of information.

• Form a hypothesis correctly.
• Check if an expression works by using its dimensional equation.
• Calculate the absolute error and relative error of a measurement.
• Establish mathematical relationships between variables by analysing simple graphs.
• Analyse data from an experiment in order to find relationships between the variables.
• Draw graphs representing data from an experiment.
BE ABLE TO • Think critically when selecting information.

• Learn how to work accurately and carefully in the laboratory.
• Work well individually and as part of a team.
• Recognise the role that science plays in furthering technological innovation.

1
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
We recommend reviewing the scientific method and 4. It is very important to think about the quality of any
the steps involved, as described in the revision pages measurement that we take. Calculating errors will help
at the start of the unit. to determine if the method can be improved, allowing
2. The aim of this unit is to teach students how to design us to draw conclusions with greater certainty.
and carry out a scientific experiment. They don’t 5. The use of graphs to represent data obtained
necessarily have to do the experiment yet. This book in experiments is also an important aspect of science.
covers a wide variety of topics. While it is up to you to Students will study what information they can find out
choose when to carry out the experiments, this unit does from graphs and practise drawing simple graphs using
include an activity that will help students do them correctly. data from a table.
3. Dimensional analysis is a technique used to help establish
relationships between variables. It is an important part of
science education and will be used frequently in later units.
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES IN ENGLISH
INTERNET RESOURCES FILMS
WEBSITES YouTube: The International System of Units. Published

BBC Bitesize – Higher Physics – Units: Revision. by the Centro de Pesquisa em Óptica e Fotônica (University
This website offers a visual review of the systems of Sao Paulo, Brazil), this video explains the importance of
of units and how to convert them. having a unified system of units.
Keywords: unit, changes, physics.
APPS FOR TABLETS AND SMARTPHONES
Metric System Game. A fun game to practise converting
units from the metric system. Students play in teams. Science Journal (Android: free). The Science Journal app
Keywords: metric, system, game. transforms your mobile phone into a portable research tool.
New Scientist. This informative online science publication It uses the phone’s sensors to measure sound, light
features hyper-realistic interpretations of science news. and movement, for example. This app also features a series
Keywords: new scientist. of activities and experiments designed by Exploratorium
to show students the basic principles of the scientific
Scientific Notation – Math is Fun. This website features
method, and the basics of Physics.
fun activities to help students understand and practise
scientific notation.
Keywords: scientific, notation, math, fun.
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. Photocopiable material © 2019 Santillana Educación, S. L. 23

1
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
1 The names of some of the steps of the scientific 5 Say whether each of the following sentences
method are shown below. Put them in the correct order. is a hypothesis, a law or a theory:
law – experimentation – hypothesis – observation a) All gases are made up of particles that move about.
publication of results – data analysis
b) The lower the volume occupied by a gas, the greater
the pressure it exerts.
2 Scientific research publications are an important
source of information. Today, technology gives us c) The product of the pressure a certain gas exerts
instant access to multiple sources of information. and the volume it occupies is constant.
But not all are equally reliable. Using a scale
of 1 to 3 (1 being the highest value), rate the 6 Taking into account the hypothesis, law and theory
reliability of the following sources of information: from the previous activity, design an experiment
that will take you from the hypothesis to the law.
a) National newspaper.
Then, explain which other experiments would have
b) Website of a local Astronomical Society. to be performed to allow you to establish the theory.
c) Nature magazine.
7 The laws of free fall motion establish that the
d) Personal blog.
relationship between the distance covered
e) CSIC website. by a mobile object in free fall and the time
f) TV documentary. it falls for is given by the following equation:
g) Leaflet with information about a branded product. s = 4.9 ? t2
Imagine that you investigate this using the scientific
3 Explain which of the following statements can be method:
accepted as a hypothesis. If a statement cannot
be accepted, explain why and, if possible, rewrite a) State a hypothesis.
it correctly. b) Design the experiment. What data would you collect?
a) When people die, they are reincarnated as animals. c) Specify how you would analyse the data.
b) Does a body weigh the same in air as it does in water?
8 Aristotle believed that the heavier an object, the faster
c) The most abundant chemical element in the Sun
it would fall when dropped from a certain height.
is helium.
Galileo proved that this wasn’t true and in 1971, David
d) Children are happier than adults. Scott, the Apollo 15 astronaut, demonstrated that on
the Moon, a hammer and a feather dropped from the
4 Complete the table by putting the following sentences same height hit the ground at exactly the same time.
in the correct column:
a) Describe the steps of the scientific method for the study
a) It is a confirmed hypothesis. carried out by Aristotle.
b) It allows us to predict previously unknown phenomena. b) Based on Scott’s experiment, rewrite the hypothesis
c) It must be testable. of the study to arrive at the conclusion drawn by Galileo.
d) It is based on observation.
e) It can be expressed using a phrase or a mathematical
formula.
f) It is a proposed explanation of a fact.
g) Using the scientific method, we can prove whether
it is true or not.
h) It is an explanation of a series of facts, demonstrated
by scientific laws.
Hypothesis Law Theory

1
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
REINFORCEMENT ACTIVITIES (answers)
1 The order of the steps is: 6 Experiment. A gas is enclosed in a cylinder with a moveable
1. observation piston connected to a manometer. When we pull the piston
up or push it down, we change the volume of the container
2. hypothesis
the gas is in. We measure the pressure exerted by the gas
3. experimentation
at different volumes.
4. data analysis
We put the data in a table and draw a graph. Using data
5. law analysis, we deduce the law.
6. publication of results To establish the theory, we repeat the experiment with
2 a) National newspaper. (2) different gases and check that the same law applies in all
b) Website of a local Astronomical Society. (3) cases.
c) Nature magazine. (1) We deduce that the particles of all gases move freely: theory.
d) Personal blog. (3) 7 a) H

ypothesis: the distance covered by objects in free fall
e) CSIC website. (1) is directly proportional to the square of the time they take
to fall.
f) TV documentary. (2)
b) We drop a body from different heights and measure the
g) Leaflet with information about a branded product. (3)
time it takes to fall in each case. We write down the
3 a), b) and d) can’t be accepted as hypotheses: heights and times.
a) When people die, they are reincarnated as animals. c) We draw a graph representing s compared to t.
It can't be tested. We observe that the graph is a parabola, which indicates
b) Does a body weigh the same in air as it does in water? that the relationship is quadratic, confirming the
It is written as a question. If we write it as a statement, hypothesis.
it is acceptable as a hypothesis because it can be tested: 8 a) Observation: heavier bodies fall faster than lighter bodies.
'A body weighs the same in air as it does in water.'
Hypothesis: when bodies fall from the same height, the
c) The most abundant chemical element in the Sun is
heavier they are, the less time they take to fall.
helium. It is an acceptable hypothesis. It is expressed
as a statement and it is testable. Experiment: we measure and write down the weight
d) Children are happier than adults. It is not a hypothesis, of different objects and the time taken by each one
unless a method that allows us to objectively measure to fall from a certain height.
happiness is discovered. We analyse the data in the same way as in activity 7.
4 Complete the table by putting the following sentences Law: a mathematical law probably can’t be established
in the correct column. because the shape of the bodies determines their air
buoyancy.
Hypothesis Law Theory
b) Hypothesis: in the absence of air, all bodies in free fall
c), d), f), g) a), e) b), h) take the same amount of time to travel the same
distance.
5 a) Theory.
b) Hypothesis.
c) Law.

1
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 2
1 Identify which of the following are quantities 6 Express the following measurements in International
and which are units: System units:
a) hour f) pascal a) 108 km/h e) 5 mA
b) pressure g) velocity b) 0.7 mg/mL f) 3.3 kWh
c) newton h) density c) 5 N/cm 2
g) 25 L/m2
d) mass i) atmosphere d) 700 mm Hg h) 0.5 kJ/h
e) joule j) force
7 We have an aluminium cylinder with a diameter
2 Classify the following quantities as scalar or vector: of 2 cm and a height of 3 cm. Using scales,
we determine that its mass is 25.4 g.
a) energy f) acceleration
a) Calculate the volume of the cylinder and express
b) concentration g) electrical resistance it in International System units.
c) weight h) volume b) Calculate the density of the aluminium and express
d) work i) power it in International System units.
e) time j) displacement c) An irregular aluminium object has a mass of 15 kg.
Assuming that it is solid, what volume does it occupy?
3 Each of the statements below contains an error.
Find it and correct it. 8 A gas enclosed in a cylinder with a moveable piston
exerts a pressure of 700 hPa when the bottom surface
a) At the top of Mount Everest, the atmospheric pressure
of the piston is 50 cm away from the inner surface
is 30 kPa, acting upwards.
of the cylinder base. Taking into account that the
b) To lift a car, a force of 20 000 N has to be exerted. lid of the cylinder is a circle with a diameter of 20 cm:
c) The temperature of a body varies by 2 ºC every minute. a) Calculate the force exerted by the gas on the bottom
d) A body has a mass of 2 kg, acting vertically and surface of the piston. Express it in International System
downwards. units.
b) Calculate the product of the pressure and volume
4 Identify which of the following are base quantities of the gas. Working with International System units,
and which are derived quantities: show that the result of the product is expressed
a) mass f) acceleration in joules.
b) density g) electric current intensity

9 We know that 1 mole of water weighs 18 g and it
c) weight h) temperature contains 6.022 ? 1023 molecules. Calculate the mass
d) work i) power of one molecule of water and express it in International
System units.
e) time j) displacement
10 My aunt has just told me that she is 40 km away from
5 Identify which of the units below are from the
my house and she is travelling at a speed of 80 km/h.
International System and which are not:
From this data, can we be sure that my aunt will knock
a) kg/m3 f) ampere on my door in half an hour? Explain your answer.
b) hour g) gram
c) km/s h) pascal
d) N ? m i) litre
e) atmosphere j) horsepower

1
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 2
1 Quantities Units km 10 3 m 1h
6 a) 108 ? ? = 30 m/s
b) pressure a) hour h km 3600 s
d) mass c) newton mg 1 kg 10 6 mL kg
b) 0.7 ? 6 ? = 0.7 3
g) velocity e) joule mL 10 mg 1 m3 m
h) density f) pascal N 10 4 cm 2 N
c) 5 ? = 5 ? 10 4 2
j) force i) atmosphere cm 2 m2 m
2 Scalar Vector 101 300 Pa
d) 700 mm Hg ? = 9.33 ? 10 4 Pa
a) energy c) weight 760 mm Hg
b) concentration f) acceleration e) 5 mA = 5 ? 10-3 A
g) electrical resistance h) volume 10 3 W 3600 s
d) work i) power f) 3.3 kWh ? ? = 1.19 ? 10 7 J
1 kW 1h
e) time j) displacement
L dm 3 25 ? 10-3 m 3
g) 25 = 25 = = 25 ? 10-3 m
3 a) P
ressure is a scalar quantity, so we do not need m 2
m 2
m2
to express the direction that it acts in.
kJ 10 3 J 1h J
b) Force is a vector quantity. In this case, we need to specify h) 0.5 ? ? = 0.14
h 1 kJ 3600 s s
the orientation and direction in which the force is exerted.
c) The sentence doesn’t say whether the temperature 7 a) V = Abase ? h = p ? r 2 ? h
increases or decreases. V = 3.14 ? 0.01 2 m 2 ? 0.03 m = 9.42 ? 10-6 m 3
d) Mass is a scalar quantity. Weight, however, is a force m 25.4 ? 10-3 kg kg
whose orientation is vertical and acts in a downward b) d = = = 2696 3
V -6
9.42 ? 10 m 3
m
direction. m 15 kg
c) V = = = 5.56 ? 10 m 3
-3
4 Base quantities Derived quantities d kg
2696 3
a) mass b) density m
e) time c) weight F
8 a) p = " F = p? A = p?p
g) electric current intensity d) work A
h) temperature f) acceleration F = 700 ? 10 2 Pa ? 3.14 ? 0.1 2 m 2 = 2.2 ? 10 3 N
j) displacement i) power b) V = Abase ? h = 3.14 ? 0.1 2 m 2 ? 0.5 m
5 SI units Not SI units V = 1.57 ? 10-2 m 3
a) kg/m 3
b) hour p ? V = 700 ? 10 2 Pa ? 1.57 ? 10-2 m 3
d) N ? m c) km/s N
p ? V = 1.1 ? 10 3 2 ? m 3 = 1.1 ? 10 3 J
f) ampere e) atmosphere m
h) pascal g) gram
18 ? 10-3 kg kg
i) litre 9 = 2.99 ? 10-26
6.022 ? 10 23 molecules molecule
j) horsepower
10 No. She needs to specify the orientation and direction she
is moving in because she could be moving further away.
Also, the data given refers to instantaneous speed, which
might not be the same throughout the whole journey.
Therefore, her arrival time might be different.

1
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 3
1 Which of the following are direct measurements 6 To assess the quality of a measuring instrument,
and which are indirect measurements? we consider properties such as accuracy, reliability
a) Measuring the diameter of a sphere to find its volume. and precision. To assess the quality of three clocks,
we write down the time indicated when the Puerta
b) Finding the volume of a sphere by submerging del Sol clock marks 12 midday three days in a row.
it in a measuring cylinder filled with water. The results of the three clocks are:
c) Finding the volume of an aluminium sphere by
measuring its mass and using data about its density. 1st 2nd 3rd
measure- measure- measure-
d) Measuring the instantaneous speed of a vehicle.
ment ment ment
e) Measuring the average speed of a vehicle.
Clock A 12:00 12:02 11:59
f) Measuring the displacement of a vehicle.
Clock B 12:05 12:05 12:04
g) Measuring the weight of a body with a dynamometer.
h) Measuring the buoyancy of a submerged body Clock C 11:56:39 11:59:03 12:00:05
with a dynamometer.
Indicate which clock is the most accurate, which is the
i) Measuring rainfall in a specific place.
most reliable and which is the most precise.
2 Calculate the following to a suitable number
7 We measured the length of a table. It was 67.5 cm.
of significant figures:
We weren’t careful when writing down the results
a) The surface area of a circle with a diameter of 2.3 cm. of the error calculation and we must now analyse
b) The length of the side of a square with a surface area each of the values we have on the same piece
of 6.25 cm2. of paper. Explain whether it’s possible that:
c) The perimeter and surface area of a football pitch a) The absolute error is -2.5 cm.
that is 5.6 m long and 4.4 m wide. b) The relative error is 1.25.
d) The mass of 5 mL of alcohol if its density is 789 kg/m3. c) The absolute error is 0.25.
d) The relative error is 0.25 cm.
3 Using a ruler graduated in millimetres, we measure
the length of a rubber and obtain the following results: e) The absolute error is 1.25 cm.
f) The relative error is 2.5 %.
1st 2nd 3rd
measurement measurement measurement 8 To simplify calculations, we sometimes round off the
2.9 cm 3.1 cm 2.8 cm value of a measurement obtained in a mathematical
operation. Calculate the error when we round off
a) What is the length of the rubber? the following numbers:
b) Calculate the absolute error of each measurement. a) 2.3 cm " 2 cm b) 58.3 cm " 58 cm
4 Explain whether it’s possible to take a measurement 9 Imagine that you are performing an experiment in
without any error. How can we minimise errors? which you measure the change in temperature of a
body when it comes into contact with another body.
5 Say whether the following statements give us To do this, you use a thermometer with a precision
information about the precision, accuracy or reliability of 1 ºC. The initial temperature was 19 ºC and after
of the measuring instrument: it came into contact with the second body, it increased
to 20 ºC. Answer the following questions:
a) The ability of the instrument to give the true value
of the measurement. a) How much did the temperature increase?
b) The minimum variation of a quantity that the instrument b) What is the absolute error and relative error
can measure. This is the smallest division that can be of this measurement?
read on the scale. c) Is the result of your experiment reliable?
c) The ability of the instrument to give the same result d) What would you have to do to make the result
every time the same quantity is measured. more reliable?

1
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 3
1 a) Indirect. d) Direct. g) Direct. 6 • The most accurate is A, since its measurements are the
b) Direct. e) Indirect. h) Indirect. closest to the true value (given by the Puerta del Sol clock).
c) Indirect. f) Indirect. i) Direct. • The most reliable is B, since all of its values coincide
2 except for one (it has the least dispersion).
a) A = r ? r 2 = 3.14 ? e
o cm 2
2.3
2
2 • The most precise is C, since it can measure to a tenth
2
A = 4.1527 cm . 4.2 cm
2 of a second.
7 a) No. The absolute error doesn’t have a sign.
b) A = l 2 " l = S = 6.25 cm 2 = 2.50 cm
b) No. The relative error can’t be more than 1.
c) P = 2 ? 5.6 m + 2 ? 4.4 m = 20.0 m
c) No. The absolute error must be expressed in units.
A = 5.6 m ? 4.4 m = 24.64 m 2 . 25 m 2
d) No. The relative error doesn’t have units.
m kg 1 m3
d) d = " m = d ? V = 789 ? 5 mL ? 6 e) Yes, it’s possible.
V m 3
10 mL
f) This data indicates the percentage of relative error.
m = 3.945 ? 10-3 kg . 4 ? 10-3 kg This value is possible.
In this case, there is only one significant figure. Since it’s 8 In both cases, the absolute error is 0.3 cm. We calculate
a product, the result has the same number of significant the relative error:
figures as the number with fewer figures.
0.3
a) Er = = 0.13
2.9 + 3.1 + 2.8 2.3
3 a) l = = 2.9333 . 2.9 cm
3 0.3
b) Er = = 0.0051
b) 58.3
l
I - Imeasurement Ea
measurement 9 a) The temperature increased by 1 °C.
1st b) The absolute error is the same as the precision

2.9 cm 0 cm 0.1 cm of the thermometer: E a = !1 °C ;
measurement
Ea 1
2nd Er = = =1
3.1 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm Vmeasured 1
measurement
c) It is very unreliable because the error is as large
3rd as the measurement.
2.8 cm 0.1 cm 0.1 cm
measurement d) To obtain a more reliable result, we would have to work
with a more precise thermometer such as one that can
The ruler used has a precision of 0.1 cm. The precision measure to a tenth of a degree.
of the instrument has to be a minimum of Ea.
4 No. At a minimum, the absolute error of a measurement
is the precision of the instrument used.
To reduce the error, we should use the most precise
instrument possible.
5 a) Accuracy.
b) Precision.
c) Reliability.

1
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 Write the dimensional equations of the following 5 A rain gauge is a device that is used to measure
quantities: rainfall in a certain place. It basically consists
e) Area. of a graduated pipette.
b) Volume. a) Show that when the water level in the pipette rises
to 1 mm, we can say that 1 L/m2 has fallen.
c) Density.
b) In the garden we have round flowerpots with a diameter
d) Velocity or speed. of 30 cm. If rainwater reaches a height of 28 mm
in the rain gauge, how much water will have fallen into
2 Below, four quantities are defined. Taking these each flowerpot?
definitions into account, write the dimensional
equation of each one: 6 Some formulas have a constant whose value
depends on the units it is expressed in. For example,
Quantity Definition
the equation for the gravitational force between two
Acceleration Measures the change in speed bodies with a mass of M and m, separated by a
per unit of time. distance d is:
M?m
Force The force acting on a body F = G?
d2
is equal to the product of
its mass and the acceleration G is the universal gravitational constant. Its value
it produces. in the SI is 6.67 ? 10-11.
Determine the units of G.
Work The physical work carried out
on a body can be calculated
7 When a body is heated, its size increases. This increase
by multiplying the force acting
depends on its initial size, how much its temperature
on it by the displacement
increases and the type of substance it is made of.
caused by it.
The mathematical equation that allows us to calculate
Power Measures work done per the increase in volume of a body is:
unit of time. DV = V0 ? Dt ? c
Pressure Measures force per unit of area. Show that the expansion coefficient, c, is measured
in °C-1.
3 A mathematical equation is said to be coherent 8 There are three types of particle inside an atom:
if the quantities and the expressions on each side
protons, neutrons and electrons. A carbon atom
of the equals sign have the same dimensional
is made up of six protons, six electrons and eight
equation. Check whether the following mathematical
neutrons. Based on the data given about the
equations are coherent:
mass (kg) of each of these particles:
a) power = force # speed
Proton Neutron Electron
force
b) = speed # time
mass 1.673 ? 10-27 1.675 ? 10-27 9.11 ? 10-31
c) work = pressure # volume
a) Calculate the mass of the carbon atom, taking all
work
d) = mass # speed 2 of the particles into account.
time
b) Calculate the mass of the carbon atom, only taking
pressure
e) density # acceleration = the mass of its protons and neutrons into account.
length
c) Calculate the relative error and absolute error
4 If we know the dimensional equation of a quantity, of the second measurement in relation to the first.
we can find out the units it is measured in. Show that d) Explain why it is often said that the mass of an atom
rainfall (litres of water per square metre) is measured is the same as the mass of its protons and neutrons.
in units of length.


1
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
EXTRA ACTIVITIES (answers)
1 a) [ A] = L2 L dm 3 10-3 m 3
5 a) 1 2
=1 2 = = 10-3 m = 1 mm
b) [ V ] = L3 m m m2
m b) A flowerpot = p ? r 2
c) [ d ] = = M ? L-3
[ V] A flowerpot = 3.14 ? 0.15 2 m 2 = 7.07 ? 10-2 m 2
L L
d) [ v ] = = L ? T-1 28 mm = 28
T m2
2 L
Quantity Definition 28 ? 7.07 ? 10-2 m 2 = 1.98 L
m2
[v] L ? T-1 6 We isolate G in the equation:
Acceleration [a] = = = L ? T-2
T T
F ? d2
G=
M?m
Force [ F ] = m ? [ a ] = M ? L ? T -2
We express the units of the different quantities
in International System units.
Work 2
[W ] = [F] ? L = m ? [a] ? L = M ? L ? T -2
N ? m2 N ? m2
[G] = " G = 6.67 ? 10-11
[W ] M ? L2 ? T-2 kg ? kg kg 2
Power [P] = = = M ? L2 ? T-3
T T 7 We isolate the expansion coefficient in the equation.
Its units will be the result of the units of the following
[F] M ? L ? T-2 quantities:
Pressure [p] = = = M ? L-1 ? T-2
[ A] L2 DV
c=
V 0 ? Dt
3 We take the dimensional equation of the different quantities
The units of c are the inverse of the units of ∆t.
obtained in the previous activity.
In the SI, it is measured in °C-1.
a) M ? L2 ? T-3 = M ? L ? T-2 # L ? T-1 " Yes, it’s coherent.
8 a) m C = 6 ? mp + 6 ? me + 8 ? mn
M ? L ? T-2
b) = L ? T-1 # T " No, it’s not coherent. mC = 6 ? 1.673 ? 10-27 kg + 6 ? 9.11 ? 10-31 kg +
M
+ 8 ? 1.675 ? 10-27 kg
c) M ? L2 ? T -2 = M ? L-1 ? T-2 # L3 " Yes, it’s coherent.
m C = 2.3443 ? 10-26 kg
2 -2
M?L ? T
d) = M # ( L ? T-1) 2 b) m C = 6 ? mp + 8 ? mn
T
mC = 6 ? 1.673 ? 10-27 kg + 8 ? 1.675 ? 10-27 kg =
M ? L2 ? T -3 = M ? L2 ? T-2 " No, it’s not coherent.
= 2.3438 ? 10-27 kg
-1 -2
M?L ? T
e) M ? L-3 # L ? T-2 = c) E a = 2.3443 ? 10-26 kg - 2.3438 ? 10-26 kg =
L
= 5.466 ? 10-30 kg
M ? L-2 ? T-2 = M ? L-2 ? T-2 " Yes, it’s coherent.
Ea 5.466 ? 10-30 kg
Er = = = 2.33 ? 10-4
volume of water fallen mC 2.3443 ? 10-26 kg
4 rainfall =
m2 d) Because the relative error produced when doing it this
L3 way is in the order of 0.002 %.
rainfall = 2 = L
L

1
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
The scientific method. Data analysis

Remember that...
• A scientific study involves a series of steps:

Observation of a phenomenon using our senses. This is how we identify the problem. Example: we observe that
–
when we drop a body, it falls, and that the time it takes to fall is related to the distance it travels.
Hypothesis. Following observation, we propose an explanation of the problem. It must be specific and testable.
–
Example: the time that a body takes to fall is directly proportional to the distance travelled.
Experimentation. We design an experiment that allows us to repeat the phenomenon under controlled conditions
–
and measure the variables that have an influence on it. When several variables have an influence on a phenomenon,
a series of experiments are designed to study the relationship between each two variables, keeping everything else
the same. There are two types of variables:
■ Independent variable: the variable whose value is being changed.
■ Dependent variable: the variable whose value is determined by the value of the independent variable.
In the experiment, we measure the value of the independent variable and the dependent variable in order to establish
a relationship between them.
Example:
■ Independent variable: distance from which we drop the object.
■ Dependent variable: time it takes to fall.
Data analysis. We represent the data in tables or graphs to find out the relationship between the variables.
–
• Based on the study, the hypothesis can be true or false. If it is true, we can establish a scientific law; if it is not,
we will have to repeat the study, and form a new hypothesis.
• The shape of the graph that relates the independent and dependent variables allows us to establish a mathematical
relationship between them:
Ascending straight line Descending straight line

• The quantities are Price (€) • The quantities are T (°C)
directly proportional. 3 directly proportional. 30
The increases in both The increases in both
2 20
have the same sign. have the opposite sign.
• y = k ? x + n ; 1 • y = -k ? x + n ; 10
n is the value of y n is the value of y
when x = 0. 0 when x = 0. 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 2 4 6 8 10
Sweets t (min)
Equilateral hyberbola Parabola

p (atm) D (cm)
• The quantities are • The relationship between
inversely proportional. 9 the quantities is quadratic. 110
• y $ x = constant. • y = k ? x 2. 100
6
80
60
3
40
20
0 t (s)
0 0
10 20 30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
V (L)

1
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
1 After observing that when you let go of an object, it falls, you decide to study how this happens. It seems that
the greater the height a body is dropped from, the more time it takes to fall. Following the steps of the scientific
method, make an observation and formulate a hypothesis.
2 Design an experiment to check the hypothesis. Briefly describe the experiment (you can use drawings to help you)
and specify which is the dependent variable and which is the independent variable.
3 We find a video that shows an experiment being performed in laboratory conditions. A metal ball is dropped
from different heights and the time it takes to fall to the ground is measured.
A stopwatch that measures in milliseconds is used and the following data is obtained:
Height (m) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time (s) 0.319 0.452 0.553 0.639 0.714 0.782
Represent the two quantities in a graph. Put the time variable on the X axis.
Remember that each axis can use a different scale.
• What shape is the graph?
• What is the relationship between the variables?

1
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
4 To determine the value of the constant k that associates the h variable (the distance it falls from) with the square
of the time it takes to fall, we have to find the value of the slope.
Look at how this is done in the graph in the example and calculate it for the experiment you are analysing.
Y
Q
YQ
yQ - yP
P y Q - yP
YP m=
xQ - xP xQ - YP
XP XQ X
5 A law can be established from a study that is carried out using the scientific method. Explain whether the following
statement correctly expresses the law that is deduced from the analysis of this experiment:
‘For a body in free fall, the time it takes to fall is directly proportional to the height it falls from’.
6 One of the objectives of the scientific method is to obtain results that can be generalised. In this experiment,
we studied a ball that was dropped from different heights.
Based on this study, could you find out the time it would take the ball to fall if it was dropped from a height
of 20 m above the ground? Explain how you would do this.
7 Imagine that instead of using the metal ball, you carry out the experiment with a different object.
If you drop it from the heights given in the experiment, would you obtain the same values for the time it takes
to fall to the ground? Give reasons for your answer.

1
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
Measurement and error

Remember that...
• In any experiment, we have to take some kind of measurement. They can be:
Direct measurements: we use an instrument to measure the object directly.
–
For example, measuring temperature with a thermometer, measuring length with a ruler, etc.
Indirect measurements: we use an instrument to take one or more direct measurements. Using these results,
–
we make a calculation to obtain the measurement we want.
• Properties of a measuring instrument
– Lower range value and upper range value: the lowest and highest possible values that the instrument can measure.
– Precision or sensitivity: the minimum variation of a quantity that can be measured. This is the smallest division that
can be read on the scale.
– Accuracy: the ability of the instrument to give the true value of the measurement.
– Reliability: the ability of the instrument to give the same result every time the same quantity is measured.
• Obtaining a measurement
– To obtain the value of a quantity, the same measurement is often repeated several times. The true value will be the arithmetic
mean of all of the values obtained. It is important to disregard any values that are very different from the others.
Example: the length of a table was measured and the following values were obtained:
1st measurement 2nd measurement 3rd measurement 4th measurement 5th measurement
65.5 cm 65.3 cm 64.9 cm 66.5 cm 65.1 cm

65.5 + 65.3 + 64.9 + 65.1
length = = 65.2 cm
4
• Measurement error
No measurement is perfect. This can be due to the properties of the instrument or the person taking the measurement.
Finding the error allows us to determine the quality of a measurement.
Absolute error (Ea). It is the highest of the following two values:
–
■ The precision of the instrument.
■ The absolute value of the difference between the measured value and the true value: Ea = Vmeasured - Vtrue .
Absolute error is expressed as a number and a unit.
Relative error (Er). It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of a measurement. Multiplied by 100,
–
we get the percentage of Er. The relative error doesn’t have units and indicates the quality of a measurement.
Ea Ea
Er = % Er = ? 100
Vmeasured ; Vmeasured
Expression of a measurement: the result of a measurement is expressed as: Vmeasured ! Ea (units).
–
• Significant figures
– The number of significant figures in a direct measurement includes all of the digits that we know for certain.
It depends on the precision of the instrument.
– The number of significant figures in an indirect measurement depends on how the direct measurements are calculated.
We often need to round off the result.
■ Adding and subtracting numbers: the result has as many decimal places as the number with the fewest decimals.
Example: 2.17 cm + 3.6 cm = 5.77 cm - 5.8 cm.
■ Product or quotient: the result has the same number of significant figures as the number with the fewest figures.
Example: 2.17 cm ? 3.6 cm = 7.812 cm 2 - 7.8 cm 2.

1
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
1 The following instruments are used to measure the same quantity:
Upper range value: 42 ºC Upper range value: 50 ºC Upper range value: 120 ºC
Lower range value: 35 ºC Lower range value: -40 ºC. Lower range value: 0 ºC
Precision: 0.1 ºC Precision: 2 ºC Precision: 2 ºC
a) Study the instruments and answer the following questions:

a) What quantity do the instruments measure?
b) Which instrument is the most precise?
c) What could each instrument be used for?

b) Read the following sentences and answer the questions:

I. It was a very cold day, with temperatures reaching -8 degrees.
II. He had a fever, four tenths above 38 degrees.
III. The recipe says that the cake should be cooked in an oven at 124 degrees, for 45 minutes.
• Which of the instruments above would you use to take each measurement?
• Complete the following table, specifying the absolute error and the relative error of each measurement.
Then, express each measurement correctly.
Measurement I Measurement II Measurement III
Average value
Absolute error
Relative error
Expression of measurement
• Which of the measurements above is the best? Give reasons for your answer.

1
EXTENSION WITH ANSWERS
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
The scientific method. Data analysis

Remember that...
• A scientific study involves a series of steps:

Observation of a phenomenon using our senses. This is how we identify the problem. Example: we observe that
–
when we drop a body, it falls, and that the time it takes to fall is related to the distance it travels.
Hypothesis. Following observation, we propose an explanation of the problem. It must be specific and testable.
–
Example: the time that a body takes to fall is directly proportional to the distance travelled.
Experimentation. We design an experiment that allows us to repeat the phenomenon under controlled conditions
–
and measure the variables that have an influence on it. When several variables have an influence on a phenomenon,
a series of experiments are designed to study the relationship between each two variables, keeping everything else
the same. There are two types of variables:
■ Independent variable: the variable whose value is being changed.
■ Dependent variable: the variable whose value is determined by the value of the independent variable.
In the experiment, we measure the value of the independent variable and the dependent variable in order to establish
a relationship between them.
Example:
■ Independent variable: distance from which we drop the object.
■ Dependent variable: time it takes to fall.
Data analysis. We represent the data in tables or graphs to find out the relationship between the variables.
–
• Based on the study, the hypothesis can be true or false. If it is true, we can establish a scientific law; if it is not,
we will have to repeat the study, and form a new hypothesis.
• The shape of the graph that relates the independent and dependent variables allows us to establish a mathematical
relationship between them:
Ascending straight line Descending straight line

• The quantities are Price (€) • The quantities are T (°C)
directly proportional. 3 directly proportional. 30
The increases in both The increases in both
2 20
have the same sign. have the opposite sign.
• y = k ? x + n ; 1 • y = -k ? x + n ; 10
n is the value of y n is the value of y
when x = 0 0 when x = 0. 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 2 4 6 8 10
Sweets t (min)
Equilateral hyberbola Parabola

p (atm) D (cm)
• The quantities are • The relationship between
inversely proportional. 9 the quantities is quadratic. 110
• y $ x = constant . • y = k ? x 2. 100
6
80
60
3
40
20
0 t (s)
0 0
10 20 30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
V (L)

1
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
1 After observing that when you let go of an object, it falls, you decide to study how this happens. It seems that the greater
the height a body is dropped from, the more time it takes to fall. Following the steps of the scientific method,
make an observation and formulate a hypothesis.
ANSWER
• Observation: when we drop a body from a certain height, it falls. If we increase the height
that we drop it from, it takes longer to fall to the ground.
• Hypothesis: the increase in the time a body takes to fall is directly proportional to the height
that we drop it from.
2 Design an experiment to check the hypothesis. Briefly describe the experiment (you can use drawings to help you)
and specify which is the dependent variable and which is the independent variable.
ANSWER
Open answer. Students should specify several aspects, such as which object they would drop, how and where from,
how they would measure the height they drop the object from and the time it takes to fall.
3 We find a video that shows an experiment being performed in laboratory conditions. A metal ball
is dropped from different heights and the time it takes to fall to the ground is measured.
A stopwatch that measures in milliseconds is used and the following data is obtained:
Height (m) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time (s) 0.319 0.452 0.553 0.639 0.714 0.782
Represent the two quantities in a graph. Put the time variable on the X axis.
Remember that each axis can use a different scale.
ANSWER
h (m)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0 t (s)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

• What shape is the graph?

The graph is a parabola.
• What is the relationship between the variables?

The relationship between the time and distance is quadratic.

1
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
4 To determine the value of the constant k that associates the h variable (the distance it falls from) with the square
of the time it takes to fall, we have to find the value of the slope.
Look at how this is done in the graph in the example and calculate it for the experiment you are analysing.
Y ANSWER
Q
YQ y Q - yP 2-1
k= = = 4.902
yQ - yP x Q - xP 0.408 - 0.204
P y Q - yP
YP m=
xQ - xP xQ - YP
XP XQ X
5 A law can be established from a study that is carried out using the scientific method. Explain whether the following
statement correctly expresses the law that is deduced from the analysis of this experiment.
‘For a body in free fall, the time it takes to fall is directly proportional to the height it falls from’.
ANSWER
The statement is incorrect. It can be deduced from the experiment that the quantities of the height it falls from
and the square of the time it takes to fall are directly proportional.
However, the relationship between the time it falls for and the height it falls from is not directly proportional, it’s quadratic.
6 One of the objectives of the scientific method is to obtain results that can be generalised. In this experiment,
we studied a ball that was dropped from different heights.
Based on this study, could you find out the time it would take the ball to fall if it was dropped from a height
of 20 m above the ground? Explain how you would do this.
ANSWER
Yes, this is exactly what laws are used for. So once we have the mathematical equation, we can find out more data without
having to do the experiment again. We only have to substitute the data in the equation.
To find out the time it would take for the ball that is dropped from a height of 20 m to fall to the ground, we substitute this
data in [1] and work out the time:
20 m
h = 4.9 ? t2 " 20 m = 4.9 ? t2 " t = = 2.020 s
4.9
7 Imagine that instead of using the metal ball, you carry out the experiment with a different object.
If you drop it from the heights given in the experiment, would you obtain the same values for the time it takes
to fall to the ground? Give reasons for your answer.
ANSWER
Open answer. Students should be able to think of objects with a different mass and shape, for example, a pencil sharpener,
a full pencil case, the same pencil case but empty, a sheet of paper, the same sheet of paper crumpled up, etc.
This way, the results of the experiment will be different for the objects whose shape means they experience more air resistance,
increasing the time it takes for them to fall. However, the results will be the same for objects that have the same shape
but a different mass.

1
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
Measurement and error

Remember that...
• In any experiment, we have to take some kind of measurement. They can be:
Direct measurements: we use an instrument to measure the object directly.
–
For example, measuring temperature with a thermometer, measuring length with a ruler, etc.
Indirect measurements: we use an instrument to take one or more direct measurements.
–
Using these results, we make a calculation to obtain the measurement we want.
• Properties of a measuring instrument
– Lower range value and upper range value: the lowest and highest possible values that the instrument can measure.
– Precision or sensitivity: the minimum variation of a quantity that can be measured. This is the smallest division that
can be read on the scale.
– Accuracy: the ability of the instrument to give the true value of the measurement.
– Reliability: the ability of the instrument to give the same result every time the same quantity is measured.
• Obtaining a measurement
– To obtain the value of a quantity, the same measurement is often repeated several times. The true value will be the arithmetic
mean of all of the values obtained. It is important to disregard any values that are very different from the others.
Example: the length of a table was measured and the following values were obtained:
1st measurement 2nd measurement 3rd measurement 4th measurement 5th measurement
65.5 cm 65.3 cm 64.9 cm 66.5 cm 65.1 cm
65.5 + 65.3 + 64.9 + 65.1

length = = 65.2 cm
4
• Measurement error
No measurement is perfect. This can be due to the properties of the instrument or the person taking the measurement.
Finding the error allows us to determine the quality of a measurement.
– Absolute error (Ea). It is the highest of the following two values:
■ The precision of the instrument.
■ The absolute value of the difference between the measured value and the true value: Ea = Vmeasured - Vtrue .
Absolute error is expressed as a number and a unit.
– Relative error (Er). It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of a measurement. Multiplied by 100,
we get the percentage of Er. The relative error doesn’t have units and indicates the quality of a measurement.
Ea Ea
Er = ; % Er = ? 100
Vmeasured Vmeasured
– Expressing a measurement: the result of a measurement is expressed as: Vmeasured ! Ea (units).
• Significant figures
– The number of significant figures in a direct measurement includes all of the digits that we know for certain.
It depends on the precision of the instrument.
– The number of significant figures in an indirect measurement depends on how the direct measurements are calculated.
We often need to round off the result.
■ Adding and subtracting numbers: the result has as many decimal places as the number with the fewest decimals.
Example: 2.17 cm + 3.6 cm = 5.77 cm - 5.8 cm.
■ Product or quotient: the result has the same number of significant figures as the number with the fewest figures.
Example: 2.17 cm ? 3.6 cm = 7.812 cm 2 - 7.8 cm 2.

1
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
1 The following instruments are used to measure the same quantity:
Upper range value: 42 ºC Upper range value: 50 ºC Upper range value: 120 ºC
Lower range value: 35 ºC Lower range value: -40 ºC. Lower range value: 0 ºC.
Precision: 0.1 ºC Precision: 2 ºC Precision: 2 ºC
ANSWER
a) Study the instruments and answer the following questions:
a) What quantity do the instruments measure? Temperature.
b) Which instrument is the most precise? A.
c) What could each instrument be used for?
A: Measuring the temperature of the human body.
B: Measuring air temperature.
C: Measuring cooking temperatures.
b) Read the following sentences and answer the questions:
I. It was a very cold day, with temperatures reaching -8 degrees.
II. He had a fever, four tenths above 38 degrees.
III. The recipe says that the cake should be cooked in an oven at 124 degrees, for 45 minutes.
• Which of the instruments above would you use to take each measurement?
I – B; II – A; III – C.
• Complete the following table, specifying the absolute error and the relative error of each measurement.
Then, express each measurement correctly.
Measurement I Measurement II Measurement III
Average value -8 ºC 38.4 ºC 124 ºC
Absolute error 2 ºC 0.1 ºC 2 ºC
Relative error 0.25 (25 %) 2.6?10-3 (0.26 %) 0.0161 (1.61 %)
Expression of measurement -8 ! 2 ºC 38.4 ! 0.1 ºC 124 ! 2 ºC
• Which of the measurements above is the best? Give reasons for your answer.
Relative error indicates the quality of a measurement. In this case, measurement I is the best.
Thermometers B and C have the same absolute error (they have the same precision) and yet, measurement III is better.

1
SOLVED PROBLEMS
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
When we want to take a very small measurement, we first take a measurement of the phenomenon on a larger
scale and then obtain the measurement we are looking for using a mathematical calculation.
For example, to measure the period of a pendulum, instead of measuring the time it takes to make one oscillation,
we can measure the time it takes to make 10 oscillations and divide the result by 10. This way, we reduce the
measurement error.
The table below shows the time it takes a pendulum to make a number of oscillations. In each case, determine
the value of the period, indicating the absolute error and the relative error of each measurement:
Time (s) 3.55 9.05 21.15 40.08
Approach and answer

We determine the absolute error of each measurement.
Since only one measurement has been taken, the error is the same as the precision of the stopwatch: Ea = ! 0.01 s.
We calculate the relative error in each case:
Time (s) 3.55 9.05 21.16 40.08
Ea (s) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Ea
Er = 2.82 ? 10-3 1.11 ? 10-3 4.73 ? 10-4 2.50 ? 10-4
Vmeasured
We calculate the period by dividing the time by the number of oscillations.

In each case, we divide the absolute error produced when measuring the oscillations by the number of oscillations.
This gives us the absolute error of the period.
Time (s) 3.55 9.05 21.16 40.08
Period (s) 1.78 1.81 2.12 2.00
Ea (s) 5 ? 10-3 2 ?10-3 1 ? 10-3 5 ? 10-4
Ea
Er = 2.81 ? 10-3 1.11 ? 10-3 4.72 ? 10-4 2.50 ? 10-4
T
We can observe that as the number of oscillations increases, the absolute error of the measurement of the period
of a pendulum is reduced.
ACTIVITIES
1 We use a ruler graduated in millimetres to measure 2 The hall in my house is 6.85 m long.
the length of a mobile object. It is 11.8 cm. Then, we a) What precision does the tape measure that I use need
use a tape measure graduated in centimetres to to have if I want the error to be less than 0.5 %?
measure the width of the classroom. It is 4.65 m.
Which of the two measurements is of better quality? b) What will the confidence interval (Vtrue + Ea)
of the measurement be?
Answer: the second
Answer: a) less than 4 cm; b) between 6.81 and 6.89

1
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
Can we use a spring to measure mass?
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Support with a bar that we can hang a spring from.
In this experiment, we are going to measure
• Vertical ruler that we can measure the length
the deformation of a spring when we hang weights
of the spring with.
of unknown masses from it. This will allow us to
calibrate the spring and use it on later occasions • Auxiliary measuring instruments (set squares).
to measure the value of the unknown masses. • Weight holder.
We are, in effect, building a dynamometer.
• 50, 100 and 200 g weights.
PROCEDURE
1.
Set up the support with
the ruler positioned vertically,
as shown in the photo.
2.
Place the spring so that
the first coil is in line with
the 0 on the ruler.
3.
Place the weight holder
on the lower end of
the spring.
Measure the length
of the spring as it is now,
from the first coil up to
the end loop, it will be l0.
4.
Place the 50 g weight
on the weight holder
and measure the length
of the spring as you did
in step 3, it will be l1.
5.
Repeat step 4, using
different weights or sets
of weights.
6.
Complete the table, making the calculations as indicated.
Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4 Experiment 5 Experiment 6
Weight (g) 50 100 150 200 250 300
Force (N) 50 ? 10-3 ? 9.8 = 0.49
Length of the
I1
spring (cm)
Deformation (cm)
DI1 = I1 - I0

1
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
Analyse the results.

Represent the applied force in relation to deformation. F (N)
The points form an almost straight line. 400
We draw the line of best fit and compare the results

obtained with the equation of a straight line. 300
y = n + m ? x
In our graph:
200
• The Y axis represents
force, F.
100
• The X axis represents
deformation, Dl.
• The straight line passes through the origin (n = 0). 0 Dl (m)
• The slope coincides with the constant 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
of elasticity, m = k.
The equation that relates deformation Y
Note: when calculating Q
with applied force is: yQ
the constant of
F = k ? Dl elasticity, k, pay yQ - yP
To calculate the slope of the line of best fit, attention to the units P
yP
we have to read the coordinates of two of the quantities you xQ - xP
of its points and continue as shown use. Express the result
on page 32. in SI units.
xP xQ X
Measuring the mass of a body

We can use the calibrated spring to measure the mass of any body.
1.
Place the body whose mass you want to measure on the weight holder.
2.
Measure the length of the spring and its deformation as you did in the procedure above.
3.
Calculate the force that caused this deformation by one of the following procedures:
Graph procedure Analytical procedure
Locate the value of deformation on the X axis and look Since we know the value of the constant of elasticity,
for the corresponding value on the Y axis. we calculate the force corresponding to the deformation
For example, if Dl = 0.08 m, then the corresponding force using the equation:
is 200 N. F = k ? Dl
In both cases, the force is the weight of the body that we hang from the spring, which we can use to
calculate its mass.
F
F = W= m? g " m =
g
QUESTIONS
1 Calculate the mass of a body if, when we hang it from the calibrated dynamometer from the experiment,
it stretches to 0.08 m.
2 How much will our dynamometer stretch by if we hang a body with a mass of 180 g from it?

1
ASSESSMENT
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 Each of the following sentences contains an error. Find it and correct it.
a) Most scientists work in secret and only exchange information about their work
when they have finished.
b) Before starting a research project, we must read everything we can about the topic.
Any source of information is relevant.
c) We state a scientific law and design the experiment to prove whether it is true.
d) A scientific law can be true or false.
e) A scientific theory is the result of a scientific study. This is why it is always true.
2 Classify the following quantities as scalar (S) or vector (V):
S V
Displacement
Density
Velocity
Pressure
Weight
Current intensity
Mass
Heat
Force
Temperature
3 Demonstrate if it is possible or impossible to perform these calculations with the quantities specified:
mass
a) ? speed + pressure ? area =
time
b) mass # speed 2 - force # time =
4 We drop a rubber from a height of 1.5 m and measure the time it takes to fall to the ground.
To avoid error, we repeat the measurement 5 times, obtaining the following results:
Measurement 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Time (s) 0.653 0.705 0.431 0.685 0.695
a) How long does the rubber take to fall from this height? Explain how you make the calculation.
b) What is the precision of the stopwatch?
c) Calculate the absolute error, the relative error and the percentage error of the fourth measurement.

Name: Class: Date:
5 To commemorate Earth Day in 2016, the German Central Bank issued

a commemorative coin like the one shown in the image. What made it special
was a blue ring made of a plastic material, which is very difficult to forge.
The technical specifications are:
• Outer diameter: 27.25 mm • Thickness: 2.20 mm
• Diamater of the blue ring: 18.73 mm • Mass: 9.00 g
Calculate with the correct number of significant figures:
a) The surface area of the coin.
b) The length of the blue ring.
c) The volume of the coin.
d) Its density.
6 The following table shows how much it costs us to paint a square board depending on the length of its sides.
Represent the data in a graph and answer the questions below:
Side of the square (cm) 10 20 40 60 80 100
Cost (€) 2.5 4 10 20 34 52
a) What type of graph relates the side of a square and the cost to paint it?
b) Write the mathematical relationship between the variables.
c) Does the graph pass through the origin (0,0)? What does this mean? Give a possible reason for this.

1
ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT (answers)
1 a) Most scientists work in a team or coordinate with other scientists, exchanging information about their work.
b) Before starting a research project, we must read everything we can about the topic. We must only use reliable
sources like scientific magazines or the websites of relevant scientific organisations.
c) We state a scientific law and design the experiment to prove whether it is true.
d) A scientific law is always true. The hypothesis or theory can be false.
e) A scientific theory is only true if no facts are discovered that can prove it false.
A theory is permanently under question.
2 S V S V
Displacement ✗ Current intensity ✗
Density ✗ Mass ✗
Velocity ✗ Heat ✗
Pressure ✗ Force ✗
Weight ✗ Temperature ✗
3 We have to find the dimensional equation of each term to check whether they are homogeneous:
a) M $ T-1 # L ? T-1 + M ? L-1 ? T-2 ? L2 = M ? L ? T-2 + M ? L ? T-2
The equation is coherent. The two terms can be added together.
b) M # ( L # T-1) 2 - M ? L ? T-2 # T = M ? L2 ? T-2 - M ? L ? T-1
The equation is not coherent. The two terms can’t be added together.
4 a) We calculate the average. We disregard the third measurement because it it very different from the others:
0.653 + 0.705 + 0.685 + 0.695
time = = 0.6845 = 0.685 s
4
b) The precision of the stopwatch is 0.001 s.
c) The fourth measurement is the same as the average. Therefore, the absolute error of this measurement is the precision
of the stopwatch.
Ea 0.001 s
E a = ! 0.001 s ; Er = = = 1.5 ? 10-3 ; % Er = 1.5 ? 10-3 ? 100 = 0.15
Vaverage 0.685 s
5 We look at the number of significant figures in the data given:

2
a) A = r ? r 2 = r ? e o = 583.2072 mm 2 = 583.2 mm 2
27.25
2
(The result can only have four significant figures, like the diameter).
b) L = 2 r ? r 2 = 2 r ? e o = 58.84203 mm = 58.84 mm
18.73
2
(The result can only have four significant figures, like the diameter of the ring).
c) V = A ? h = 583.2072 ? 2.20 = 1283.056 mm 3 = 1280 mm 3
(The result can only have four significant figures, like the measurement of thickness).
m 9.00 g g g
d) d = = = 7.03125 ? 10-3 = 7.03 ? 10-3
V 1280 mm 3 mm 3 mm 3
(The result can only have four significant figures, like the mass and volume).

1
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
LEARNING STANDARDS AND ANSWERS
6 side (cm)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 cost (€)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
a) The graph is a parabola.

b) y = n + k ? x 2
c) The graph doesn’t pass through the origin (0,0). This means that the paint costs money even if the side of the square
measures zero.
Open answer. This could be the cost of the materials used to paint (the paintbrush). If we follow the graph up to the value
of x = 0, we see that this cost is 2 € (value of n).

NOTES

2
INTRODUCTION
1. In order to understand the structure of matter, we must 2. It is important that students can use the periodic table
describe the particles that make up the atom and how of the elements with confidence, as this is one of the
they are arranged within it. keys to understanding Chemistry.
OBJECTIVES
• Recognise how atomic number and atomic mass • Associate the properties of elements with their
are related to the particles that make up the atom. electron configuration.
• Revise the different atomic models proposed • Understand how elements are classified within
throughout history. the periodic table.
• Understand the electron configuration of atoms. • Understand the periodic properties of the elements.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • The composition of the atom.

• Atomic number, atomic mass and isotopes.
• The particles that make up the atom: electrons, protons and neutrons.
• Rutherford’s atomic model.
• Bohr’s atomic model.
• The current atomic model. Atomic orbitals.
• The arrangement of electrons in the atom.
• The periodic table of the elements. The periodic properties of the elements.
KNOW HOW TO • Draw a timeline showing the different atomic models.

• Write the electron configuration of elements and explain how this is related
to their properties and their position in the periodic table.
• Use the periodic table.
• Demonstrate some of the properties of metals through laboratory experiments.
BE ABLE TO • Recognise the important role played by Chemistry in the discovery of new compounds
that have improved our quality of life.
• Appreciate that humans need certain elements and compounds to survive.

2
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
For students to be able to understand the structure and properties, and predicted the existence of elements
of atoms, we must describe the particles that form that had not yet been discovered, without using the
them and how they are arranged. They are represented current classification criteria.
using atomic models, which differentiate between 3. It is also important to remind students that organic matter
the particles of the nucleus and the electrons. Electron is also formed by atoms. In fact, the human body needs
configuration helps students to understand the 14 metallic elements to function properly. In order
arrangement of electrons in levels and to understand of abundance within the human body, they are:
the octet rule, which explains how atoms combine with Ca (a component of the skeleton); Na and K (responsible
one another. for transmitting nerve impulses to and from the brain);
2. The current periodic table is one of the keys to Fe (allows red blood cells to bind to the oxygen from the
understanding chemistry. It is very important that students air we breathe so that it can be distributed throughout the
are familiar with it and are able to use it with confidence. body); Mg (regulates the movement of membranes and is
Furthermore, it is useful to emphasise the importance of used to build proteins); Zn, Cu, Sn, V, Cr, Mn, Mo, Co and Ni
Mendeleev’s work in classifying the elements. He brought (these elements form part of the enzymes that regulate
order to the seemingly chaotic range of substances growth, development, fertility, use of oxygen, etc.).
WEBSITES Chemistry & Physics: History of the Atom (Dalton,

Atomic Model Through Time. This website features Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr models). This video
an interactive timeline that helps students to revise explains the history of the different atomic models and
and visualise the history of atomic models up to the present. how they developed over time.
Keywords: atomic, models, through time. Ted-Ed Periodic Videos – A Lesson About Every Single
Build an Atom – PhET Interactive Simulations. Element in the Periodic Table. This site features videos
This fun game helps students understand the relationship on each element of the periodic table, created by Periodic
between the number of protons, electrons and neutrons. Videos using the TED-Ed platform.
Keywords: atomic, models, game.
Isotopes and Atomic Mass – PhET Interactive
Simulations. This simulator helps students revise Oresome Elements (iOs: free). This fun interactive game
the concepts of atomic mass and isotopes. helps students learn about the periodic table, the elements
Keywords: atomic, isotopes, game. and their properties.
Learn Chemistry. Enhancing Learning and Teaching.
This Royal Society of Chemistry website looks at trends
in the periodic table and patterns in the properties
of the elements according to their position in the table.
Keywords: periodic, properties, game

2
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
1 Match each of the following sentences to the models 5 Look at the following orbitals and state which type
they refer to: they are:
1. Thomson’s model. 3. Bohr’s model.
2. Rutherford’s model. 4. The quantum mechanical
model.
a) An atom has the same number of electrons as protons.
b) Atoms have a nucleus and a shell.
c) Electrons orbit around the nucleus.
d) Electrons move around in the shell, occupying areas
called orbitals.
e) Electrons only revolve in specific orbits.
f) Most of the atom is made up of a positively charged mass.
2 One of the most famous experiments in the history

of the atom showed that when a sheet of gold foil
was bombarded with (positively charged) alpha
particles, most of the particles passed through
the sheet without being deflected, and only one
in 10 000 was scattered after colliding with it.
Explain whether the following conclusions are 6 State which of the following orbitals are the same
true or false: shape and only differ in size:
a) So few particles were deflected because protons a) 2s c) 4s e) 3d g) 4f
are very small.
b) 3p d) 5f f) 5s h) 2p
b) So few alpha particles were deflected because the
protons are all concentrated in a very small nucleus.
7 State which of the following orbitals are a similar size:
c) Most of the alpha particles were not deflected
because the atoms are not neutral. a) 2s c) 4s e) 3d g) 4f
d) Most of the alpha particles were not deflected b) 3p d) 5f f) 5s h) 2p
because the atoms are virtually empty.
8 State which of the following orbitals can’t be found
3 The spectrum of an atom shows all the types of radiation in an atom:
it emits when it is in a high energy state. Indicate
a) 6s b) 1p c) 2d d) 6f
which of the following sentences about spectra is false:
a) Atoms produce spectra because their electrons 9 An atom has electrons in its first two layers. State
are arranged in layers. which of these statements is correct and why:
b) Spectra can be used to identify which chemical
a) All of its electrons are in the second layer.
element atoms belong to.
c) Atomic spectra were discovered by Bohr. b) Its electrons can occupy no more than two orbitals.
d) The spectrum shows the radiation emitted by an c) Its electrons can occupy no more than four orbitals.
electron when it moves from one orbit to another. d) Its electrons can occupy no more than five orbitals.
4 The quantum mechanical model showed that the shell 10 Electrons are found in the orbitals in an atom’s shell.
of an atom was organised in layers and that each layer
Imagine an atom in which the p orbitals of the second
could contain different types of orbitals: s, p, d and f.
layer are completely full. In those orbitals, there
a) Indicate which types of orbital are found in each will be:
of the first five layers of an atom’s shell.
a) Two electrons. c) Four electrons.
b) Complete the table by stating how many of each
b) Three electrons. d) Six electrons.
different type of orbital there can be:
Type s p d f
Number

2
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
1 1. Thomson’s model: a, f 5

2. Rutherford’s model: a, b, c
3. Bohr’s model: a, b, c, e
4. The quantum mechanical model: a, b, d
2 a) So few particles were deflected because protons
are very small. False.
b) So few alpha particles were deflected because the d s p
protons are all concentrated in a very small nucleus. True.
c) Most of the alpha particles were not deflected because
the atoms are not neutral. False. Atoms are neutral, but
this doesn’t explain why the alpha particles were not
deflected.
d) Most of the alpha particles were not deflected because
the atoms are virtually empty. True. The atom is made up
of a very small nucleus where all of the protons, which p f d
are positive particles, are concentrated. The radius of the
nucleus is one ten thousandth of the radius of the atom, 6 Orbitals of the same type are the same shape. They will
which is why this is the proportion of alpha particles that be bigger if they are in a layer with a higher energy level.
are scattered when they collide with the gold sheet. • 2s, 4s and 5s.
3 a) Atoms produce spectra because their electrons • 2p and 3p.
are arranged in layers. True. • 4f and 5f.
b) Spectra can be used to identify which chemical element 7 Orbitals in the same layer or energy level will be a similar
atoms belong to. True.
size.
c) Atomic spectra were discovered by Bohr. False.
• 2s and 2p.
d) The spectrum shows the radiation emitted by an electron
• 3p and 3d.
when it moves from one orbit to another. True.
• 4s and 4f.
Atomic spectra had already been discovered before Bohr
• 5s and 5f.
carried out his experiments on the atom. Bohr’s experiments
allowed us to understand why the spectra looked the way 8 Orbitals 1p and 2d can’t be found (see activity 4).
they did. 9 In the first layer (1s) there will be one s orbital, and in the
4 a) • First layer: s orbitals. second layer (2s2p) there will be one s orbital and three
• Second layer: s, p orbitals. p orbitals.
• Third layer: s, p, d orbitals. Therefore, the correct answer is:
• Fourth layer: s, p, d, f orbitals. d) Its electrons can occupy no more than five orbitals.
• Fifth layer: s, p, d, f orbitals. 10 There are three p orbitals and each one can hold two
b) electrons. If the atom’s 2p orbitals are full, then it must
Type s p d f have six electrons in these orbitals and the correct
answer must be:
Number 1 3 5 7
d) Six electrons.

2
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 2
1 Draw the Moeller diagram and place the following 6 The table below shows the valence configuration
types of orbital in order of increasing energy: of a number of elements. Complete it by writing
a) 2s c) 4s e) 3dxy g) 4fxyz which group and period each of them belongs to:
b) 3px d) 5fxyz f) 5s h) 3pz Valence configuration Group Period

2 5
2s 2p
2 A C atom contains six electrons. State which 5s2 5p3
of the following electron configurations are correct:
1s1
a) 1s2 2s2 2p2 c) 1s2 2s1 2p1 2p1 2p1
3s2 3p4
b) 1s 2s 2p 2p
2 2 1 1
d) 1s 2s 2p 2p 2p
1 1 1 1 2
4s2 4p6
7s2
3 The sodium atom contains 11 electrons. Write its
electron configuration and explain which of the 6s2 6p1
following descriptions is correct:
a) The sodium atom has two electrons in its first layer, 7 The elements in groups 3 and 12 are called the
eight electrons in its second layer and one electron transition elements. Their valence configuration
in its third layer. is ns2 (n‑1)dx (from d1 to d10). Answer the following
b) The sodium atom has two electrons in its first layer, questions about these elements:
four electrons in its second layer and five electrons a) The valence configuration of the first transition
in its third layer. element is 4s2 3d1. Why are there no transition
c) The sodium atom has one electron in its first layer, elements before this?
four electrons in its second layer and six electrons b) Which group does the element whose valence
in its third layer. configuration is 4s2 3d1 belong to?
d) The sodium atom has two electrons in its first layer, c) Which group does the element whose valence
two electrons in its second layer, six electrons configuration is 4s2 3d10 belong to?
in its third layer and one electron in its fourth layer. d) Why are there 10 transition elements in each period?
4 The configuration of an atom’s outer layer is known 8 Complete the table by writing the valence
as its valence configuration. Elements with the same configuration of each element based on the
valence configuration are found in the same group in group and period it belongs to:
the periodic table. Match the valence configuration of
the following elements with the group they belong to: Group Period Valence configuration
2 6
Valence configuration Group
5 4
ns1 14 3 5
2
ns np 1
2 15 2
ns2 np6 17 18 1
14 3
ns2 np3 18
10 4
ns2 16
ns2 np4 13 9 Explain why chemical elements belonging

to the following groups and periods can’t exist:
ns2 np5 15
ns2 np2 1 a) b) c) d) e)
Group 8 15 6 2 10
Period 2 1 3 1 2
5 Explain why the element helium (1s2) is in group 18,
where the valence configuration is ns2 np6.

2
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 2
1 This is the Moeller diagram: 6 Valence configuration Group Period

2 5
2s 2p 17 2
1s 5s2 5p3 15 5
2s 2p 1s1
1 1
2 4
3s 3p 3d 3s 3p 16 3
2 6
4s 4p 18 4
4s 4p 4d 4f
2
7s 2 7
5s 5p 5d 5f 2 1
6s 6p 13 6
6s 6p 6d 6f
7 a) The transition elements have partially filled d orbitals.
7s 7p 7d 7f These orbitals are found at the third energy level.
However, as shown in the Moeller diagram, they only
begin to fill up with electrons after the 4s orbitals.
The orbitals, in order of increasing energy, are: Therefore, no transition elements are found until
2s < 3px = 3pz < 4s < 3dxy < 5s < 4fxyz < 5fxyz period 4 of the periodic table.
2 a) 1s2 2s2 2p2. Correct. b) It belongs to group 3.
b) 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1. Correct. The electrons will fill the orbitals c) It belongs to group 12.
with the lowest energy available, with two electrons in d) There are five d orbitals at each energy level and each
each orbital. When there are two orbitals with the same one can contain up to two electrons. Therefore, in one
energy, such as two 2p orbitals, each orbital will contain period there can be a maximum of ten transition
one electron so that there are as many electrons with the elements, from the one containing one electron
same spin as possible. in its d orbitals to the one containing ten electrons
c) 1s2 2s1 2p1 2p1 2p1. Incorrect. in its five full d orbitals.
d) 1s1 2s1 2p1 2p1 2p2. Incorrect. 8 Group Period Valence configuration
3 The electron configuration of sodium is: 2 6 6s 2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

5 4 4s2 3d3
Therefore, the correct answer is:
3 5 5s2 4d1
a) The sodium atom has two electrons in its first layer,
eight electrons in its second layer and one electron 15 2 2s2 2p3
in its third layer. 18 1 1s2
4 Valence configuration Group 14 3 3s2 3p2
ns1 1 10 4 4s2 3d8
ns2 np1 13 9 a) Group 8 contains transition elements, which begin

at period 4.
ns2 np6 18
b) There are only two elements in period 1, one in
ns2 np3 15 group 1 (H) and another in group 18 (He).
c) Group 6 contains transition elements, which begin
ns2 2 at period 4.
ns2 np4 16 d) There are only two elements in period 1, one in
group 1 (H) and another in group 18 (He).
ns2 np5 17
e) Group 10 contains transition elements, which begin
ns np
2 2
14 at period 4.
5 The elements in group 18 are called the noble gases.

They are very stable because they have a full valence shell.
Helium only has two electrons, which are found in the
1s orbital. This completes its valence shell, meaning it
behaves like a noble gas, with a configuration of 1s2.

2
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 3
1 Find the following elements in the periodic table. 6 The atoms of the noble gases are the most stable.
Fill in the table with the information about their Therefore, other atoms tend to gain or lose electrons
group, period and valence configuration. in order to obtain the same valence configuration
as a noble gas. They can do this by forming an ion,
Valence where they acquire a negative or positive charge equal
Element Group Period
configuration to the number of electrons that each atom gains
Rb or loses. Find the following elements in the periodic
table and fill in the information about each one.
Cℓ
Sn Valence Charge
Element Group
electrons of ion
Fe
I Li
Na S
Ca Aℓ
P
P
2 Based on the information from the previous activity, N

state which element’s atoms will be bigger from Mg
each pair below:
Se
a) Rb and Na b) Rb and Sn c) Cℓ and P d) Fe and Ca
Cℓ
3 State which option shows the following elements
in the correct order from largest to smallest:
7 Hydrogen is an unusual element because it can form
Rb, Cℓ, P, Na, Ca ions with a charge of 1+ and 1-. Below are some
a) Cℓ > Na > Ca > P > Rb c) Ca > Na > Rb > P > Cℓ possible explanations for this fact. State which
of them is false and why:
b) Rb > Ca > Na > P > Cℓ d) P > Na > Ca > Cℓ > Rb
a) Hydrogen only has one electron in its valence shell.
4 State which option shows the following elements b) Hydrogen needs one electron to obtain the same
in the correct order from largest to smallest: electron configuration as helium.
O, Ag, Sn, Br, Ba c) The hydrogen ion with a charge of 1- has a noble gas
a) Ag > Br > O > Sn > Ba c) Sn > Ag > Ba > Br > O configuration.
b) Br > Ba > Sn > Ag > O d) Ba > Ag > Sn > Br > O d) The hydrogen ion with a charge of 1+ has a noble gas
configuration.
5 Find the following elements in the periodic table.
Fill in the table with the information about their group 8 The metallic character of an element refers to
and period, and classify them as metals or nonmetals: its capacity to form positive ions. Explain which
of the following statements is false:
Element Group Period Metal Nonmetal
a) Caesium has a more metallic character than lithium
Br because it can lose an electron more easily.
Cu b) Sodium has a more metallic character than aluminium
Ni because it only needs to lose one electron to obtain
a noble gas configuration.
Aℓ
c) Calcium has the same metallic character as barium
K because they have the same valence configuration.
Mg
9 Place the following elements in order from the most
N
to the least metallic:
S
Mg, Aℓ, Ba, K

2
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 3
1 Valence 6 Charge
Element Group Period Element Group Valence electrons
configuration of ion
Rb 1 5 5s1 Li 1 1 1+
Cℓ 17 3 3s 3p2 5
S 16 6 2-
Sn 14 5 5s 5p2 2
Aℓ 13 3 3+
Fe 8 4 4s 3d2 6
P 15 5 3-
I 17 5 5s2 5p5 N 15 5 3-
Na 1 3 3s1
Mg 2 2 2+
Ca 2 4 4s2
Se 16 6 2-
P 15 3 3s2 3p3
Cℓ 17 7 1-
2 a) Rb > Na
b) Rb > Sn 7 a) Hydrogen only has one electron in its valence shell. True.
c) Cℓ < P b) Hydrogen needs to gain one electron to obtain the same
d) Fe < Ca electron configuration as helium. True.
c) The hydrogen ion with a charge of 1- has a noble gas
3 The correct order is:
configuration. True.
b) Rb > Ca > Na > P > Cℓ
d) The hydrogen ion with a charge of 1+ has a noble gas
4 The correct order is: configuration. False. The H1+ ion does not contain any
d) Ba > Ag > Sn > Br > O electrons and there are no noble gases whose atoms
don’t contain any electrons.
5 Element Group Period Metal Nonmetal
8 a) Caesium has a more metallic character than lithium
Br 17 4 ✗
because it can lose an electron more easily. True.
Cu 11 4 ✗ Caesium’s electrons are further from the nucleus than
lithium’s, so they can be lost more easily.
Ni 10 4 ✗
b) Sodium has a more metallic character than aluminium
Aℓ 13 3 ✗ because it only needs to lose one electron to obtain
K 1 4 ✗ a noble gas configuration. True. To obtain a noble gas
configuration aluminium needs to lose three electrons,
Mg 2 3 ✗ which is more difficult than losing one, like sodium.
N 15 2 ✗ c) Calcium has the same metallic character as barium
because they have the same valence configuration. False.
S 16 3 ✗
They both have to lose two electrons, but barium’s
electrons are further from the nucleus, which makes
them easier to lose. Barium has a more metallic character
than calcium.
9 K > Ba > Mg > Aℓ

2
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
You may use the periodic table to help you complete these 7 Look at the following ions: O2-, F-, Ca2+ and K+.
activities. a) Write the electron configuration of each one.
1 Element 14 in the periodic table is silicon. Complete b) Find an element in the periodic table that has the same
the following sentences by filling in the blanks: electron configuration as each of these ions.
a) Each silicon atom has ….. electrons. c) Write the electron configuration of the ions Ca2- and F+
and explain whether they are stable.
b) The electron configuration of a silicon atom
is ……………………………. Data: atomic numbers: O = 8, F = 9, Ca = 20, K = 19.
c) A silicon atom's electrons are arranged in ………. 8 Argon does not form positive ions. Explain which
layers. of the following is the correct reason for this:
d) In the outer layer the electron configuration is: ………. a) Because it only forms negative ions.
e) A silicon atom has …… unpaired electrons. b) Because the electron configuration of its outer layer
is very stable.
2 Below are the electron arrangements of various atoms:
c) Because it doesn’t have any electrons in its outer layer.
• A: (2, 1) • C: (2, 8, 1)
• B: (2, 8) • D: (2, 2) 9 Explain which of the following statements are true:
Which of these atoms will have similar properties? a) Elements with identical properties occupy the same
period in the periodic table.
3 The element with the atomic number 10 has similar
b) Nonmetals are found on the left side of the periodic
properties to the element whose atomic number is:
table.
a) 9 c) 16
c) In the periodic table, elements are arranged in order
b) 11 d) 18 of increasing atomic number.
d) Elements belonging to the same group have the same
4 These are the electron arrangements of four
number of electrons in their outer layer.
different atoms:
• A: (2, 2) • C: (2, 8, 1) 10 The electron configuration of an element is (2, 8, 6).
• B: (2, 7) • D: (2, 8) Answer the following questions:
Are the following statements true or false? a) How many electrons does it contain?
a) Element A is a nonmetal belonging to group 2. b) Which group and period does it belong to?
b) Elements B and D belong to the same group. c) How many unpaired electrons does it contain?
c) All the elements belong to the same period. d) When it forms an ion, what charge does it acquire?
d) Element C is a metal from group 1.

11 Place the following elements in order of increasing size:
5 Give examples of two elements that: Potassium – Lithium – Fluorine – Carbon – Rubidium
a) Belong to the same period.

12 The elements F, Cℓ, Br and I form ions with a charge
b) Belong to the same group. of 1-. Explain which of the following is the correct
c) Are transition elements. reason for this:
d) Are alkaline metals. a) They have one electron in their valence shell.
b) They are metallic elements.
6 Write the electron configuration of the valence
c) They need to gain one electron to obtain a noble gas
shells of the examples you chose for each part
configuration.
of the activity above.
d) They have an orbital containing just one electron.

2
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
1 a) Each silicon atom has 14 electrons. 8 a) Because it only forms negative ions. Incorrect.
b) The electron configuration of a silicon atom b) Because the electron configuration of its outer layer
is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 3p1. is very stable. Correct. It is a noble gas and has a very
c) A silicon atom's electrons are arranged in 3 layers. stable electron configuration.
d) In the outer layer the electron configuration is: c) Because it doesn’t have any electrons in its outer layer.
two electrons in the 3s orbital and one electron Incorrect. It has eight electrons in its third layer.
in each of the p orbitals. 9 a) Elements with identical properties occupy the same
e) A silicon atom has 2 unpaired electrons. period in the periodic table. False. They occupy
the same group.
2 A and C have similar properties.
b) Nonmetals are found on the left of the periodic table.
3 It has similar properties to element 18 (they are both
False. They are found on the top right.
noble gases).
c) In the periodic table, elements are arranged in order
4 a) Element A is a nonmetal belonging to group 2. of increasing atomic number. True. Furthermore, elements
False. It belongs to this group, but it is a metal. with similar properties are arranged in each group.
b) Elements B and D belong to the same group. False. d) Elements belonging to the same group have the same
The configuration of their outer layer is not the same. number of electrons in their outer layer. True.
c) All the elements belong to the same period. False. 10 a) It has 16 electrons.
C belongs to a different period.
b) Group 16, period 3.
d) Element C is a metal from group 1. True. It has one
c) It has two unpaired electrons. Its valence configuration
electron in its outer layer.
is 3s23px23py13pz1.
5 Open answer. Examples:
d) It acquires a charge of 2-. It gains two electrons
a) Na and Si to acquire a noble gas configuration.
b) Si and Sn 11 Fluorine < Carbon < Lithium < Potassium < Rubidium
c) Fe and Cu
12 a) They have one electron in their valence shell. False.
d) Na and Rb
They have seven electrons.
6 This answer depends on the answers to the previous activity. b) They are metallic elements. False, they are nonmetals.
a) Na (3s1); Si (3s2 3p1 3p1) c) They need to gain one electron to obtain a noble gas
b) Si (3s2 3p1 3p1); Sn (5s2 5p1 5p1) configuration. True.
c) Fe (4s2 3d6); Cu (4s2 3d9) d) They have an orbital containing just one electron. False.
d) Na (3s1); Rb (5s1) Although these elements do have an orbital containing
just one electron (the npz orbital), this is also true
7 a) Configuration of O2- and F-: 1s2 2s2 2p6
of many other elements, such as those in group 1
Ca2+ and K+: 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6
(the ns orbital).
b)
Same configuration as O2- and F-: Ne
Same configuration as Ca2+ and K+: Ar
c) Configuration of Ca2-: 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s24p14p1
Configuration of F+: 1s2 2s22p22p12p1
Ca2- and F+ are not stable because they don’t have
a noble gas configuration.

2
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
Abbreviated electron configuration

Remember that...
Writing out the full electron configuration of an element with a large number of electrons can be very time consuming.
To avoid having to write it out in full, we use abbreviated electron configuration, which allows us to represent
the electron configuration much more easily.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Look at the electron configuration of antimony:

Sb (Z = 51) " 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d104p6 5s24d105p3
Let’s see how we abbreviate the electron configuration, step by step:
SOLUTION
Step 1: We find antimony Step 2: We write the symbol of the
noble gas from the previous period
F
F
Step 3: We complete the

electron configuration
LANTHANOIDS
ACTINOIDS
1. The first step involves finding the element in the periodic table.
In this case, the element we are looking for, antimony (Sb), is in group 15 and period 5, as shown in the image.
2. We write the symbol of the noble gas from the previous period between hard brackets [ ].
For Sb, we move up to the previous period, which is period 4, and find the noble gas from this period: krypton.
This element has 36 electrons.
Therefore, to express the configuration of the first 36 electrons of the antimony atom, we write:
[Kr]
continues "

2
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
3. Now we complete the electron configuration.

We move back down in the periodic table to the period where the element we are describing is found. We follow
the elements from left to right, until we arrive at the element we are describing, and then write out its corresponding
electron configuration (taking into account the rules for filling orbitals).
[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p3
1 Look at the abbreviated electron configurations below and state which element each of them represents:
a) [Ar] 4s23d10
b) [Ne] 3s23p4
c) [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p5
d) [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p4
e)
[Ar] 4s1 3d10 (In this configuration there is only one electron in the s sub‐level of layer 4. This is a special case,
since it is a more stable configuration than 4s2 3d9.)
f) [He] 2s1
2 State whether the abbreviated electron configurations for the following elements are correct:
[Ne] 3s1 " Sodium

a)
b) [Xe] 6s1 " Rubidium
c) [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p4 " Radon
d) [Ar] 4s23d6 " Zinc
e) [He] " Helium
f) [He] 2s22p3 " Nitrogen
g) [Kr] 5s2 4d2 " Zirconium

2
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
The noble gases

Remember that...
The elements in group 18 of the periodic table are known as the noble gases. The atoms that form this group of gases
all share one unique characteristic due to their electron configuration: they are the most stable elements in the periodic table.
To see what this property means for the noble gases, we are going to write out the electron configuration for each of them.
Element Symbol Electron configuration Group Period
Helium He 1s2 18 1
Neon Ne 2 2
1s 2s 2p 6
18 2
Argon Ar 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 18 3
Krypton Kr [Ar] 3d10 4s24p6 18 4
Xenon Xe [Kr] 4d10 5s25p6 18 5
Radon Rn [Rd] 4f14 5d10 6s26p6 18 6
The noble gases are a family of elements found in the last column on the right of the periodic table: group 18.
As we can see, they all have a complete outer layer. An electron configuration involving a complete outer layer makes
an element very chemically stable, which means the noble gases do not normally react with other elements.
Because they are unreactive, they were originally known as the inert gases, since it was thought that they could not react with
other elements. The term ‘noble’ seems to have come from precisely this characteristic - just like the nobles of the Middle Ages,
they did not like to mix with anyone else. However, while it is true that He and Ne do not combine with other elements, the other
noble gases can. This is thanks to their d orbitals, which allow them to form chemical bonds.
Around 40 years ago, scientists managed to produce some stable compounds involving the noble gases. Some of these have been
used to make explosives, while others have only ever been produced in the laboratory, but are useful from an experimental point
of view. It is important to note, however, that these compounds do not occur naturally; they are ‘forced’. Noble gases never form
compounds in their natural state. Although we should be careful about saying never, because an exception may be found.
Some of the common uses of noble gases are:
Helium
• As a gas, helium is much less dense than air and therefore
lighter, so it is used to fill balloons and airships. Because
it is inert, it doesn’t burn in air, unlike hydrogen, which is used
in hot air balloons and is very flammable. Helium is also part
of the gas mixture used by scuba divers to breathe underwater.

2
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
• Neon lights up when an electric current flows through it, so it is widely

used in fluorescent lighting and the ‘neon’ lights used for street
advertising.
Argon
Neon
• Argon, like all of the noble gases, is chemically inert. It is used in

lightbulbs because metal filaments won’t burn in argon and it also
reduces filament evaporation. In addition, it is used to provide an inert
atmosphere for high‑temperature metallurgical processes, such as
welding. It has one big advantage: it is very cheap to produce.
Radon
• Radon is a radioactive gas used to treat malignant growths.

Out of all of the noble gases, it is the least used because
it is a very dangerous substance. Radioactive isotopes
of radon are produced by energy changes (due to electrons
losing energy) in heavy metals such as uranium. It is used
in some specific cancer treatments, since it is capable
of damaging cells.
Xenon • Xenon is used in fluorescent tubes,

flash bulbs and some lasers.
1 What happens when we breathe in helium? Why?
2 Research and explain a further use for xenon.

2
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
Name: Class: Date:
Electron configuration and periodicity

Remember that...
Periodicity is a property of chemical elements. It tells us that the elements belonging to the same group
(vertical columns) of the periodic table have very similar properties.
The reason for this periodicity is explained in Bohr’s theory (1913) on the electronic structure of the atom:
atoms with similar electron configurations in their outer layers have similar chemical properties.
Thanks to this periodicity, if we know the position of a particular element in the periodic table, we can predict some
of its chemical properties.
1 Choose the correct answer to the following questions:
Question 1: Elements in the same group of the periodic table:

a) Have similar chemical properties.
b) Have consecutive atomic numbers.
c) Are called isotopes.
d) Make up a period.
e) Are all noble gases.
Question 2: Which of the following elements is found in period 3 of the periodic table?
a) Aℓ d) Sc
b) Ga e) O
c) B f) None of them
Question 3: The electron configuration of an element with 15 protons is:
a) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 c) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2
b) 1s2 2s22p6 3s2 4p3 d) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p3
Question 4: What is the maximum number of electrons that can be found in a 4f orbital?
a) 2 c) 10
b) 6 d) 14
Question 5: How many unpaired electrons does cobalt (Z = 27) contain?
a) 2 c) 7
b) 3 d) 10
Question 6: Which of the following elements has an electron configuration ending in 4d6?
a) Fe c) Os
b) Ru d) All three of them

2
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
Name: Class: Date:
Question 7: Which of the following elements has the greatest atomic radius?
a) I c) F
b) Cℓ d) Ge
Question 8: Which element has the following electron configuration:
1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d104p3?
a) P c) As
b) Kr d) Sb
Question 9: How many electrons does potassium contain?
a) 2 c) 8
b) 1 d) 7
Question 10: How many valence electrons are there in the element which contains 16 protons?
a) 4 c) 8
b) 6 d) 16
Question 11: Read the following statements and choose the correct option:
1. Elements 37 and 55 belong to the same group.
2. The maximum number of electrons an orbital can contain depends on the type of orbital.
3. The unpaired electron in the second element is found in a p orbital.
a) All three are true. c) 1 and 3 are true.
b) All three are false. d) 2 is true.
Question 12: The element with an electron configuration of 1s 2s 2p3 is found in:
2 2
a) Period 2, group 16. c) Period 2, group 15.

b) Period 15, group 2. d) Period 13, group 15.
Question 13: What is the correct electron configuration of potassium’s valence shell?
a) 4s1 c) 5s1
b) 3s23p6 4s1 d) 3s23p6 5s1
Question 14: Which of the following statements about the isotope 238
92 U is correct:
a) Its atomic number is 92 and its mass number is 238.

b) This isotope doesn’t exist.
c) Its mass number is the sum of 238 and 92.
d) Its atomic number is 238 and its mass number is 92.
e) It contains 238 neutrons and 92 protons.

2
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
Abbreviated electron configuration

Remember that...
Writing out the full electron configuration of an element with a large number of electrons can be very time consuming.
To avoid having to write it out in full, we use abbreviated electron configuration, which allows us to represent
the electron configuration much more easily.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Look at the electron configuration of antimony:

Sb (Z = 51) " 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d104p6 5s24d105p3
Let’s see how we abbreviate the electron configuration, step by step:
SOLUTION
Step 1: We find antimony Step 2: We write the symbol of the
noble gas from the previous period
F
F
Step 3: We complete the

electron configuration
LANTHANOIDS
ACTINOIDS
1. The first step involves finding the element in the periodic table.
In this case, the element we are looking for, antimony (Sb), is in group 15 and period 5, as shown in the image.
2. We write the symbol of the noble gas from the previous period between hard brackets [ ].
For Sb, we move up to the previous period, which is period 4, and find the noble gas from this period: krypton.
This element has 36 electrons.
Therefore, to express the configuration of the first 36 electrons of the antimony atom, we write:
[Kr]
continues "

2
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
3. Now we complete the electron configuration.

We move back down in the periodic table to the period where the element we are describing is found. We follow
the elements from left to right, until we arrive at the element we are describing, and then write out its corresponding
electron configuration (taking into account the rules for filling orbitals).
[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p3
1 Look at the abbreviated electron configurations below and state which element each of them represents:
a) [Ar] 4s23d10
Zinc.
b) [Ne] 3s23p4
Sulphur.
c) [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p5

Astatine.
d) [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p4

Selenium.
e)
[Ar] 4s1 3d10 (In this configuration there is only one electron in the s sub‐level of layer 4. This is a special case,
since it is a more stable configuration than 4s2 3d9.)
Copper.
f) [He] 2s1
Lithium.
2 State whether the abbreviated electron configurations for the following elements are correct:
[Ne] 3s1 " Sodium

a)
Correct.
b) [Xe] 6s1 " Rubidium

Incorrect. This is the electron configuration of caesium.
c) [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p4 " Radon

Incorrect. This is the electron configuration of polonium.
d) [Ar] 4s23d6 " Zinc

Incorrect. This is the electron configuration of iron.
e) [He] " Helium

Incorrect. Helium doesn’t have an abbreviated electron configuration. Its electron configuration is 1s2.
f) [He] 2s22p3 " Nitrogen

Correct.
g) [Kr] 5s2 4d2 " Zirconium

Correct.

2
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
The noble gases

Remember that...
The elements in group 18 of the periodic table are known as the noble gases. The atoms that form this group of gases
all share one unique characteristic due to their electron configuration: they are the most stable elements in the periodic table.
To see what this property means for the noble gases, we are going to write out the electron configuration for each of them.
Element Symbol Electron configuration Group Period
Helium He 1s2 18 1
Neon Ne 2 2
1s 2s 2p 6
18 2
Argon Ar 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 18 3
Krypton Kr [Ar] 3d10 4s24p6 18 4
Xenon Xe [Kr] 4d10 5s25p6 18 5
Radon Rn [Rd] 4f14 5d10 6s26p6 18 6
The noble gases are a family of elements found in the last column on the right of the periodic table: group 18.
As we can see, they all have a complete outer layer. An electron configuration involving a complete outer layer makes
an element very chemically stable, which means the noble gases do not normally react with other elements.
Because they are unreactive, they were originally known as the inert gases, since it was thought that they could not react with
other elements. The term ‘noble’ seems to have come from precisely this characteristic - just like the nobles of the Middle Ages,
they did not like to mix with anyone else. However, while it is true that He and Ne do not combine with other elements, the other
noble gases can. This is thanks to their d orbitals, which allow them to form chemical bonds.
Around 40 years ago, scientists managed to produce some stable compounds involving the noble gases. Some of these have been
used to make explosives, while others have only ever been produced in the laboratory, but are useful from an experimental point
of view. It is important to note, however, that these compounds do not occur naturally; they are ‘forced’. Noble gases never form
compounds in their natural state. Although we should be careful about saying never, because an exception may be found.
Some of the common uses of noble gases are:
Helium
• As a gas, helium is much less dense than air and therefore
lighter, so it is used to fill balloons and airships. Because
it is inert, it doesn’t burn in air, unlike hydrogen, which is used
in hot air balloons and is very flammable. Helium is also part
of the gas mixture used by scuba divers to breathe underwater.

2
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
• Neon lights up when an electric current flows through it, so it is widely

used in fluorescent lighting and the ‘neon’ lights used for street
advertising.
Argon
Neon
• Argon, like all of the noble gases, is chemically inert. It is used in

lightbulbs because metal filaments won’t burn in argon and it also
reduces filament evaporation. In addition, it is used to provide an inert
atmosphere for high‑temperature metallurgical processes, such as
welding. It has one big advantage: it is very cheap to produce.
Radon
• Radon is a radioactive gas used to treat malignant growths.

Out of all of the noble gases, it is the least used because
it is a very dangerous substance. Radioactive isotopes
of radon are produced by energy changes (due to electrons
losing energy) in heavy metals such as uranium. It is used
in some specific cancer treatments, since it is capable
of damaging cells.
• Xenon is used in fluorescent tubes,

Xenon
flash bulbs and some lasers.
1 What happens when we breathe in helium? Why?
ANSWER
Our voice sounds much higher, a bit like Donald Duck.
This is because helium gas is less dense than the air we usually breathe. Therefore, our vocal chords vibrate more quickly and produce
much higher‐pitched sounds.
2 Research and explain a further use for xenon.
ANSWER
Xenon headlights are used in most of the vehicles currently found on our roads. They are very efficient and much brighter than
traditional headlights. This makes driving safer, as they allow us to see further and more clearly than with normal lights, so we can
react to dangerous situations more quickly.

2
WORKSHEET 3
Name: Class: Date:
Electron configuration and periodicity

Remember that...
Periodicity is a property of chemical elements. It tells us that the elements belonging to the same group
(vertical columns) of the periodic table have very similar properties.
The reason for this periodicity is explained in Bohr’s theory (1913) on the electronic structure of the atom:
atoms with similar electron configurations in their outer layers have similar chemical properties.
Thanks to this periodicity, if we know the position of a particular element in the periodic table, we can predict some
of its chemical properties.
1 Choose the correct answer to the following questions:
Answers (Correct answers in bold).
Question 1: Elements in the same group of the periodic table:

a) Have similar chemical properties.
b) Have consecutive atomic numbers.
c) Are called isotopes.
d) Make up a period.
e) Are all noble gases.
Question 2: Which of the following elements is found in period 3 of the periodic table?
a) Aℓ d) Sc
b) Ga e) O
c) B f) None of them
Question 3: The electron configuration of an element with 15 protons is:
a) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 c) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2
b) 1s2 2s22p6 3s2 4p3 d) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p3
Question 4: What is the maximum number of electrons that can be found in a 4f orbital?
a) 2 c) 10
b) 6 d) 14
Question 5: How many unpaired electrons does cobalt (Z = 27) contain?
a) 2 c) 7
b) 3 d) 10
Question 6: Which of the following elements has an electron configuration ending in 4d6?
a) Fe c) Os
b) Ru d) All three of them

2
WORKSHEET 3
Name: Class: Date:
Question 7: Which of the following elements has the greatest atomic radius?
a) I c) F
b) Cℓ d) Ge
Question 8: Which element has the following electron configuration:
1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d104p3?
a) P c) As
b) Kr d) Sb
Question 9: How many electrons does potassium contain?
a) 2 c) 8
b) 1 d) 7
Question 10: How many valence electrons are there in the element which contains 16 protons?
a) 4 c) 8
b) 6 d) 16
Question 11: Read the following statements and choose the correct option:
1. Elements 37 and 55 belong to the same group.
2. The maximum number of electrons an orbital can contain depends on the type of orbital.
3. The unpaired electron in the second element is found in a p orbital.
a) All three are true. c) 1 and 3 are true.
b) All three are false. d) 2 is true.
Question 12: The element with an electron configuration of 1s 2s 2p3 is found in:
2 2
a) Period 2, group 16. c) Period 2, group 15.

b) Period 15, group 2. d) Period 13, group 15.
Question 13: What is the correct electron configuration of potassium’s valence shell?
a) 4s1 c) 5s1
b) 3s23p6 4s1 d) 3s23p6 5s1
Question 14: Which of the following statements about the isotope 238
92 U is correct?
a) Its atomic number is 92 and its mass number is 238.

b) This isotope doesn’t exist.
c) Its mass number is the sum of 238 and 92.
d) Its atomic number is 238 and its mass number is 92.
e) It contains 238 neutrons and 92 protons.

2
SOLVED PROBLEMS
SOLVED PROBLEM
Write out the electron configuration of nickel (Ni, Z = 28). Once you have done this, indicate:
a) How many layers contain electrons and how many there are in each one.
b) How many unpaired electrons it contains and which orbitals they occupy.
c) Which group and period it belongs to.
d) The noble gas that comes before nickel in the periodic table and its electron configuration.
e) Nickel’s abbreviated electron configuration (using the electron configuration of the noble gas from the previous answer).
Approach and answer

1s
To work out an atom’s electron configuration we have to remember three principles:
1. Each orbital can have up to two electrons, which spin in opposite directions. 2s 2p
2. The electrons start by filling empty orbitals in the atom with the lowest energy. 3s 3p 3d
3. When orbitals with the same energy are being filled (three p orbitals, five d orbitals 4s 4p 4d 4f
or seven f orbitals), the electrons are arranged so that there are as many electrons
with the same spin as possible (unpaired). Therefore, each orbital first gains one 5s 5p 5d 5f
electron, and when each orbital has one electron, a second electron then joins it.
6s 6p 6d 6f
We can use the Moeller diagram to remember the order of energy in the orbitals.
All orbitals of the same type that are in the same level will have the same energy. 7s 7p 7d 7f
Ni (Z = 28) : 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d23d23d23d13d1
3d
a) • Layer 1: 2: 1s2 e) To work out the abbreviated electron configuration,

2
• Layer 2: 8: 2s 2p 6 we find the difference between the number of electrons
• Layer 3: 16: 3s2 3p6 3d2 3d2 3d2 3d1 3d1 nickel contains (28) and the noble gas before it (18):
• Layer 4: 2: 4s2 28 - 18 = 10
• Ar is in period 3, which means its valence
b) It has two unpaired electrons, both in 3d orbitals: 3d1 3d1.
configuration is 3s23p6.
c) Period 4: its outer layer containing electrons is layer 4. • We use the Moeller diagram to find the orbital
Group 10: it has 10 electrons in orbitals from 4s onwards. that comes after 3p, which is 4s.
d) The noble gas before it is argon: • The abbreviated configuration of Ni is the noble gas
2 2 6
Ar (Z = 18): 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 2 6 before it (Ar) plus 10 electrons, which are arranged
in the orbitals from 4s onwards:
Ni (Z = 28) : [Ar] 4s23d23d23d23d13d1
Or even: [Ar]4s23d8
ACTIVITIES
1 Work out the electron configuration of arsenic 2 The abbreviated electron configurations for several
(Z = 33). State how many layers of electrons it elements are shown below. For each one, state the
contains and how many there are in each one. atomic number, the number of electrons in its outer
Then, state whether it contains any unpaired electrons, layer and which group and period it belongs to:
how many there are and which orbitals they occupy.
a) [Kr] 5s2 c) [He] 2s2 2p4 e) [Ne] 3s1
Finally, write out its abbreviated electron configuration
and state which group and period it belongs b) [Ar] 4s2 3d3 d) [Xe] 6s2 4f4
to in the periodic table. Answer: a) Sr: 38, 2, G2, P5; b) V: 23, 5, G5, P4; c) O: 8, 6,
Answer: As (2, 8, 18, 5); As: [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p14p14p1 G16, P2; d) Nd: 60, 6, G n/d, P6; e) Na: 11, 1, G1, P3

2
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
How metals behave with acids
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Rack and five test tubes.
Look at the different behaviour of
• Hydrochloric acid at different concentrations
magnesium and aluminium in the presence
(0.2 M, 2 M and commercial).
of hydrochloric acid. Explain how this
relates to the position of these elements • Pasteur pipette.
in the periodic table. • Magnesium ribbon.
• Aluminium foil.
PROCEDURE
1. Take two test tubes and place a similar amount of

magnesium in each one. Add 2 or 3 mL of diluted HCℓ
(0.2 M) to one and a similar volume of concentrated
HCℓ (2 M) to the other.
Did any reaction take place?
2. Now take two more test tubes and place a similar
amount of aluminium in each one. Add 2 or 3 mL
of diluted HCℓ (0.2 M) to one and a similar volume
of concentrated HCℓ (2 M) to the other.
Did any reaction take place?
3. Place the same amount of aluminium in a third test
tube. Add a few drops of commercial HCℓ and observe
what happens.
QUESTIONS
1 Write the equation for the chemical reaction that occurs between magnesium and hydrochloric acid.
How do you know that a reaction has taken place? Is the reaction as big when using the diluted
HCℓ solution as when using the concentrated solution?
2 Write the equation for the chemical reaction that takes place between aluminium and hydrochloric acid.
How do you know that a reaction has taken place? Is the reaction as big when using the diluted HCℓ
solution as when using the concentrated solution?
3 You performed an experiment in which you added commercial HCℓ directly to pieces of aluminium.
What would happen if we did the same using pieces of magnesium?
4 Taking the results of this experiment into account, explain how the different reactivity of aluminium and magnesium
with HCℓ relates to their positions in the periodic table. Which of the two is the most reactive? Why do you think
it is more reactive?
5 Taking its position in the periodic table into account, imagine (don’t try this) what would happen if you added
hydrochloric acid to a test tube containing small pieces of sodium.
Would it be more or less reactive than the previous metals? Why?

2
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
‘Fingerprints’ of the elements: flame emission spectra
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Watch glasses. • Hydrochloric acid.
• To observe the flame emission spectrum • Bunsen burner. • Sodium chloride.
of some elements. • Platinum wire (with handle). • Copper.
• To perform a simple experiment used • Tin.
to identify metals chemically.
PROCEDURE
1.
Number four watch glasses. Then, put a few drops
of hydrochloric acid on one and a small amount
of each salt on the other three.
2. Light the Bunsen burner.
3. Wet the platinum wire with the acid and then touch
the salt on the first watch glass with it so that it sticks
to the wire.
4. Place the wire in the middle of the flame. Make a note

of the flame’s colour.
5. Clean the wire with hydrochloric acid.
6.
Repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 for the rest of the chloride salts.
7.
Complete the table below with the colour
of each product:
Hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride Copper Tin
Colour
QUESTIONS
1 Compare your results with those of your classmates. Did each compound produce a different coloured flame?
2 Ask the teacher to give you an unknown sample and repeat the procedure to try and identify what it is.
3 Why do you think it was necessary to clean the wire after each test?
4 The different colours, each of which is caused by the same energy transition, are characteristic of each element
and can be used to chemically identify metals.
The pyrotechnic industry uses the salts of some metals to produce the spectacular colours in fireworks.
Look for more information about this and write about which salts are used and what colours they produce.

2
ASSESSMENT
Name: Class: Date:
1 During the first half of the 20th century, four atomic models were established based on discoveries that had been
made regarding the structure of the atom. Each of them was named after the scientist responsible for the model.
In alphabetical order they are: Bohr, Rutherford, Schrödinger (quantum mechanical) and Thomson.
a) Write the models in chronological order, from the oldest to the most recent.
b) Choose which of the following descriptions best represents each model:
Characteristic Model
The electrons move around in areas called orbitals.
An atom has the same number of protons as electrons.
An atom’s electrons are arranged in layers or energy levels.
An atom is formed by a nucleus that contains the protons, and a shell that contains
the electrons. The diameter of the nucleus is ten thousand times smaller than the diameter
of the atom.
c) Each atomic model has a significant problem. The discoveries that corrected these failings helped to establish subsequent
models. Match each of the failings below to one of the models:
Problem Model
Atomic spectra show more energy levels than you would expect from this model.
Electrons can’t spin around the nucleus indefinitely, because they would end
up falling into it.
The atom is a mass of positively charged matter, embedded with very small negative
particles.
d) Bohr’s model uses the concept of orbits, while the quantum mechanical model uses the concept of orbitals.
Explain the difference between the two.
2 Once the existence of orbitals had been established, it was found that there were four types: s, p, d and f.
a) Complete the table by stating how many of each type of orbital are found in the following layers of an atom’s shell:
Layer Type of orbital Layer Type of orbital
1 4
2 5
3 6
b) There is only one of some types of orbital in each layer, but there can be more than one of other types.
Complete the table by stating how many of each type of orbital can be found in the same layer of the atom’s shell:
Type of orbital s p d f
No. of orbitals in the same layer

Name: Class: Date:
c) An orbital is represented by a number indicating its layer, and a letter that indicates its type. State the similarities
and differences between the following pairs of orbitals:
a) 3s and 3d; b) 3s and 6s; c) 2p and 5p; d) 4p and 4f
d) State which of the following orbitals can’t be found in an atom and explain why:
a) 3f b) 1s c) 1p d) 2d
3 Write out the electron configuration of chromium (Cr, Z = 24). Once you have done this, state:
a) How many layers contain electrons and how many there are in each one.
b) How many unpaired electrons it contains and which orbitals they occupy.
c) Which group and period it belongs to.
d) The noble gas that comes before chromium in the periodic table and its electron configuration.
e) Chromium’s abbreviated electron configuration (using the electron configuration of the noble gas from
the previous answer).
4 The table below shows the abbreviated electron configurations of some chemical elements. For each one,
state which group and period it belongs to and whether it is a metal, nonmetal or noble gas.
Electron configuration Period Group Metal Nonmetal Noble gas
[He] 2s2 2p6
[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p1
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
[Xe] 6s2 4f4
[Ne] 3s2
5 The following ions are easily formed by elements from period 3:

Na+, Mg2+, Aℓ3+, P3-, S2- and Cℓ-.
a) Write out the electron configuration of Na, Mg, Aℓ, P, S and Cℓ, and explain why they form the ions shown.
b) Write the electron configuration of the ions Na+, Mg 2+, Aℓ3+, P3-, S2- and Cℓ-. Are they the same as the configuration
of any other elements from the periodic table? Which ones?
c) Explain which element from period 3 has the most metallic character.
d) Explain which element from period 3 has the most nonmetallic character.

2
ASSESSMENT
1 a) In chronological order, from the oldest to the most recent:

Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Schrödinger (quantum mechanical).
b)
Characteristic Model
The electrons move around in areas called orbitals. Schrödinger
An atom has the same number of protons as electrons. Thomson
An atom’s electrons are arranged in layers or energy levels. Bohr
An atom is formed by a nucleus that contains the protons, and a shell that contains
the electrons. The diameter of the nucleus is ten thousand times smaller than the diameter Rutherford
of the atom.
c)
Problem Model
Atomic spectra show more energy levels than you would expect from this model. Bohr
Electrons can’t spin around the nucleus indefinitely, because they would end up falling
Rutherford
into it.
The atom is a mass of positively charged matter embedded with very small negative particles. Thomson
d) • According to Bohr’s model: an orbit is the trajectory of an atom as it spins around the nucleus.
• According to the quantum mechanical model: an orbital is the area of space where there is more than a 90 % probability
of finding an electron. We can’t be sure that an atom remains at a fixed distance from the nucleus as it moves around,
which is why the concept of an orbit is incorrect.
2 a) Layer Type of orbital Layer Type of orbital
1 s 4 s, p, d, f
2 s, p 5 s, p, d, f
3 s, p, d 6 s, p, d, f
b)
Type of orbital s p d f
No. of orbitals in the same layer 1 3 5 7
c) a) 3s and 3d: same size, different shape.

b) 3s and 6s: same shape, different size.
c) 2p and 5p: same shape, different size.
d) 4p and 4f: same size, different shape.
d) a) 3f: No, f orbitals are not found until layer 4.
b) 1s: Yes.
c) 1p: No, p orbitals are not found until layer 2.
d) 2d: No, d orbitals are not found until layer 3.
3 Cr (Z = 24): 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d4.
a) Number of layers that contain electrons and how many there are in each one:
• Layer 1: 2 electrons. • Layer 2: 8 electrons. • Layer 3: 12 electrons. • Layer 4: 2 electrons.
b) Number of unpaired electrons it contains and which orbitals they are found in: 3d 3d 3d 3d
1 1 1 1
c) It belongs to period 4 (4s) and group 6 (6 electrons from 4s onwards).

d) The noble gas before chromium: Argon. Ar (Z = 18): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6.
e) Abbreviated electron configuration of chromium: Cr (Z = 24): [Ar] 4s2 3d13d4.

1
EVALUACIÓN DE CONTENIDOS
ESTÁNDARES DE APRENDIZAJE Y SOLUCIONES
4 Electron configuration Period Group Metal Nonmetal Noble gas

2 6
[He] 2s 2p 2 18 ✗
[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p1 5 13 ✗
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5 4 17 ✗
[Xe] 6s2 4f4 2 3 (lanthanoid) ✗
[Ne] 3s2 3 2 ✗
5 a) Element Electron configuration To acquire a noble gas configuration it:
Na (Z = 11) 1s2 2s22p6 3s1 Loses 1 electron and forms Na+
Mg (Z = 12) 1s2 2s22p6 3s2 Loses 2 electrons and forms Mg2+
Aℓ (Z = 13) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p1 Loses 3 electrons and forms Aℓ3+
P (Z = 15) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p3 Gains 3 electrons and forms P3-
S (Z = 16) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p4 Gains 2 electrons and forms S2-
Cℓ (Z = 17) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p5 Gains 1 electron and forms Cℓ-
b) The electron configuration of [Na+] = [Mg 2+] = [Aℓ3+] = 1s2 2s22p6. It is the same as Ne.
The electron configuration of [P3-] = [S2-] = [Cℓ-] = 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6. It is the same as Ar.
c) Na is the element with the most metallic character, because it can form positive ions more easily than the other elements
in the period (it only has to lose one electron).
d) Cℓ is the element with the most nonmetallic character, because it can form negative ions more easily than the other elements
in the period (it only has to gain one electron).

NOTES

3
CHEMICAL BONDS
INTRODUCTION
1. This unit focuses on the chemical bonds formed 2.

We recommend studying the characteristics of each
between the different species present in a substance type of bond, as well as the valence shell electron
(both bonds between atoms and between molecules) configuration of all of the elements involved in the bond.
and how these bonds determine its properties.
OBJECTIVES
• Review the different chemical elements found in nature: • Know the properties of ionic, covalent and metallic
isolated atoms, crystals and molecules. substances.
• Look at the different types of chemical bonds. • Recognise the different bonds between the molecules
• Recognise the different types of bond according of molecular substances.
to the elements that form the compound.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • Chemical bonds in substances.

• Types of bonds between atoms. Octet rule.
• Ionic bonds. Properties of ionic compounds.
• Covalent bonds. Properties of covalent compounds.
• Metallic bonds. Properties of metals.
• Intermolecular bonds. Hydrogen bridge.
KNOW HOW TO • Recognise the ions in a compound formed by a metal and a nonmetal.
• Represent the molecules of covalent compounds in a Lewis diagram.
• Recognise some properties of ionic, covalent and metallic substances
through laboratory experiments.
BE ABLE TO • Understand that we use models to study chemical bonds.

• Recognise the important role played by Chemistry in the discovery
of new compounds that improve our quality of life.
• Recognise the importance of chemical bonds in the structure
of molecules present in living beings.

3
CHEMICAL BONDS
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
The type of bond that a substance has depends on the 3.
We recommend two main areas of focus for studying
characteristics of its atoms. Therefore, it is important for each type of bond (ionic, covalent and metallic):
students to be able to locate the elements in the periodic the properties of the elements that form the different
table according to their valence shell configuration. compounds (metals and nonmetals), and their valence
They should be able to work with the table in Annex 1, shell electron configuration. When atoms combine,
which includes some oxidation numbers. they try to obtain a noble gas configuration in order
2. The fact that atoms can combine through chemical bonds to achieve maximum stability. In ionic bonds, this is done
means that a large number of substances can be formed by forming ions; in covalent bonds, by sharing electrons
from just over one hundred elements. The properties (the use of Lewis diagrams will help students study this);
of a substance depend on the type of bond that exists and in metallic bonds, by forming an electron cloud.
between its atoms. In turn, the type of bond a substance
has will determine its properties.
WEBSITES YouTube: Covalent Bonding | #aumsum #kids

Introduction to Ionic & Covalent Bonding – PhET #education #science #learn. This video explains what
Interactive Simulations. This simulator allows users a covalent bond consists of, with fun graphic illustrations.
to observe properties of ionic and molecular compounds. YouTube: Ionic Bonding | #aumsum #kids #education
It has been especially designed to introduce ionic and #science #learn. This video explains ionic bonding using
covalent bonding. the same methodology as the one above.
Keywords: chemical bond, phet simulation. YouTube: 1.3 The Chemical Bonds Song! Animated.
Lewis Dot Puzzle App. This website allows users to build This catchy and fun song explains the characteristics
different covalent molecules using Lewis structures. of chemical bonds and the substances they form.
Keywords: lewis structures app.
The Science Teacher: Metallic Bonding Teaching
Resources. This collection of worksheets and lesson ideas
Chemical Bonding - Chemistry. (iOs) This application
is designed to challenge students aged 11 to 16 to think
helps students learn about the different bonds that
carefully about bonding, structure and alloys.
form chemical substances. It explains chemical bonds,
Keywords: metallic, bonding, teaching, resources.
molecular structure, the chemistry of bonding and how
chemical bonds are formed in a simple and easy-to-
understand way, with a series of fun, interesting activities.

3
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
1 Find the following elements in the periodic table: 4 Indicate whether the following statements are true
K, Br, Ba, N, S, Aℓ. or false. Correct the statements that are false:
a) Indicate which group each one belongs to and a) When atoms form bonds, they gain, lose or share
its ionic charge. electrons, until they have eight in their valence shell.
b) Write the formula of the compounds that are formed b) When atoms are joined with ionic bonds, they always
when the elements shown in the table are combined. form compounds, whereas if they are joined with
covalent bonds, they can also form simple substances.
K Ba Aℓ
c) Atoms that form a crystal are always joined with ionic
Br or metallic bonds.
N d) Molecules are formed by atoms that are only joined
S with covalent bonds.
5 Indicate whether the following substances form

2 Find the following elements in the periodic table:
molecules or crystals and specify which type
a) Indicate which group they belong to and their valence of bond is formed between their atoms:
shell configuration.
a) CH4 b) C (diamond) c) Cu d) MgCℓ2
Element Group Valence configuration
F 6 Indicate whether the following molecules are polar
O or non‐polar:
N a) Cℓ2 c) SO e) N2
C b) HCℓ d) HF f) BrF
H
7 Molecular models A and B show the spatial structure
S
of two molecules. Write the formula of each one
Cℓ
and draw its Lewis structure. Based on its geometry,
explain its polarity.
b) Write the formula of the compounds that are formed
when the elements shown in the table are combined. A B
F H Cℓ
F
O
N
C Code:
H H O N C
S
Cℓ
A B
c) Indicate which of the substances above are simple Formula

substances and which are compounds.
Lewis
structure
3 Based on the information from the previous activity,
draw the Lewis structure for the following substances: Polarity
a) N2 d) NCℓ3
b) CO2 e) CF4
c) SCℓ2 f) F2

3
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
•• •• •• ••
1 a)
Element Group Ionic charge
3 a) • N •
•
•N•
•
" N •••••• N " •• N / N ••
K 1 1+ •• • ••
b) •• O •
••
• C •
•
• O ••
••
" •• ••
O =C= O ••
••
Br 17 1-
•• •• •• •• •• ••
Ba 2 2+ c) •• Cℓ•
••
• S •
••
•Cℓ••
••
" ••Cℓ
••
- S -Cℓ••
•• ••
N 15 3- •• •• •• •• •• ••
S 16 2-
d) •• Cℓ•
••
•
• N •
•
•Cℓ••
••
" ••Cℓ
••
- N -Cℓ••
••
|
• •
Aℓ 13 3+ • Cℓ•
••
•• ••
b) K Ba Aℓ
•
• F •• F •• •
•
•
•• • | ••
•• ••
Br KBr BaBr2 AℓBr3 e) •• F • • C •• F •• " •• F - C- F ••
••
•• •
•
•• | ••
• •
N K3N Ba3N2 AℓN • •
•F• •F•
•• ••
•• •• •• ••
S K2S BaS Aℓ2S3 f) •
• F
••
• • F
••
•
• " ••F - ••F ••
•
•
2 a) Element Group Valence configuration 4 a) False. When atoms form bonds, they gain, lose or share
F 17 2s22p5 electrons until they have a noble gas configuration.
O 16 2s22p4 b) True.
N 15 2
2s 2p 3
c) False. Atoms that form a crystal can be joined with ionic,
C 14 2s22p2 metallic or covalent bonds (like diamond).
H 1 1s1 d) True.
S 16 3s23p4 5 a) Molecule. Covalent bond.

Cℓ 17 2
3s 3p 5 b) Crystal. Covalent bond.
c) Crystal. Metallic bond.
b)
F H Cℓ d) Crystal. Ionic bond.
F F2 HF CℓF 6 a) Non‐polar. d) Polar.

b) Polar. e) Non‐polar.
O OF2 H2O OCℓ2
c) Polar. f) Polar.
N NF3 NH3 NCℓ3
7 A B
C CF4 CH4 CCℓ4
Formula HCN HCOH
H HF H2 HCℓ
S SF2 H2S SCℓ2 Lewis H-C/N •• • O •

• •
structure ||
Cℓ CℓF HCℓ Cℓ2 H-C-H
Polarity polar polar

c) Simple substances: they are formed by only one type
of atom: F2, H2, Cℓ2
Compounds: substances formed by more than one type
of atom. All other substances in the table are compounds.

3
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL BONDS
1 Indicate which of the following descriptions 6 Match each of these substances to their melting point,
does not apply to ionic substances: taking into account the type of chemical bond:
a) Their molecules are formed by ions and cations. Substance a) Aℓ b) H2S c) CaO d) H2O e) Ne
b) They are solids at room temperature.
c) They don’t dissolve in oil. Melting point
-248 0 2572 660 -82
(ºC)
d) Their aqueous solutions conduct electricity.
7 The four substances in the table below are gases
2 Indicate which of the following characteristics
at room temperature. However, their properties
does not apply to covalent substances:
are different, because of the type of bond they have.
a) They can be simple substances or compounds. Match each substance to the most appropriate
b) They all form molecules. property, giving reasons for your answer.
c) Some dissolve in water and others in oil. Property Substance

d) They generally don’t conduct electricity. a) It is a gas that is very difficult Cℓ2O
to liquefy He
3 Indicate which of the following sentences b) It is a gas that dissolves in water F2
does not apply to metallic substances: c) It is used to create an inert NH3
a) They have a crystalline structure and can be scratched. atmosphere
b) They conduct electricity, but not heat. d) Its boiling point is 2 °C
c) They do not dissolve in polar or non‐polar solvents.
d) Most are simple substances. 8 Some substances conduct electricity in a solid state,
some in a liquid state, some when they are dissolved
4 Draw a table to associate the properties below in water, and others don’t conduct electricity at all.
to a type of substance: ionic, covalent or metallic. Match the substances below to how they conduct
Remember that more than one substance may electricity, if at all:
have the same property. Conduct electricity Substance
It forms molecules – It only forms compounds – It is always a) In a solid state 1. KCℓ
in a solid state – It can form gases – It always forms b) In a liquid state 2. Fe
crystals – It never conducts electricity in a solid state – c) Dissolved in water 3. CO2
It always conducts electricity, both in a solid state and in
d) They don’t conduct 4. Ag
a liquid state – Its crystals cannot be scratched – It can be
electricity at all 5. CH3OH (methanol)
stretched into sheets – It can be dissolved in water, but not
6. Hg
in petrol – It forms simple substances – It is a good
conductor of heat. 7. Ar
8. CaO
5 Oxygen forms compounds with most chemical
elements. Choose the compound which matches 9 Many solid substances have an internal crystalline
each of the following properties: structure, but their properties change according
to the type of bond between their atoms. Match the
Characteristic Compound following substances to their property or properties:
a) Solid that dissolves in water CO2 Property Substance

a) It can be hit without 1. KCℓ
b) Liquid because of the hydrogen
SiO2 breaking 2. Au
bond
b) It is hard 3. C (diamond)
c) Very hard and insoluble solid Na2O
c) It is transparent 4. Mg
d) Gas at room temperature H2O d) It is fragile 5. BeO
e) It can be stretched into wires 6. CaCℓ2

3
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL BONDS
1 a) Ionic compounds don’t form molecules. 8 Conduct electricity:

2 b) Although most covalent substances form molecules, a) In a solid state: metals.
some form crystals, such as diamond and graphite. 2. Fe 4. Ag
3 b) Metallic substances conduct heat and electricity. b) In a liquid state: metals.
2. Fe 4. Ag 6. Hg
4 Ionic Covalent Metallic
c) Dissolved in water: ionic compounds.
It only forms It forms It always
compounds. molecules. conducts 1. KCℓ 8. CaO
electricity, both d) They don’t conduct electricity at all:
It is always It can form
in a solid state covalent substances and noble gases.
in a solid state. gases.
and in a liquid 3. CO2 5. CH3OH (methanol) 7.
Ar
It always forms Its crystals state.
crystals. cannot be 9 a) It can be hit without breaking: metals.
It can be
scratched. 2. Au 4. Mg
It never stretched into
conducts It forms simple b) It is hard: ionic and covalent.
sheets.
electricity in substances. 1. KCℓ 3. C (diamond) 5. BeO 6. CaCℓ2
It forms simple
a solid state. c) It is transparent: ionic and covalent.
substances.
Its crystals can’t 1. KCℓ 3. C (diamond) 5. BeO 6. CaCℓ2
It is a good
be scratched. d) It is fragile: ionic and covalent.
conductor
It can be of heat. 1. KCℓ 3. C (diamond) 5. BeO 6. CaCℓ2
dissolved in e) It can be stretched into wires: metals.
water, but not
2. Au 4. Mg
in petrol.
5 a) Na2O b) H2O c) SiO2 d) CO2

6
Substance a) Aℓ b) H2S c) CaO d) H2O e) Ne
Melting
660 -82 2572 0 -248
point (ºC)
7 a) It is a gas that is very difficult to liquefy: F2.

Its molecules are non‐polar and are small.
It can’t form non‐polar bonds easily.
b) It is a gas that dissolves in water: NH3.
It can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
c) It is used to create an inert atmosphere: He.
He is a noble gas that does not react.
d) Its boiling point is 2 °C: Cℓ2O.
It’s an angular molecule and, therefore, polar.

3
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 Indicate which of the following substances form 6 Some ionic compounds, such as CuS, are not very
molecules and which form crystals. Then, specify soluble in water. Which of the following sentences
which type of bond is formed between its atoms: explains this?
SiO2 ; CO2 ; PtO2 ; O2 ; Pt a) Water molecules position themselves around
the copper ions.
2 Continuing to work with the substances
b) Water molecules can’t position themselves
from the previous question, choose:
around the sulphur ions.
a) A substance that conducts electricity in a solid state
c) The bond between the copper and sulphur
and in a liquid state.
ions is very strong.
b) A substance that doesn’t conduct electricity in a solid
d) Water is not an appropriate solvent. We would
state but does in a liquid state.
have to use oil.
c) A substance that is usually a solid but doesn’t conduct
electricity in a solid state or in a liquid state. 7 Explain which of the following chemical bonds
are present in distilled water:
d) A solid substance that conducts electricity when
it is dissolved in water. a) Bond between polar molecules.
e) A solid substance that doesn’t dissolve in water. b) Bond between non‐polar molecules.
c) Polar covalent bond.
3 Boron is a semimetal. When it combines with fluoride,
d) Non‐polar covalent bond.
it forms a covalent molecule.
a) Draw the Lewis structure for the boron atom e) Ionic bond.
and the fluoride atom. f) Hydrogen bond.
b) Write the formula of the molecule that is formed 8 Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Indicate which
when boron combines with fluoride. type of bond is formed between the atoms of these
c) Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule formed elements in a piece of bronze:
by boron and fluoride. a) Ionic bond. c) Metallic bond.
d) Explain whether the boron atom and the fluoride b) Covalent bond. d) No bond is formed.
atom satisfy the octet rule.
9 Methanol is alcohol made from wood. Its formula
4 One of the compounds formed when sulphur is CH3OH.
combines with fluoride has the formula SF6.
a) Draw the Lewis structure for methanol.
a) Explain whether it is an ionic or a covalent compound.
b) Which type of bond is formed between its molecules?
b) Draw the Lewis structure for the SF6 molecule.
c) Explain why methanol dissolves in water but not in oil.
c) Explain whether all of the atoms in this molecule
satisfy the octet rule. 10 Formalin is a liquid used to preserve animal tissue.
Its formula is HCOH.
5 The diagram below shows what happens when a) Draw the Lewis structure for the formalin molecule.
sodium chloride dissolves in water. Using the diagram
b) Explain whether it forms simple, double or triple
to help you, explain why salt doesn’t dissolve in oil.
covalent bonds.
c) Explain whether formalin molecules can join
together using hydrogen bonds.
11 BF3 is a non‐polar molecule, and NF3

Water molecule
NaCℓ is a polar molecule.
a) Draw the Lewis structure for both molecules.
Cℓ- ion b) Analyse the bonds that are formed in each.
Na+ ion
Are they polar or non‐polar?
c) Explain what the geometry must be for BF3
to be non‐polar and NF3 to be polar.

3
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
1 Substance Forms Bond

7 a) Bond between polar molecules. No.
b) Bond between non‐polar molecules. No.
SiO2 Crystal Covalent
c) Polar covalent bond. Yes, between the H and O atoms.
CO2 Molecule Covalent d) Non‐polar covalent bond. No.
e) Ionic bond. No.
PtO2 Crystal Ionic
f) Hydrogen bond. Yes, between one molecule and another.
O2 Molecule Covalent
8 a) Ionic bond. No.
Pt Crystal Metallic b) Covalent bond. No.
c) Metallic bond. Yes.
2 a) Pt b) PtO2 c) SiO2 d) PtO2 e) SiO2
• ••
d) No bond is formed. False.
3 a) • B • • •
•F
•• 9 a) H
b) BF3 | ••
•
•• H-C- O -H
F ••
• | ••
•• | •• • H
c) •• F -B-•• F•
•• b) H bond.
d) The F atom has 8 electrons in its valence shell: it satisfies c) H bonds can form between the methanol and
the octet rule. water molecules but not between the methanol
The B atom has 6 electrons in its valence shell: it doesn’t and oil molecules.
satisfy the octet rule. 10 a) H • • ••
C=O
| |
4 a) It’s a covalent compound because two nonmetals

are combined. H
b) Lewis structure: SF6. b) There is one double bond C=O and two single bonds
C-H.
• •
•• ••• •
•F F•• c) They can’t form hydrogen bonds because there are
•
•• | | ••
•
• F -S-
| F •
•
no O-H bonds.
•• •••
|
•
•
F
•
• F• 11 a) •
•• • •• •• •••
• • F •• • F - N- F •
• •
•
• •
| ••
| ••
c) The F atom has 8 electrons in its valence shell: B • •
•F•
••
•
F •• •
F ••
|
|
it satisfies the octet rule. •

••
•
••
The S atom has 12 electrons in its valence shell: b) The bonds are polar because atoms of different elements
it doesn’t satisfy the octet rule. are combined. In one, B-F, and in the other, N-F.
5 For the salt to dissolve, multiple water molecules have c) If BF3 is non‐polar, the molecule must be trigonal planar,
to position themselves so that their positive part aligns and if NF3 is polar, the molecule must be pyramidal.
with the negative ion, and the negative part aligns
with the positive ion. This causes the ions to separate F F
from the crystalline structure and become surrounded
by water molecules.
B
Oil is a non‐polar molecule, so it can’t position itself
around the ions and carry them off into the solution.
6 a) No.
b) No.
c) Yes. The bonds between the water molecules and each F
of the ions are weaker than the bonds that hold the ions
together.
d) Yes. N
F F F

3
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
Name: Class: Date:
Covalent bonding beyond the octet rule

Remember that…
• The atoms of noble gases are the most stable. The atoms of other elements try to achieve this stability.
In order to do this, they gain, lose or share electrons with other atoms they are bonded with.
• The octet rule states that atoms of different elements gain, lose or share electrons until they have eight
in their valence shell, except the atoms closest to the noble gas He, which obtain a noble gas configuration
with two electrons in their valence shell.
• Drawing the Lewis diagram of a molecule.
– We represent the atoms that form the molecules by writing the symbol surrounded by dots, which
represent the valence electrons.
– If there are several different atoms, the central atom is the one furthest to the left in the periodic table,
unless it is H.
– Atoms join together by single, double or triple bonds until the octet rule is satisfied.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Draw the Lewis diagram for HCOH (formalin).
ANSWER
1. We write the atoms that form the molecule by representing their valence electrons:
• ••
H • H • •C• • O ••
• •
2. We analyse the bonding possibilities:

– Each H atom needs to form one bond. If the two H atoms join together, they will form an H2 molecule
and the HCOH compound will not be formed:
H • H • H • • H
– Each O atom needs to form two covalent bonds. If the two H atoms join together, they will form
an H2O molecule and the HCOH compound cannot be formed:
•• ••
H • H • • O •• H ••O••
• •
•
H
– Each C atom needs to form four covalent bonds. If it forms two bonds with each of the H atoms,
they will have two electrons left over, which can be used to form a double bond with the O atom.
This way, all of the atoms have a noble gas configuration:
• •• • •• ••
H •• C • • O •• H •• C •• ••O•• H-C=O•• 1 double covalent bond C=O
• • • |
• •
H H H 2 single covalent bonds C-H

3
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
Name: Class: Date:
1 Oxygenated water is a liquid that is used as a disinfectant. Its formula is H2O2.

a) Draw the Lewis diagram for each one of the atoms that form oxygenated water.
b) Study the possibility of the two H atoms bonding together. Could an H2O2 molecule be formed?
c) Study the possibility of the two O atoms bonding together. How could they join together?
Could an H2O2 molecule be formed?
d) Study the possibility of one O atom joining together with two H atoms. Could the other
O atom join together with them to form an H2O2 molecule?
e) Study the bonding that occurs between the atoms for them all to achieve a noble gas configuration.
Indicate which type of bonds are formed between each pair of atoms.
f) Unshared electrons are those in the valence shell of an atom that are not part of a bond.
They are usually counted in pairs. Take another look at the Lewis diagram of a H2O2 molecule.
Analyse which atoms have pairs of unshared electrons and how many each one has.
2 Hydrocyanic acid is a colourless liquid that is found in small amounts in almond seeds.
It is what gives almonds their scent. Its formula is HCN.
a) Draw the Lewis diagram for the atoms that form hydrocyanic acid.
b) Study the possibility of the H atom and the N atom bonding together. How many bonds would be formed?
Which bonds could the N atom then form with the C atom? Would the atoms achieve a noble gas configuration?

3
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
Name: Class: Date:
c) Study the bonding that occurs between the atoms so that all of them achieve a noble gas configuration.
Indicate which type of bonds are formed between each pair of atoms. Analyse which atoms have pairs
of unshared electrons and how many each one has.
Not all molecules satisfy the octet rule. Look at the following exceptions to Lewis’s theory
about covalent bonding.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Boron trichloride (BCℓ3) is a substance that is used to make semiconductors.

a) Draw the Lewis diagram for the atoms that form BCℓ3.
• ••
• B • ••Cℓ••
•
b) How many covalent bonds does each Cℓ atom need to form? If these bonds are formed with another
Cℓ atom, can a BCℓ3 molecule be formed?
Each Cℓ atom needs to form one covalent bond to achieve a noble gas configuration. If they do so with another
Cℓ atom, Cℓ2 will be formed and a BCℓ3 molecule cannot be formed.
c) Draw the Lewis diagram for the BCℓ3 molecule.
••
•Cℓ•
• •
•• | ••
•Cℓ
• -B-Cℓ••
•• ••
d) Do the Cℓ atoms achieve a noble gas configuration? How many pairs of shared electrons does each atom have?
How many pairs of unshared electrons does each one have?
Yes, the Cℓ atoms achieve a noble gas configuration. Each atom has one single bond and three pairs
of unshared electrons.
e) What about the B atoms? How many pairs of shared electrons does each atom have? How many pairs
of unshared electrons does each one have?
The B atom does not achieve a noble gas configuration. It only has six valence electrons when it is bonded
with the Cℓ atom. It doesn’t have any pairs of unshared electrons.
3 Phosphorous pentachloride (PCℓ5) is a reactant that is used in many chemical reactions:

a) Draw the Lewis diagram for the PCℓ5 molecule.
b) Do the Cℓ atoms achieve a noble gas configuration? What about the P atoms? How many pairs of shared electrons
does each atom have? How many pairs of unshared electrons does each one have?

3
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
Name: Class: Date:
Covalent bonding beyond the octet rule

Remember that…
• The atoms of noble gases are the most stable. The atoms of other elements try to achieve this stability.
In order to do this, they gain, lose or share electrons with other atoms they are bonded with.
• The octet rule states that atoms of different elements gain, lose or share electrons until they have eight
in their valence shell, except the atoms closest to the noble gas He, which obtain a noble gas configuration
with two electrons in their valence shell.
• Drawing the Lewis diagram of a molecule.
– We represent the atoms that form the molecules by writing the symbol surrounded by dots, which
represent the valence electrons.
– If there are several different atoms, the central atom is the one furthest to the left in the periodic table,
unless it is H.
– Atoms join together by single, double or triple bonds until the octet rule is satisfied.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Draw the Lewis diagram for HCOH (formalin).
ANSWER
1. We write the atoms that form the molecule by representing their valence electrons:
• ••
H • H • •C• • O ••
• •
2. We analyse the bonding possibilities:

– Each H atom needs to form one bond. If the two H atoms join together, they will form an H2 molecule
and the HCOH compound will not be formed:
H • H • H • • H
– Each O atom needs to form two covalent bonds. If the two H atoms join together, they will form an H2O
molecule and the HCOH compound cannot be formed:
•• ••
H • H • • O •• H ••O••
• •
•
H
– Each C atom needs to form four covalent bonds. If it forms two bonds with each of the H atoms,
they will have two electrons left over, which can be used to form a double bond with the O atom.
This way, all of the atoms have a noble gas configuration:
• •• • •• ••
H •• C • • O •• H •• C •• ••O•• H-C=O•• 1 double covalent bond C=O
• • • |
• •
H H H 2 single covalent bonds C-H

3
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
Name: Class: Date:
1 Oxygenated water is a liquid that is used as a disinfectant. Its formula is H2O2:

a) Draw the Lewis diagram for each one of the atoms that form oxygenated water.
•• ••
H • H • • O • • O •
•• ••
b) Study the possibility of the two H atoms bonding together. Could an H2O2 molecule be formed?
If the two H atoms join together, they will form H2, and the H2O2 compound cannot be formed.
H-H
c) Study the possibility of the two O atoms bonding together. How could they join together?
Could an H2O2 molecule be formed?
Each O atom needs to form two covalent bonds. If the two O atoms join together, they will form O2
and the H2O2 compound cannot be formed.
•• ••
O=O
•• ••
d) Study the possibility of one O atom joining together with two H atoms. Could the other O atom
join together with them to form an H2O2 molecule?
Water, H2O, would be formed and the other O atom would not be able to join together with them.
••
H- O -H
••
e) Study the bonding that occurs between the atoms for them all to achieve a noble gas configuration.
Indicate which type of bonds are formed between each pair of atoms.
The Lewis diagram would be:
•• ••
H- O - O -H
•• ••
All of the bonds are single covalent bonds.
f) Unshared electrons are those in the valence shell of an atom that are not part of a bond.
They are usually counted in pairs. Take another look at the Lewis diagram of an H2O2 molecule.
Analyse which atoms have pairs of unshared electrons and how many each one has.
The oxygen atoms have pairs of unshared electrons. Each atom has two pairs.
2 Hydrocyanic acid is a colourless liquid that is found in small amounts in almond seeds.
It is what gives almonds their scent. Its formula is HCN.
a) Draw the Lewis diagram for the atoms that form hydrocyanic acid.
• ••
H • • C • • N •
• •
b) Study the possibility of the H atom and the N atom bonding together. How many bonds would be formed?
Which bonds could the N atom then form with the C atom? Would the atoms achieve a noble gas configuration?
One single bond would be formed and the N atom could form another single bond with the C atom,
but the N and C atoms would not achieve a noble gas configuration.
•• •
H- N - C •
• •

3
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
Name: Class: Date:
c) Study the bonding that occurs between the atoms so that all of them achieve a noble gas configuration.
Indicate which type of bonds are formed between each pair of atoms. Analyse which atoms have pairs
of unshared electrons and how many each one has.
We put the element located farthest to the left in the periodic table (except for H) in the centre.
In this case, C:
H-C/N
There is a single bond between the H atom and the C atom, and a triple bond between the C atom
and the N atom. The N atom has one pair of unshared electrons.
Not all molecules satisfy the octet rule. Look at the following exceptions to Lewis’s theory
about covalent bonding.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Boron trichloride (BCℓ3) is a substance that is used to make semiconductors.

a) Draw the Lewis diagram for the atoms that form BCℓ3.
• ••
• B • ••Cℓ••
•
b) How many covalent bonds does each Cℓ atom need to form? If these bonds are formed with another
Cℓ atom, can a BCℓ3 molecule be formed?
Each Cℓ atom needs to form one covalent bond to achieve a noble gas configuration. If they do so with another
Cℓ atom, Cℓ2 will be formed and a BCℓ3 molecule cannot be formed.
c) Draw the Lewis diagram for the BCℓ3 molecule.
••
•Cℓ•
• •
•• | ••
•Cℓ
• -B-Cℓ••
•• ••
d) Do the Cℓ atoms achieve a noble gas configuration? How many pairs of shared electrons does each atom have?
How many pairs of unshared electrons does each one have?
Yes, the Cℓ atoms achieve a noble gas configuration. Each atom has one single bond and three pairs
of unshared electrons.
e) What about the B atoms? How many pairs of shared electrons does each atom have? How many pairs
of unshared electrons does each one have?
The B atom does not achieve a noble gas configuration. It only has six valence electrons when it is bonded
with the Cℓ atom. It doesn’t have any pairs of unshared electrons.
3 Phosphorous pentachloride (PCℓ5) is a reactant that is used in many chemical reactions:

a) Draw the Lewis diagram for the PCℓ5 molecule.
••
• •
•• • Cℓ• ••
• | Cℓ••
• Cℓ
••
| P ••
|
|
••
|
• ••
• Cℓ Cℓ••
•• ••
b) Do the Cℓ atoms achieve a noble gas configuration? What about the P atoms? How many pairs of shared electrons
does each atom have? How many pairs of unshared electrons does each one have?
The Cℓ atoms do achieve a noble gas configuration, but the P atom doesn’t. It is surrounded by 10 electrons.
This is possible because in the P atom, the 3d orbital is available, and it can hold more than eight valence electrons.

3
SOLVED PROBLEMS
CHEMICAL BONDS
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
Consider the following chemical elements: H, O, Cℓ, C, Aℓ and Na.

a) Draw a table to show the group in the periodic table that each element belongs to and its valence
shell electron configuration.
b) Write the formula of the simple substances that can be formed with these elements, identifying
which are molecular and which are crystalline. What type of bond is formed between the atoms
of the molecular substances? What about between the atoms of the crystalline substances?
c) Write the formula of two covalent compounds for the elements O, C and Cℓ. Draw the Lewis diagram
for the compounds and analyse which types of bonds are formed between the atoms.
d) Starting with the element H, form an ionic compound and a covalent compound by combining
H with the initial elements that you think are appropriate.
e) Using all of the initial elements, form four different ionic compounds. They should not be the same
as the ones above.
Approach and answer

a)
H O Cℓ C Aℓ Na
Group 1 16 17 14 13 1
Valence configuration 1s1 2s22p4 3s23p5 2s22p4 3s23p1 3s1
b) Simple substances are formed when atoms of the same element are combined.
• If the element is a nonmetal, it will join with other identical atoms with covalent bonds.
This is the case for H, O, Cℓ and C.
– In the case of H and Cℓ, two atoms combine, sharing one pair of electrons.
– In the case of O, both atoms must share two electrons. They all form diatomic molecules: H2, Cℓ2 and O2.
– Each C atom needs to form four covalent bonds. Therefore, each atom joins with another four atoms.
These then join with another four, forming a crystalline network of atoms joined with covalent bonds.
• If the element is a metal, it will join with other identical atoms with metallic bonds.
Many atoms join together forming a crystalline structure of ions immersed in a sea of electrons.
This is the case for Aℓ and Na.
H2 O2 Cℓ2 C Aℓ Na
Structure Molecule Molecule Molecule Crystal Crystal Crystal
Bond Covalent Covalent Covalent Covalent Metallic Metallic
c) We draw the Lewis diagram for the atoms and determine which bonds need to be formed so that each
element achieves a noble gas configuration:
•• • •• •• •• •• ••
• O• •O• •O•
• •
• • •
"
•
•O• •O• •O•
• • • • • • " • O =C= O •
• • CO2. Two double covalent bonds.
•• •• •• •• •• ••
•Cℓ• • O • •Cℓ•
•
•• •• •
"
•
•Cℓ- O- Cℓ•
•
•• •• ••
• OCℓ2. Two single covalent bonds.
d) H is a nonmetal.
• It forms an ionic compound when it combines with a metal, such as Na. Example: NaH.
• It forms a covalent compound when it combines with a nonmetal, such as Cℓ. Example: HCℓ.
e) Ionic compounds are formed by combining a metal with a nonmetal. Each ion acquires a positive or negative charge
equal to the electrons it loses or gains to achieve a noble gas configuration. The formula of the compound must be neutral.
For example: Aℓ2O3, AℓCℓ3, Na2O, NaCℓ.

3
SOLVED PROBLEMS
CHEMICAL BONDS
ACTIVITIES
1 Indicate which type of chemical bond is formed 6 Explain which of the substances formed by the pairs
between the atoms of the following substances: of atoms identified conduct electricity and whether
a) Cℓ2 c) NaCℓ e) Na2O they do so in a solid state, in a liquid state or when
dissolved in water:
b) Aℓ d) Cℓ2O f) C
a) Cℓ-C c) Na-S e) Cℓ-S
Answer: Ionic: c), e); covalent: a), d), f); metallic: b)
b) Aℓ-H d) Cu-Au f) Cℓ-Br
2 Consider the following substances: Answer: C
onductor in a solid state: d); conductor
in a liquid state: b), c), d); conductor when
Cℓ2, Aℓ, NaCℓ, Cℓ2O, Na2O, C
dissolved in water: b) and c)
a) Put them in order according to their melting points.
7 H forms compounds with many other chemical elements.
b) Indicate which is the hardest.
Consider the following formulas: CH4, NH3, CaH2, HCℓ.
c) Indicate which is the most soluble in water.
Identify:
Answer: a) Cℓ2 < Cℓ2O < Aℓ < NaCℓ < Na2O < C
a) An ionic compound.
b) C; c) NaCℓ
b) A polar covalent compound.
3 Find the elements below in the periodic table c) A compound that forms an H bond.
and explain which type of bond is formed when
Answer: a) CaH2; b) HCℓ; c) NH3
the pairs of atoms are combined:
a) Cℓ-C c) Na-S e) Cℓ-S 8 The table below shows the melting and boiling points
of compounds of H and the elements in group 16:
b) Aℓ-H d) Cu-Au f) Cℓ-Br
Answer: Ionic: b), c); covalent: a), e), f); metallic: d) Compound Melting p. (°C) Boiling p. (°C)
4 For the pairs of atoms identified in the activity H2O 0 100

above, write the valence shell electron configuration H2S -85.6 -60.7
of each element and write the formula of the
compound formed: H2Se -65.7 -41.4
Valence H2Te -51 -4

Formula
configuration
a) Draw a graph representing the melting and boiling
a) Cℓ-C points of each substance compared with the period
of the element that is combined with H.
b) Al-H
b) Based on this graph, what should the melting
c) Na-S and boiling point of water be?
d) Cu-Au c) Why doesn’t water follow this natural trend?

d) Taking into account that the human body is 65 %
e) Cℓ-S
water, what would happen to us if what is explained
f) Cℓ-Br in section c) was not true?
Answer: b
) Boiling point: -92 ºC, melting point: -104 ºC;
Answer: a) CCℓ4; b) AlH3; c) Na2S; d) CuAu; e) SCℓ2; f) BrCℓ c) Water molecules join together with hydrogen
bonds so more energy is needed to break
5 Indicate which of the substances formed by the bonds; d) At room temperature, water would
the pairs of atoms identified are molecules be in a gas state, so our bodies would be
and which are crystals: composed of mainly gas.
a) Cℓ-C d) Cu-Au 9 Draw the Lewis structure for the following substances and
b) Al-H e) Cℓ-S determine in which ones a hydrogen bond can be formed.
c) Na-S f) Cℓ-Br a) H2O2 b) HCOH c) NCH d) CℓNH2
Answer: Molecules: a), e), f); crystals: b), c), d) Answer: a) and c)

3
SOLVED PROBLEMS
CHEMICAL BONDS
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
A series of experiments was carried out to determine the types of bonds between the atoms in three unknown
substances: A, B and C. The results are shown in the table below:
Substance MP (°C) Solubility Conductivity
A 850 Soluble in water Only in solution
B 1100 Not soluble Yes
C 10 Soluble in benzene No
Explain which type of bond we can expect in substances A, B and C.
Approach and answer

Substance A is a solid at room temperature, has a high melting point, is soluble in water and conducts electricity
when in solution. These are the specific properties of an ionic compound.
Substance B is a solid at room temperature, has a very high melting point and conducts electricity.
These are the specific properties of a metal.
Substance C is a liquid at room temperature, has a low melting point, is not soluble in water, and doesn’t conduct
electricity. These are the specific properties of a covalent compound.
ACTIVITIES
1 Given the atoms 73Li, 168O, 35

17Cℓ: 5 A solid that has a high melting point, is hard, soluble
a)
Explain which type of bond is formed when lithium in water and a conductor when dissolved in water
combines with oxygen. forms when atoms are joined with a bond that is:
b) Explain which type of bond is formed when chlorine a) Covalent.

combines with oxygen. b) Ionic.
Answer: a) Ionic; b) covalent c) Metallic.
Answer: b)
2 Classify the following substances according
to the chemical bond present in each: 6 Which of the following substances will dissolve best
NaCℓ, H2O, N2, Fe, SO2 in water?
Answer: Ionic, covalent, covalent, metallic, covalent N2, NaCℓ, CCℓ4, Na
3 Indicate which type of bond exists in the following Answer: NaCℓ

substances:
7 Magnesium joins with bromine to form magnesium
Cℓ2, FeCℓ2, NaBr, SO3, Mg and C
bromide.
Answer: Covalent, ionic, ionic, covalent, metallic
Answer the following questions:
and covalent
a)
What type of bond are they joined with?
4 Put the following substances in order from lowest b) What properties can we expect the compound
to highest melting point (taking into account magnesium bromide to have?
the bonds formed in each):
Answer: a
) ionic; b) properties of ionic compounds
N2, Cu, CO2 and H2O
Answer: N2 < CO2 < H2O < Cu

3
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL BONDS
Physical properties of salt and sugar. Relationship between properties and chemical bonding
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Beakers (4). • Alcohol, water.
To study different properties of salt
• Watch glasses (2). • Elements to build a direct‑current
and sugar and relate them to the
• Spatula. circuit: light bulb, cables, two
chemical bonds in these
electrodes and a power supply.
substances. • Stirring rod.
• Salt and sugar.
PROCEDURE
Solubility in solvents
1. Pour 25 mL of water into two beakers. 3. Pour 25 mL of alcohol into the other two beakers.
2. Add a spatula of salt to one beaker and a spatula of sugar Add a spatula of salt to one beaker and a spatula of sugar
to the other. Stir and check to see if they dissolve. to the other. Stir and check to see if they dissolve.
Solubility in water Solubility in alcohol
Salt
Sugar
Electrical conductivity
1. Put a large amount of salt onto one watch glass 5. Pour 25 mL of water into two beakers.
and a similar amount of sugar onto the other. 6. Add a spatula of salt to one beaker and a spatula
2. Set up a direct current circuit that includes a light of sugar to the other. Stir until they have dissolved.
bulb. Place the two open electrodes at the end. 7. Put the electrodes into the beaker containing
3. Place the electrodes in the salt on the watch glass. the salt solution. Does the bulb light up?
Does the bulb light up? 8. Put the electrodes into the beaker containing
4. Now place the electrodes in the sugar on the watch glass. the sugar solution. Does the bulb light up?
Does the bulb light up?
Electrical conductivity of salt Electrical conductivity of sugar
In a solid state
In a liquid state
QUESTIONS
1 Write the formula of salt. What type of bond is formed between its atoms? Explain its solubility
in water and in alcohol.
2 Taking into account the type of chemical bonding in salt, explain its electrical conductivity in a solid state
and in aqueous solution.
3 Find the formula of sugar. What type of bond is formed between its atoms? Explain its solubility in water
and in alcohol. Why is its chemical behaviour different to that of salt?
4 Taking into account the type of chemical bonding in sugar, explain its electrical conductivity in a solid state
and in aqueous solution.

NOTES

3
ASSESSMENT
CHEMICAL BONDS
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 We have three chemical elements, X, Y and Z, with the valence shell electron configuration of each shown below.
Element X Y Z
Valence configuration 2s22p4 2s22p2 5s1
a) Explain which type of bond is formed when the following pairs of atoms are combined. Then, write the formula
of the resulting compound.
a) X-X b) Y-Y c) Z-Z d) X-Y e) X-Z
Type of bond
Formula
b) Say which of the substances above:

a. Is the hardest.
b. Conducts electricity in a solid state and in a liquid state.
c. Conducts electricity in a liquid state but not in a solid state.
d. Conducts electricity when it is dissolved in water.
e. Is a gaseous compound.
2 Draw the Lewis diagram for the atoms that form each of the following individual species.
Do the same for the resulting species. In each case, specify what type of bond is formed between the atoms:
a) BaCℓ2
b) PF3
c) Cℓ2CO
3 Give an example of a crystalline substance whose atoms are joined together with ionic bonds,
covalent bonds and metallic bonds. Taking into account the structure of these crystals, explain:
a) Why the metallic crystal conducts electricity and the others don’t.
b) Why the ionic crystal is fragile and the metallic crystal isn’t.
c) Why the covalent crystal is hard and the metallic crystal isn’t.
d) Why the ionic crystal can dissolve in water and the others can’t.

Name: Class: Date:
4 Observe the data of three substances that have a similar structure in the table below:
CO2 H2O H2S
Bond energy (kJ) 743 463 344
Melting point (ºC) -78 0 -86
Boiling point (ºC) -57 100 -60
a) Bond energy is the energy that is needed to break a bond. Why is it much higher
for CO2 than it is for H2O and H2S?
b) Which type of bond is broken in each substance when they pass from a liquid state to a gaseous state?
c) Why is the melting point and boiling point of water much higher than that of the other substances?
d) If the binding forces between molecules were similar to the binding forces between H2S molecules,
how would living things be affected?
5 Name the following compounds:

a) KOH e) CuCℓ2
b) H2S f) Li2O2
c) Mg(CℓO3)2 g) NaHCO3
d) H2SO4 h) Fe2O3
6 Write the formulas of the following compounds:

a) Silver sulphide. f) Beryllium peroxide.
b) Hydrochloric acid. g) Chloric acid.
c) Carbon tetrachloride. h) Copper(II) oxide.
d) Dichromium trioxide. i) Ammonia.
e) Aluminium hydroxide.

3
ASSESSMENT
CHEMICAL BONDS
1 a)
a) X-X b) Y-Y c) Z-Z d) X-Y e) X-Z
Type of bond Covalent Covalent Metallic Covalent Ionic
Formula O2 C Rb CO2 Rb2O
b) Say which of the substances above:

a. Is the hardest: C.
b. Conducts electricity in a solid state and in a liquid state: Rb.
c. Conducts electricity in a liquid state but not in a solid state: Rb2O.
d. Conducts electricity when it is dissolved in water: Rb2O.
e. Is a gaseous compound: O2.
2 Atoms Compound
•• •• -
• Cℓ•• • Cℓ••
•• •• •• ••
a) BaCℓ2 Ba •• Ba2+ [ •• Cℓ•• ]- Ba2+ [ •• Cℓ•• ]-
•• •• - •• ••
• Cℓ•• • Cℓ••
•• ••
•• •• ••
•
• F• • P• • F •• •
•• •• ••
•• • •• • F - P - F ••
•• ••
b) PF3 |
• • •
• •F•
• F •• ••
••
•• ••
• O ••
• O ••
c) Cℓ2CO •• • •• •• || ••
• •
• Cℓ•• •C• • Cℓ•• • Cℓ -C- Cℓ •
•• • •• •• ••
3 Crystalline substance whose atoms are joined together with:

Ionic bonds: NaCℓ.
Covalent bonds: C (diamond).
Metallic bonds: Cu.
The explanation is based on the way the atoms are arranged in each crystal:
Ionic crystal Covalent crystal Metallic crystal
a) For electrical conduction to occur, the charges must be able to move. In the metallic crystal, the electrons have considerable
mobility. In the covalent crystal, there are no free electrons, and in the ionic crystal, the ions occupy fixed positions so
the charges can’t move.
b) When the ionic crystal is hit, ions with the same charge face each other and repel each other, causing the crystal to break.

1
c) A hard crystal is very resistant to scratches. To scratch a crystal, the bond between the atoms has to be broken
and the covalent bond is very strong.
d) The water molecule is polar, so it can align its positive part with the negative ion, and the negative part with
the positive ion. This means that bonds can be formed between the ions and several water molecules that
are stronger than the bond between the ions, causing it to dissolve. This doesn’t happen with covalent crystals
or metallic crystals.
4 a) There is a double covalent bond between the C and O atoms. In the other substances, there is a single covalent bond.
b) The CO2 molecule is non‐polar. Bonds between non‐polar molecules are broken.
The H2S molecule is polar. Dipole – dipole bonds are broken.
The H2O molecule is polar but it forms H bonds. When it turns from a liquid into a gas, H bonds between the water
molecules are broken.
c) Because the hydrogen bond is the strongest of the intermolecular bonds.
d) The melting and boiling point of water would be very low, like H2S. Water would be a gas at room temperature.
Water is the most abundant substance in living things and if it were a gas, it would not stay inside the body.
5 Name the following compounds:
Formula Name
a) KOH Potassium hydroxide

b) H2S Dihydrogen sulphide
c) Mg(CℓO3)2 Magnesium bis(chloratetrioxide)
d) H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
e) CuCℓ2 Copper dichloride
f) Li2O2 Dilithium dioxide
g) NaHCO3 Sodium hydrogencarbonate
h) Fe2O3 Iron(III) oxide
6 Write the formulas of the following compounds:
Name Formula
a) Silver sulphide Ag2S
b) Hydrochloric acid HCℓ
c) Carbon tetrachloride CCℓ4
d) Dichromium trioxide Cr2O3
e) Aluminium Hydroxide Aℓ(OH)3
f) Beryllium peroxide BeO2
g) Chloric acid HCℓO3
h) Copper(II) oxide CuO
i) Ammonia NH3

NOTES

4
CARBON CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
1.
We begin this unit by discussing plastics. These carbon 4.
Many of the fuels we use today, such as butane and petrol,
compounds perform an important role in our daily lives. are derived from carbon.
2. Carbon is an element that can form bonds with other 5. Carbon is one of the main components of living beings;
carbon atoms. This allows it to form different types carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids are all
of chains, producing a wide variety of compounds. biologically important compounds.
3. To describe these compounds, we need a classification 6.
We finish the unit by discussing other molecules that
system that takes into account the type of bond are of biological interest, such as adrenaline and certain
(simple, double, triple) and the combinations of other medicines.
elements involved (mainly H, O and N).
OBJECTIVES
• Learn the basic characteristics of carbon compounds. • Recognise carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
• Distinguish between alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. acids.
• Use functional groups to differentiate between • Understand the origin and uses of carbon‐derived fuels.
carbon compounds.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • Carbon compounds and their characteristics.

• Carbon bonds. Allotropic forms.
• Organic formulas (Annex 2).
• Classifying organic compounds: hydrocarbons, oxygenated compounds and nitrogen compounds.
• Organic compounds of biological interest: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins.
• Carbon‐derived fuels.
KNOW HOW TO • Write the molecular, structural and semi‐structural formulas of carbon compounds.
• Name organic compounds based on their formulas.
• Manufacture a drug in a laboratory.
BE ABLE TO • Appreciate the importance of carbon compounds, both in living beings and everyday materials.
• Develop a careful and precise approach to laboratory work.
• Appreciate the role of scientific knowledge in driving technological advancement.

4
CARBON CHEMISTRY
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
Organic chemistry was first established as a branch cyclical chains. To understand the versatility of carbon
of Chemistry at the beginning of the 19th century, compounds, it is helpful for students to remember
as chemists became more interested in the substances carbon’s electron configuration and the fact that it has four
produced by plants and animals, such as sugar and electrons in its outer layer. This means that it needs to gain
alcohol. The term organic was coined for these compounds four electrons in order to acquire a noble gas configuration
in order to distinguish them from those derived from (eight electrons). The carbon atom can complete this layer
minerals, which were given the term inorganic. All organic by sharing each of its four electrons with other carbon
compounds have one thing in common: they contain the atoms, forming a covalent bond.
element carbon. For some time, organic compounds were 3.
Due to the fact that there are so many organic compounds,
considered to be special, and it was believed that they they have to be classified in different groups. These groups
could only be synthesised in living cells. However, are based on the type of atoms that the carbon is bonded
experiments eventually proved that this was not the case: to (principally hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen), the different
organic compounds could be obtained from inorganic combinations, and the different types of bond involved
ones. Today, we call the study of this element and its (simple, double and triple). Asking students to write out
compounds carbon chemistry. the molecular and structural formulas will help them
2.
Carbon compounds are an impressively diverse collection to absorb the structural characteristics of the different
of substances. This is due to carbon’s ability to form bonds groups of compounds more effectively.
with other carbon atoms, creating linear, branched and
WEBSITES YouTube: Do not be afraid of organic chemistry. | Jakob

Functional Groups - Royal Society of Chemistry. Magolan | TEDxUIdaho. Organic chemistry is supposed
This is a fun game for revising the functional groups to be one of the hardest subjects to understand, but did
and how they are represented. you know that you can get the hang of the basics in just
Keywords: organic, chemistry, portal 15 minutes? In this talk, Jakob Magolan shows us how,
proving that organic chemistry isn’t as hard as people say!
Organic Chemistry Portal. This site features information
about current topics, interesting reactions and important APPS FOR TABLETS AND SMARTPHONES
chemical substances in organic chemistry.
Keywords: organic, chemistry, portal Learn Organic Chemistry Nomenclature (iOs: free).
This app offers clear and concise lessons and activities
to help students understand how to name organic
compounds and write their formulas.

4
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
CARBON CHEMISTRY
1 Which of the following substances are organic? 11 Write the formulas of the following acids:
a)
Sulphuric acid. a)
Propanoic acid.
b) Calcium oxide. b) Ethanoic acid or acetic acid.
c)
Sugar.
12 Name the following acids:
d) Carbon dioxide.
a)
CH3-CH2-CH2-COOH.
2 Name four organic compounds. b) CH3-CH2-CH=CH-COOH.
3 Which of the following statements is false? 13 Write the formulas of the following aldehydes:
a)
A carbon atom has six protons and six electrons. a)
Propanal.
b) Carbon atoms join together with ionic bonds. b) Pentanal.
c)
Carbon belongs to group 14 of the periodic table.
14 Name the following aldehydes:
4 Write out a linear chain and a branched chain a)
CH3-CH2-CH2-CHO.
of an organic compound with six carbon atoms.
b) H-CHO.
5 What is the difference between a molecular formula, 15 Write the formulas of the following ketones:
a semi‑structural formula and a structural formula?
a)
Butanone.
6 Which functional group does ethanol contain? b) Propanone or acetone.
7 Write the formulas for the following hydrocarbons: 16 Name the following ketones:
a)
Butane. a)
CH3-CO-CH2-CH2-CH3.
b) Ethyne or acetylene. b) CH3-CH2-CO-CH2-CH3.
8 Name the following hydrocarbons: 17 Write the formulas of the following amines:
a)
CH3-CH=CH2. a)
Ethylamine.
b) CH3-CH2-CH3. b) Butylamine.
9 Write the formulas for the following alcohols: 18 Name the following amines:
a)
Methanol. a)
CH3-NH2.
b) Propan‑2‑ol. b) CH2-CH2-CH2-NH2.
10 Name the following alcohols: 19 Name three fuels derived from carbon.
a)
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2OH.
b) CH2OH-CH2OH.

4
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
CARBON CHEMISTRY
1 Only c) is organic. 11 a) CH3-CH2-COOH.

2 Open answer. b) CH3-COOH.
3 Statement b) is false. 12 a) Butanoic acid.
b) Pent‑2‑enoic acid.
4 Linear chain: CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3.
13 a) CH3-CH2-CHO.
Branched chain: CH 3-CH-CH 2-CH 2-CH 3.
y b) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CHO.
CH 3
14 a) Butanal.
5 A molecular formula only indicates the proportion of each
b) Methanal or formaldehyde.
element’s atoms that form the molecule; a semi‑structural
formula shows the bonds between carbon atoms; and a 15 a) CH3-CO-CH2-CH3.
structural formula displays all the bonds within the molecule. b) CH3-CO-CH3.
6 It contains the alcohol functional group (-OH). 16 a) Pentan‑2‑one.
7 a)
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3. b) Pentan‑3‑one.
b)
CH/CH. 17 a) CH3-CH2-NH2.
8 a)
Propene. b) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-NH2.
b)
Propane. 18 a) Methylamine.
9 a)
CH3-OH. b) Propylamine.
b)
CH3-CHOH-CH3. 19 Wood, natural gas and butane gas.
10 a) Butan‑1‑ol.
b) Ethane‑1,2‑diol or ethylene glycol.

4
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
CARBON CHEMISTRY
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 Why is carbon the building block of life? 9 Write the semi‑structural formulas of the following
compounds:
2 Calculate the molecular mass of the following
a) Pentan‑1‑ol.
organic compounds:
b) Butanoic acid.
a)
Ethylene glycol (C2H6O2).
c) Propylamine.
b) Propanone or acetone (C3H6O).
d) Ethanal.
3 Write the semi‑structural formulas of all the
alcohols with this molecular formula: 10 State which of the following hydrocarbons
have the same chemical composition:
C3H8O
a) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
4 Write the semi‑structural formula of the aldehyde b) CH 3-CH-CH 2-CH 3
and the ketone with this molecular formula: y
CH 3
C3H6O
c) CH2=CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
5 Which of the following functional groups does butanal d) CH/C-CH2-CH2-CH3
contain?
a)
Alcohol (-OH). 11 How many moles of substance are there
b) Ketone (-CO-). in 116 grams of butane (C4H10)?
c)
Acid (-COOH).
12 Write the balanced combustion reactions
d) Aldehyde (-CHO). for the following hydrocarbons:
6 The substance known colloquially as glycerine has a) C3H8

the name propane‑1,2,3‑triol. What class of compound b) C2H4
is it?
a)
Acid. 13 Name three foods that are rich in carbohydrates.
b) Amine.
14 Name three foods that are rich in lipids or fats.
c)
Alcohol.
d) Ketone.
7 Write the semi‑structural formulas of the alcohols

with this molecular formula:
C4H10O
8 Complete the following table:
Methanol Ethanol Propanol Butanol
Molecular
mass (u)
What do you notice?

4
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
CARBON CHEMISTRY
1 Because it can form chains made up of a large number 9 a) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2OH.

of atoms. b) CH3-CH2-CH2-COOH.
2 a)
62 u. c) CH3-CH2-CH2-NH2.
b)
58 u. d) CH3-CHO.
3 CH3-CH2-CH2OH and CH3-CHOH-CH3. 10 a) and b).
4 CH3-CH2-CHO and CH3-CO-CH3. 11 There are 2 moles of butane.
5 The correct answer is d). 12 a) C3H8 + 5 O2 " 3 CO2 + 4 H2O.
6 The correct answer is c). b) C2H4 + 3 O2 " 2 CO2 + 2 H2O.
7 • CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2OH 13 Cereals, vegetables, nuts, sugar, fruit, etc.
• CH3-CH2-CHOH-CH3 14 Eggs, butter, sausages, offal, cream, etc.
•
CH 3-CH-CH 2-OH
y
CH 3
CH 3
y
CH 3-C-OH
•
y
CH 3

8 Methanol Ethanol Propanol Butanol
Molecular
32 46 60 74
mass (u)

You should notice that each time an extra carbon is added
to the chain in the homologous series of alcohols, the
molecular mass increases by 14.

4
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Name: Class: Date:
Petroleum and its derivatives

Remember that...
Petroleum is a liquid with a lower density than water. It was formed over millions of years by the decomposition
of microorganisms (plants and animals) that lived in shallow waters.
It is characterised by its viscosity, smell and dark colour. Chemically, it is made up of a mix of different hydrocarbons,
each of which contains a chain of carbon atoms of varying length, along with other elements such as oxygen,
sulphur and nitrogen.
Today, as a result of the increased consumption associated with global population growth, petroleum and its derivatives
are vital to both energy production and the manufacture of many industrial products (fertilisers, plastics, food,
pharmaceuticals, chemicals, textiles, etc.).
In order to take advantage of the varying chemical composition of the components of petroleum, they are separated
in refineries by distillation. This process consists of heating the petroleum, causing the different hydrocarbons to evaporate
at different temperatures. The vapour rises through the distillation columns, where it condenses and is collected in different
containers. Since each hydrocarbon has a different boiling range, they are collected sequentially, without mixing. In order
for all of the hydrocarbons to evaporate, the temperature must be higher than 400 °C.
1 Study the different products obtained from petroleum distillation and their uses. Then, do some research and fill
in the missing information on their boiling ranges.
Distillation product Boiling temperature range Uses
Non‑condensed gases Fuels and primary materials for the chemical industry
Petroleum ether Solvents
Petrol Motor fuel
Kerosene Motor fuel and heating
Diesel Motor diesel and heating
Lubricants Machine and tool lubricants
Vaseline Creams
Tar and other residues Bitumen, road construction

4
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Name: Class: Date:
Polymers and macromolecules

Remember that...
Organic compounds with a high molecular mass are called macromolecules. They are very important for the chemical
industry and for biological processes. These compounds can either be made in a laboratory (polymers) or be of natural origin
(biopolymers).
The word polymer comes from the Ancient Greek words rqmow, which means ‘many’, and nftqw, which means ‘part’,
since polymers are obtained by joining many simple molecules together. Due to the fact that they are made up of these
simple parts, called monomers, polymers are chemically very simple, despite the fact that their atomic mass can be
millions of units (u).
Polymers have become indispensable to our society in recent decades (PVC, synthetic rubber, polyethylene, silicones,
different textile fibres, etc.) and the majority of the chemical industry is involved in research into polymers.
We can classify them in different ways:
• According to the polymerisation process that forms them. Sometimes,
the polymer chain is formed through the successive addition of identical
monomers, in which case all of the monomers’ atoms will become part
of the polymer. In other cases, as the polymer grows, some molecules,
such as water, are eliminated. These polymers will not contain all of the
atoms from the original monomers.
• According to their carbon backbone. They can be linear or branched.
• According to how they react to heat. Some polymers soften or melt
when heated, then harden again when cooled and recover their original properties.
These polymers can be moulded (they are known as thermoplastics,
and include artificial silks, cellophane, etc.). Other polymers soften or melt
when heated, but become even harder when cooled, which increases
their melting point. These polymers don’t conserve their original properties
(they are known as thermostable, and include materials such as
Ebonite, used to make bowling balls, reeds for musical instruments, etc.,
and Bakelite, used to make telephone casings, pan handles, etc.).
• According to their composition. Some polymers are made up of identical
monomers (these are known as homopolymers, and include PVC or polyethylene).
Others are made up of more than one type of monomer, with each one
incorporating its own properties into the polymer (these are called copolymers,
and include ABS, which combines the chemical resistance of acrylonitrile with
the flexibility of butadiene and the rigidity of styrene).
• According to their importance to industry. From greatest to least: ethylenic
polymers (polymers derived from alkenes, such as polyethylene, PVC, etc.), synthetic
rubbers or elastomers, polyamides and polyesters, polyurethanes and silicones.
These polymers play an extremely important role in industry and in our daily lives.
This is because they have very different characteristics to the monomers that form
them - they have greater resistance, elasticity and electrical resistivity, and they are less
reactive to acids and bases.
Furthermore, these properties can be improved by adding small quantities of chemical
substances, such as antioxidants, plasticisers, etc. This allows us to produce hard, resistant
materials, such as the PVC used in construction; extremely flexible materials, such as
polyethylene; resistant materials, such as nylon; elastic materials, such as synthetic rubber;
and inert materials, such as Teflon.

4
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Name: Class: Date:
The table below shows the formulas and uses of some well-known polymers:
Monomer Polymer Main uses
CH2=CH2 -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2- Bags, bottles, pipes, electrical

Ethene (ethylene) Polyethylene insulation, blinds, etc.
-CH 2-CH-CH 2-CH-

CH2=CH-CH3 y y
CH 3 CH 3 Cling film, electrical insulation, carpets,
cooking utensils, etc.
Propene (propylene) Polypropylene
CH2=CH-Cℓ -CH2-CHCℓ-CH2-CHCℓ- Windows, chairs, insulation, pipes,

Chloroethene (vinyl chloride) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) doors, cups, buckets, etc.
CF2=CF2 -CF2-CF2-CF2-CF2- Non‑stick surfaces, insulation, kitchen

Tetrafluoroethene Polytetrafluoroethene PTFE (Teflon) utensils, gears, etc.
CH2=CCℓ-CH=CH2 -CH2-CCℓ=CH-CH2-
Thermal insulation, tyres.
2‑chlorobutadiene Chloroprene or neoprene
-CH 2-CH-CH 2-CH-

CH2=CH-CN y y
C/N C/N Upholstery, carpets, fabric, etc.
Propenenitrile (acrylonitrile) Polyacrylonitrile
CH2=CH-CH=CH2 -CH2-CH=CH-CH2-
Rubber flooring, tyres, resins, etc.
Buta‑1,3‑diene Polybutadiene
1 Do some research and find some examples of macromolecules of natural origin.

4
WORKSHEET 1
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Name: Class: Date:
Petroleum and its derivatives

Remember that...
Petroleum is a liquid with a lower density than water. It was formed over millions of years by the decomposition
of microorganisms (plants and animals) that lived in shallow waters.
It is characterised by its viscosity, smell and dark colour. Chemically, it is made up of a mix of different hydrocarbons,
each of which contains a chain of carbon atoms of varying length, along with other elements such as oxygen,
sulphur and nitrogen.
Today, as a result of the increased consumption associated with global population growth, petroleum and its derivatives
are vital to both energy production and the manufacture of many industrial products (fertilisers, plastics, food,
pharmaceuticals, chemicals, textiles, etc.).
In order to take advantage of the varying chemical composition of the components of petroleum, they are separated
in refineries by distillation. This process consists of heating the petroleum, causing the different hydrocarbons to evaporate
at different temperatures. The vapour rises through the distillation columns, where it condenses and is collected in different
containers. Since each hydrocarbon has a different boiling range, they are collected sequentially, without mixing. In order
for all of the hydrocarbons to evaporate, the temperature must be higher than 400 °C.
1 Study the different products obtained from petroleum distillation and their uses. Then, do some research and fill
in the missing information on their boiling ranges.
ANSWER
Distillation product Boiling temperature range Uses
Non‑condensed gases — Fuels and primary materials for the chemical industry
Petroleum ether 40‑85 °C Solvents
Petrol 80‑200 °C Motor fuel
Kerosene 180‑300 °C Motor fuel and heating
Diesel 250‑350 °C Motor diesel and heating
Lubricants Above 325 °C Machine and tool lubricants
Vaseline Above 350 °C Creams
Tar and other residues — Bitumen, road construction
The conversion of the hydrocarbons in petroleum into chemical products is called petrochemistry, and provides the basis
for modern technology and industry, as these synthetic products replace traditional materials. For example, synthetic fibres
can be used instead of cotton or wool, while synthetic plastics are lighter, more flexible and more corrosion resistant than
the traditional materials they have replaced.
End products derived from petroleum are obtained using basic substances such as olefins (ethylene, propylene and butenes)
and aromatic hydrocarbons. These are produced by breaking down carbon chains of petroleum hydrocarbons and converting
them into simpler substances through a process called cracking. This can be done thermally, in which case different products
are obtained depending on the temperature and duration of the process.
These products are then refined to prepare them for commercial use and consumption, eliminating elements such as sulphur,
which is corrosive and foul smelling, and to obtain the end products.
Look at the table overleaf, which classifies these products according to their characteristics and uses.

4
WORKSHEET 1
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Name: Class: Date:
They account for half of global plastic consumption

Thermoplastics and are used to make plastic bags, furniture, PVC
flooring, pipes, artificial flowers, etc.
Plastics Thermosetting These are used to make domestic utensils,

plastics electrical insulation, etc.
These are used as a substitute for glass, for foams

Polyurethanes
and sponges, etc.
These are used to make swimming costumes,

Polyamides
lingerie, carpets, curtains, tyre interiors, etc.
Synthetic fibres Polyester These are used to make suits, ties, etc.
Acrylics These are used as a wool substitute.
This is principally used in the automotive industry to make tyres.

Synthetic rubber
It is also used in footwear.
These are liquid and solid products capable of removing dirt by dissolving
it in solution. They are used to wash clothes, dishes, etc.
Detergents Today, they are made using chemicals whose residue can then
be broken down by microorganisms in the environment; in other words,
they are biodegradable.
Nitrogen These are artificial fertilisers used in agriculture as a substitute for manure,
fertilisers such as nitrates, sulphates, urea and other fertilisers.

4
WORKSHEET 2
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Name: Class: Date:
Polymers and macromolecules

Remember that...
Organic compounds with a high molecular mass are called macromolecules. They are very important for the chemical
industry and for biological processes. These compounds can either be made in a laboratory (polymers) or be of natural origin
(biopolymers).
The word polymer comes from the Ancient Greek words rqmow, which means ‘many’, and nftqw, which means ‘part’,
since polymers are obtained by joining many simple molecules together. Due to the fact that they are made up of these
simple parts, called monomers, polymers are chemically very simple, despite the fact that their atomic mass can be
millions of units (u).
Polymers have become indispensable to our society in recent decades (PVC, synthetic rubber, polyethylene, silicones,
different textile fibres, etc.) and the majority of the chemical industry is involved in research into polymers.
We can classify them in different ways:
• According to the polymerisation process that forms them. Sometimes,
the polymer chain is formed through the successive addition of identical
monomers, in which case all of the monomers’ atoms will become part
of the polymer. In other cases, as the polymer grows, some molecules,
such as water, are eliminated. These polymers will not contain all of the
atoms from the original monomers.
• According to their carbon backbone. They can be linear or branched.
• According to how they react to heat. Some polymers soften or melt
when heated, then harden again when cooled and recover their original properties.
These polymers can be moulded (they are known as thermoplastics,
and include artificial silks, cellophane, etc.). Other polymers soften or melt
when heated, but become even harder when cooled, which increases
their melting point. These polymers don’t conserve their original properties
(they are known as thermostable, and include materials such as
Ebonite, used to make bowling balls, reeds for musical instruments, etc.,
and Bakelite, used to make telephone casings, pan handles, etc.).
• According to their composition. Some polymers are made up of identical
monomers (these are known as homopolymers, and include PVC or polyethylene).
Others are made up of more than one type of monomer, with each one
incorporating its own properties into the polymer (these are called copolymers,
and include ABS, which combines the chemical resistance of acrylonitrile with
the flexibility of butadiene and the rigidity of styrene).
• According to their importance to industry. From greatest to least: ethylenic
polymers (polymers derived from alkenes, such as polyethylene, PVC, etc.), synthetic
rubbers or elastomers, polyamides and polyesters, polyurethanes and silicones.
These polymers play an extremely important role in industry and in our daily lives.
This is because they have very different characteristics to the monomers that form
them - they have greater resistance, elasticity and electrical resistivity, and they are less
reactive to acids and bases.
Furthermore, these properties can be improved by adding small quantities of chemical
substances, such as antioxidants, plasticisers, etc. This allows us to produce hard, resistant
materials, such as the PVC used in construction; extremely flexible materials, such as
polyethylene; resistant materials, such as nylon; elastic materials, such as synthetic rubber;
and inert materials, such as Teflon.

4
WORKSHEET 2
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Name: Class: Date:
The table below shows the formulas and uses of some well-known polymers:
Monomer Polymer Main uses
CH2=CH2 -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2- Bags, bottles, pipes, electrical

Ethene (ethylene) Polyethylene insulation, blinds, etc.
-CH 2-CH-CH 2-CH-

CH2=CH-CH3 y y
CH 3 CH 3 Cling film, electrical insulation, carpets,
cooking utensils, etc.
Propene (propylene) Polypropylene
CH2=CH-Cℓ -CH2-CHCℓ-CH2-CHCℓ- Windows, chairs, insulation, pipes,

Chloroethene (vinyl chloride) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) doors, cups, buckets, etc.
CF2=CF2 -CF2-CF2-CF2-CF2- Non‑stick surfaces, insulation, kitchen

Tetrafluoroethene Polytetrafluoroethene PTFE (Teflon) utensils, gears, etc.
CH2=CCℓ-CH=CH2 -CH2-CCℓ=CH-CH2-
Thermal insulation, tyres.
2‑chlorobutadiene Chloroprene or neoprene
-CH 2-CH-CH 2-CH-

CH2=CH-CN y y
C/N C/N Upholstery, carpets, fabric, etc.
Propenenitrile (acrylonitrile) Polyacrylonitrile
CH2=CH-CH=CH2 -CH2-CH=CH-CH2-
Rubber flooring, tyres, resins, etc.
Buta‑1,3‑diene Polybutadiene
1 Do some research and find some examples of macromolecules of natural origin.
ANSWER
Examples:
• Rubber.
• Polysaccharides.
• Carbohydrates (starch, cellulose, glycogen).
• Proteins.
• Nucleic acids.

4
SOLVED PROBLEMS
CARBON CHEMISTRY
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
Write the semi‑structural formulas of the following compounds:

CH 3
y
a) 2,2‑dimethylpentane: CH 3-CH 2-CH 2-C-CH 3
y
CH 3
b) Hexan‑3‑ol: CH3-CH2-CHOH-CH2-CH2-CH3
c) 3‑methylbutanoic acid: CH 3-CH-CH 2-COOH
y
CH 3
d) Ethylmethylamine: CH3-CH2-NH-CH3
e) 2,3‑dimethylbut‑1‑ene: CH 2=C-CH-CH 3
y y
CH 3 CH 3
f) Pent‑2‑ene: CH3-CH2-C/C-CH3
g) Hexan‑2‑one: CH3-CO-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
h) 3‑methylbutanal: CH 3-CH-CH 2-CHO
y
CH 3
i) 2‑methylpropanoic acid: CH 3 - CH-COOH

y
CH 3
j) Trimethylamine: CH 3-N-CH 3
y
CH 3
k) Cyclopentane: CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
ACTIVITIES
1 Write the formulas of the following compounds: 2 Name the following substances from their formulas:
a) 2,3,4‑trimethylpentanal. a) CH3-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH3.
b) Hexane‑2,3‑dione. b) CH2=CH-CH2-CH2-CHO.
c) Hexa‑1,3,5‑triene. c) CH3-NH-CH2-CH2-CH3.
d) 2,4‑dimethylpentane. d) CH3-CO-CH2-CH2-CH3.
e) Butene‑2‑oic acid. e) CH 3-C=CH-COOH.
y
f) 2,3‑dimethylpentan‑2‑ol. CH 3
g) 2,3‑dimethylbut‑2‑ene. f) CH 2 OH-CH 2-CH-CH 3.
y
h) Propylbutylamine. CH 3
i) Methanoic acid. g) CH/C-CH2-C/C-CH3.
j) Buta‑1,3‑diene. h) CH2=CH-CH2-COOH.

4
SOLVED PROBLEMS
CARBON CHEMISTRY
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
What is isomerism? Name and write the semi‑structural formulas of the isomers of pentane (C5H12).
Approach and answer

Isomerism is a feature of many organic compounds. The structures are:
It refers to compounds that have the same molecular a) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
formula but different structures, and therefore different b) CH 3-CH 2-CH-CH 3
properties. y
CH 3
The molecular formula C5H12 can represent substances
CH 3
with three different structures. This means that there y
are three isomers with this formula. c) CH 3-C-CH 3
y
CH 3
ACTIVITIES
1 Which of the following compounds are isomers? 6 Write all the possible hydrocarbon isomers with
a) CH3-CH2-CH=CH2. the molecular formula C6H14.
b) CH3-CH=CH-CH3. Answer: CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 , hexane;
c) CH 3-CH-CH 3. CH 3-CH-CH 2-CH 2-CH 3 , 2‑methylpentane;

y y
CH 3 CH 3
Answer: a) and b) CH 3-CH 2-CH-CH 2-CH 3 , 3‑methylpentane;

y
CH 3
2 Are hexanal and hexan‑2‑one isomers? Explain
your answer. CH 3-CH-CH-CH 3 , 2,3‑dimethylbutane;
y y
Answer: Yes. They are isomers because they have the CH 3 CH 3
same molecular formula and different structures. CH 3
y
CH 3-CH-CH 2-CH 3 , 2,2‑dimethylbutane
3 Write the formulas of the two isomers of butan‑2‑ol. y
CH 3
Answer: CH2OH-CH2-CH2-CH3 , butan‑1‑ol
OH
y
7 Write all the possible isomers of compounds with
CH 3-C-CH 3 , 2‑methylpropan‑2‑ol the molecular formula C5H10.
y
CH 3 Answer: CH2=CH-CH2-CH2-CH3 , pent‑1‑ene;
CH3-CH=CH-CH2-CH3 , pent‑2‑ene;
4 Will two chemical isomers, such as but‑1‑ene CH 3-C=CH-CH 3 , 2‑methylbut‑2‑ene;
and but‑2‑ene, have different chemical and y
CH 3
physical properties?
Explain your answer. CH 2=C-CH 2-CH 3 , 2‑methylbut‑1‑ene
y
CH 3
5 Do some research into the formula of benzene
and the history of how its structure was established.

4
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
CARBON CHEMISTRY
The reaction of starch with iodine
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Beaker. • Knife.
To prove that some foods • Foods containing starch: • Iodine dye with a
contain starch. – Potatoes. concentration of 1 %.
– Bread. • Water.
– Pasta. • Stirring rod.
• Foods not containing starch,
for comparison:
– Milk.
– Margarine.
PROCEDURE
When the iodine in the iodine dye reacts with the starch in a piece of potato, 1
bread, etc., the food turns a purple colour. This allows us to test which foods
contain starch and which don’t.
1.
Pour 100 mL of water into the beaker.
2.
Then, add 5 mL of the iodine dye to the beaker.
3. Stir it with the rod.
4.
Put a piece of potato into the beaker and wait for five minutes.
5.
Check whether the iodine is reacting with the starch in the potato,
turning it purple. 2
6.
Repeat the steps above with the other starchy foods, such as the bread
and the pasta.
7. Check to see if they turn purple.
8.
Dispose of the contents of the beaker. Throw the pieces of food in the bin
and dilute the solution in the beaker with water before disposing of it.
9. Wash and dry the beaker.
10. Pour 100 mL of water into it.
11. Add 5 mL of iodine dye to the water.
12. Put a piece of margarine in the beaker and stir it with the rod.
13. Wait for five minutes. You will notice that this time the margarine does not 3
turn purple like the potato or the bread.
QUESTIONS
1 What kind of compound is starch?
2 Do some research and write a list of some of the foods you reguarly eat that contain starch.
3 Now write a list of foods that don’t contain starch.

4
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Distilling red wine to obtain ethanol
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Distilling flask. • Stands.
• To separate ethyl alcohol from red wine. • Thermometer. • Ring support.
• To calculate the alcohol content of the • Condenser. • Gauze.
wine used (% of volume). • Graduated cylinder. • Clamps.
• Erlenmeyer flask or beaker • Nuts.
(receiver). • Carton or bottle of red wine.
• Bunsen burner.
PROCEDURE
1. Set up the distillation equipment as shown in the image.

2. Measure 150 mL of red wine with the graduated cylinder and pour it into the distilling flask.
3. Light the Bunsen burner. After a while, the wine will start to boil.
The gaseous substance produced will pass through the condenser. As it cools, it will condense
at the end of the tube and will collect in the other receptacle, known as the receiver.
The liquid collected is called the distillate. The substances
that did not evaporate when the wine was heated
(residue) will be left in the distilling flask.
4.
The first component of wine to evaporate is alcohol,
as it has a lower boiling point than water. It is important
to pay attention to the thermometer when carrying out
distillation. As soon as the distillate begins to collect,
the temperature must remain constant (the boiling point
of ethyl alcohol). If the temperature continues to rise,
turn off the Bunsen so that the water in the wine
is not distilled as well.
5. Use the graduated cylinder to measure and record
the volume of alcohol collected. (The alcohol obtained
is a colourless liquid like water, but if you smell it you
will notice the difference!)
QUESTIONS
1 Draw a picture of the set-up. Indicate where the cold water enters and the hot water leaves.
2 Answer the following questions:

a) What is distillation used for?
b) How does it work?
c) What is the receiver?
d) What is the condenser?
3 Calculate the concentration (% of volume) of alcohol (solute) in the wine (solution). Compare the value
obtained with the alcohol content indicated on the carton or bottle.

4
ASSESSMENT
CARBON CHEMISTRY
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 Are the following statements true or false? Explain your answers.

a)
Carbon atoms always form linear chains.
b) In an alkene molecule, there is always at least one triple bond between the carbon atoms.
c)
The members of a homologous series have similar chemical properties.
d) Allotropic forms of carbon are substances formed when carbon combines with oxygen or nitrogen.
2 What gives the allotropes of carbon their different properties? Complete the following table:
Allotrope Arrangement of atoms Properties
It is the hardest material

and an electrical insulator.
Graphite
It does not have a crystalline

structure.
3 Complete the following sentences:
a)
In an alkane the carbon‑carbon bonds are simple.
b) Hydrocarbons with one or more double bond are called
c)
Aldehydes and ketones contain a functional group called a
d) In an aldehyde the functional group is found on a carbon,
and in a ketone it is on an carbon.
4 Name the following organic compounds:

a)
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2 .
b) CH3-CH=CH-CH2OH.
c)
CHO-CH=CH2 .
d) CH3-CH2-NH-CH3 .
5 Write the formulas of the following alcohols:

a) Butan‑1‑ol.
b) 2‑methylpropan‑2‑ol.
c) Pentan‑3‑ol.

Name: Class: Date:
6 Explain the difference between the molecular formula and semi‐structural formula of an organic compound.
Then, complete the following table:
Compound Molecular formula Semi-structural formula
Ethane
Ethene
Ethyne
Ethanol
Ethanal
Ethanoic acid
Family Functional group Suffix
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Ketones
Carboxylic acids
Amines

4
ASSESSMENT
CARBON CHEMISTRY
1 a) False. Carbon atoms can form many different types of chain: open, closed, linear and branched.
b)
False. Alkenes are hydrocarbons with at least one double bond between carbon atoms.
c)
True. Chemical properties are mainly determined by the functional group, so members
of a homologous series are chemically similar.
d)
False. These are all simple substances formed solely by carbon.
2
Allotrope Arrangement of atoms Properties
It is the hardest material and an electrical

Diamond Each C atom is bonded to 4 other C atoms.
insulator.
Each C atom is bonded to 3 other C atoms, It is dark in colour and conducts

Graphite
leaving 1 free electron. Arranged in layers. electricity.
Amorphous carbon It does not have a crystalline structure. It is black and used as a fuel.
3 a) In an alkane all the carbon‑carbon bonds are simple.

b) Hydrocarbons with one or more double bond are called alkenes.
c)
Aldehydes and ketones contain a functional group called a carbonyl group.
d)
In an aldehyde the functional group is found on a terminal carbon, and in a ketone it is on an intermediate carbon.
4 a) Pent‑1‑ene.
b) But‑2‑ene‑1‑ol.
c) Propenal.
d) Ethylmethylamine.
5 a) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2OH.
b) CH 3-COH-CH 3.
y
CH 3
c) CH3-CH2-CHOH-CH2-CH3.
6 The molecular formula only shows how many atoms of each element there are in one molecule, whereas the semi‑structural
formula also shows the bonds between the carbon atoms within the molecule.
Compound Molecular formula Semi-structural formula
Ethane C2H6 CH3-CH3
Ethene C2H4 CH2=CH2
Ethyne C2H2 CH=CH
Ethanol C2H6O CH3-CH2OH
Ethanal C2H4O CHO-CH3
Ethanoic acid C4H4O2 CH3-COOH
7
Family Functional group Suffix
Alcohols -OH ‑ol
Aldehydes -CHO ‑al
Ketones -CO- ‑one
Carboxylic acids -COOH ‑oic
Amines -NH2 ‑amine

5
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION
1.
We begin this unit by revising the difference between 3. Next, we consider how factors such as the concentration
a physical and chemical change. We also revise the and surface area of the reactants, the temperature, and
different changes that occur when a chemical reaction the presence of a catalyst affect the speed of a reaction.
takes place and how these help us to understand 4. We work with chemical equations, learning how to balance
what type of reaction has taken place. them and perform stoichiometric calculations. To be able
2. We then use collision theory and energy transfer to perform these calculations correctly, it is crucial that
to study why chemical reactions occur. students understand the concept of the mole.
OBJECTIVES
• Know how to use collision theory to explain chemical • Understand the factors that affect the speed of a reaction.
changes. • Use chemical equations to represent chemical reactions.
• Understand how energy exchange in reactions is related • Perform stoichiometric calculations involving mass and
to the breaking and forming of bonds in reactants and volume in chemical reactions.
products, and represent this graphically, distinguishing
between exothermic and endothermic reactions.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • Chemical reactions. Collision theory.

• Exothermic and endothermic reactions.
• The speed of a reaction.
• Factors that affect the speed of a reaction.
• The mole.
• The concentration of solutions. Molarity.
• Balancing chemical equations.
• Stoichiometric calculations involving mass and volume.
• Stoichiometric calculations with solutions.
KNOW HOW TO • Balance chemical reactions.

• Solve problems involving the calculation of mass and volume in chemical reactions.
• Solve problems on chemical reactions involving dissolved substances.
• Observe and analyse chemical changes in the environment.
• Perform an experiment in the laboratory to test the laws of chemistry.
BE ABLE TO • Follow safety regulations when performing experiments.

• Understand the importance of organisation, cleanliness and precision when working in the laboratory.

5
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
It is useful to begin this unit by looking at the differences We place whole numbers, known as stoichiometric
between physical and chemical changes. A physical coefficients, in front of the formulas of the reactants
change does not alter the composition of matter, while and products, so that the total number of atoms of each
a chemical change involves the breaking and forming element is the same on both sides of the equation.
of bonds, transforming one or several substances into 3.
The mole, the SI unit of quantity of substance, is often
other different ones. Sometimes, students confuse a difficult concept for students to understand. However,
the dissolving process with a chemical change, because it is crucial for performing calculations involving mass
when a substance dissolves it looks like it has ‘disappeared’. and volume in chemical reactions. The mole represents
You can help students to understand this by discussing a fixed number of particles, so you can help students
what happens when table salt dissolves in water, and then understand it by comparing it to the ‘dozen’, a more
when the water evaporates the salt ‘reappears’, showing familiar concept which also represents a fixed number.
that it has not transformed into a different substance. Just as the mass of a dozen marbles is not the same
2.
Chemical changes or chemical reactions are represented as the mass of a dozen tables, neither is the mass
by chemical equations, which consist of the formulas of a mole of atoms or molecules of two different
of the initial substances (reactants), an arrow showing substances the same.
the direction of the reaction, and the formulas of the 4.
The different types of energy exchange in reactions
substances obtained at the end (products). Chemical (absorption or release) are associated with the breaking
reactions obey Lavoisier’s law, which states that mass is and formation of the bonds of the substances involved.
conserved. The equation representing a chemical reaction Endothermic reactions need to absorb energy, while in
should always reflect this, meaning it must be balanced. exothermic reactions, energy is released.
WEBSITES Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction + Collision Theory |

PhET Interactive Simulations – Reactions & Rates. GCSE Science | Chemistry. This is a very useful tutorial for
This simulator helps students explore what makes a reaction learning which factors influence the speed of a reaction, why
take place when atoms and molecules collide. It also allows they affect it and how. These factors include: concentration,
them to design experiments with different reactions, pressure, surface area, temperature and the presence
concentrations and temperatures, and then observe what of catalysts. It is a good resource for learning about how
happens and what factors affect the speed of the reaction. collision theory and activation energy explain the influence
Keywords: reaction, rates, simulation. of these factors on the speed of a reaction.
Balance Chemical Equation – Online Balancer. APPS FOR TABLETS AND SMARTPHONES
This website balances any chemical reaction and provides
students with tips on how to balance them themselves. Chem Pro (iOs and Android). This fantastic application
It is a very useful practice tool for students. features a lot of secondary Chemistry content.
Keywords: chemical equations, online balancer. The section on stoichiometry and chemical reactions
is particularly useful. It can be used in the classroom
if the students have access to tablets, or at home to revise
or consolidate their understanding, as well as to practise
what they have learned.

5
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1 Explain the difference between a physical and 10 In the following chemical reaction:
a chemical change. Give two examples of each. Mg + 2 HCℓ " MgCℓ2 + H2
2 State whether the following processes are physical What is the mass of magnesium chloride produced
or chemical changes: when 0.154 mol of magnesium reacts with excess
acid?
a)
Heating a liquid until its temperature has risen
from 21 to 42 °C. Atomic masses: Mg = 24 u; Cℓ = 35.5 u.
b) Melting a piece of bronze. 11 Propane (C3H8) burns in the presence of oxygen,

c)
Burning wood in a fireplace. producing carbon dioxide and water:
a)
Write the balanced chemical equation.
3 Look at the following reaction:
b) Calculate the mass of oxygen necessary to burn
Nitrogen (gas) + hydrogen (gas) " ammonia (gas) 100 litres of propane measured under normal
a)
Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction. pressure and temperature conditions.
b) Explain why chemical equations need to be balanced.
12 In the reaction: CaO + 2 HCℓ " CaCℓ2 + H2O,
how many grams of hydrogen chloride are needed
4 State which of the following equations is not balanced:
to react completely with 56 grams of calcium oxide?
a)
CaO + 2 HCℓ " CaCℓ2 + H2O
Atomic masses: Ca = 40 u; O = 16 u; H = 1 u;
b) Hg + S " Hg2S Cℓ = 35.5 u.
c) Cu2S + O2 " 2 Cu + SO2
13 A propane (C3H8) cylinder contains 21 kg of gas.
d) Cℓ2 + 2 Na " 2 NaCℓ
Calculate the heat released in the complete
combustion of the gas, if the heat of combustion
5 Balance the following chemical equations:
of propane is 2217.9 kJ/mol.
CO + O2 " CO2
a)
b) HCℓ + Ca(OH)2 " CaCℓ2 + H2O 14 Look at the following chemical equation:
I2 (s) + H2 (g) " 2 HI (g) - 52 kJ
6 Calculate the number of moles of substance
From the equation, we can tell that the reaction is:
in 315 grams of HNO3. Atomic masses: H = 1 u;
N = 14 u; O = 16 u. a)
Exothermic.
b) Endothermic.
7 Calculate the number of grams in 1.5 moles of H3PO4.
c)
Spontaneous.
Atomic masses: H = 1 u; P = 31 u; O = 16 u.
d) Effective.
8 Calculate the number of moles and molecules there
are in 308 grams of CCℓ4. Atomic masses: C = 12 u; 15 When a mole of carbon burns in the reaction:
Cℓ = 35.5 u. C + O2 " CO2, the energy obtained is 393 kJ.
How much heat will be released if we burn 54 g
9 Look at the following chemical equation: of carbon?
CaCO3 (s) " CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

How many moles of CaCO3 do we need to obtain
20 litres of CO2 measured under normal pressure
and temperature conditions?
Data: one mole of any gas occupies 22.4 L under
normal pressure and temperature conditions.

5
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1 mol CO 2 1 mol CaCO 3
1 A physical change is one where the composition 9 20 L CO 2 ? ? =
22.4 L CO 2 1 mol CO 2
of the substance is not changed. For example,
= 0.89 mol of CaCO 3
ice melting or salt dissolving in water.
A chemical change is one where the composition 1 mol MgCℓ2 95 g MgCℓ2
10 0.154 mol Mg ? ? =
of the substance is changed. For example, wood 1 mol Mg 1 mol MgCℓ2
burning (combustion) or a nail rusting (oxidation). = 14.63 g MgCℓ2
2 a) Physical. 11 a) C3H8 + 5 O2 " 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
b) Physical. 1 mol C 3 H 8 5 mol O 2
b)
100 L C 3 H 8 ? ? ?
22.4 L C 3 H 8 1 mol C 3 H 8
c) Chemical.
32 g O 2
3 a) N2 + 3 H2 " 2 NH3. ? = 714.28 g O 2
1 mol O 2
b)
Chemical equations are balanced because mass
1 mol CaO 2 mol HCℓ 36.5 g HCℓ
is conserved. In other words, the number of atoms 12 56 g CaO ? ? ? =
56 g CaO 1 mol CaO 1 mol HCℓ
remains constant.
= 73 g HCℓ
4 Reaction b) is not balanced. It should be:
2 Hg + S " Hg2S 1 mol C 3H 8 2217. 9 kJ
13 Q = 21 ? 10 3 g C 3H 8 ? ? =
5 a) 2 CO + O2 " 2 CO2 44 g C 3H 8 1 mol C 3H 8
= 1058.543 kJ
2 HCℓ + Ca(OH)2 " CaCℓ2 + 2 H2O
b)
14 The correct answer is b).
m 315 g
6 n= = = 5 mol
M 63 g/mol 1 mol C 393 kJ
15 54 g C ? ? = 1768.5 kJ
12 g C 1 mol C
7 1.5 ? 98 = 147 g
m 308 g
8 n= = = 2 mol
M 154 g/mol
2 ? 6.022 ? 1023 = 1.2 ? 1024 molecules

5
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 Calcium carbonate is a white solid. When we heat 6 a) Write out and balance the reaction in which
it, a colourless gas is released, leaving behind a solid water is formed from oxygen and hydrogen.
residue. If we weigh the container afterwards, we can b) If the energy released when one mole of water
see that its mass has decreased. What type of change is formed is 285 kJ, how much energy is released
has taken place? Explain your answer. when 100 g of water is formed?
2 State which of the following observations suggest Atomic masses: H = 1 u; O = 16 u.
that a chemical reaction has taken place:
7 Write out and balance the following chemical
a)
A solid is added to a liquid and it dissolves. equations:
b) A solid is added to a liquid and a precipitate a)
Nitrogen + hydrogen " ammonia.
of a different colour appears.
b) Methane + oxygen " carbon dioxide + water.
c)
A solid is added to a liquid and a gas is released.
c) Hydrogen chloride + potassium hydroxide "
d) Two liquids are mixed together and two separate
" potassium chloride + water.
layers appear.
8 Which of the following statements is false?
equations: a)
If the activation energy of a chemical reaction
is high, its speed will be low.
a)
Zinc sulphide and oxygen " zinc oxide +
+ sulphur dioxide. b) At atomic level, a chemical reaction is the
reorganisation of atoms.
b) Methane + oxygen " carbon dioxide + water.
c)
A reaction is exothermic because energy
Lead(II) sulphide + oxygen " lead(II) oxide +
c) is released when it takes place.
+ sulphur dioxide.
d) For a chemical reaction to take place, energy
4 Look at the following chemical process: must first be supplied to the reactants.
Fe2O3 + H2 " Fe + H2O 9 Look at the following reactions:

320 g + 12 g " 224 g + …
H2 (g) + I2 (g) " 2 HI (g)
a)
Write the balanced chemical equation. Cu (s) + 2 HCℓ (aq) " CuCℓ2 (s) + H2 (g)
b) Calculate the quantity of water that is produced. Use collision theory to explain which of these
c)
Calculate the quantity of hydrogen that reacts reactions will be the fastest.
with 400 g of iron(III) oxide.
d) State the law that you applied in part b).
Atomic masses: Fe = 56 u; H = 1 u; O = 16 u.
5 Look at the following reaction:

Iron(II) oxide + hydrogen " iron + water
a)
Write the balanced chemical equation.
b) Calculate the mass of iron that would be obtained
from 50 g of iron(II) oxide.
c)
Calculate the volume of hydrogen consumed
in the reaction, measured under normal conditions.
Atomic masses: Fe = 56 u; O = 16 u; H = 1 u.

5
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1 A chemical reaction has taken place because there has

been a change in the composition of the substances,
which we can tell because a gas has been released.
2 Observations b) and c) describe chemical reactions.
3 a) 2 ZnS + 3 O2 " 2 ZnO + 2 SO2
b) CH4 + 2 O2 " CO2 + 2 H2O
c) 2 PbS + 3 O2 " 2 PbO + 2 SO2
4 a) Fe2O3 + 3 H2 " 2 Fe + 3 H2O
b) 320 g + 12 g - 224 g = 108 g
12 g H 2
c) 400 g Fe 2 O 3 ? = 15 g of H2
320 g Fe 2 O 3
d)
‘In any chemical reaction, the total mass of the
reactants is equal to the total mass of the products.’
5 a) FeO + H2 " Fe + H2O
1 mol FeO 1 mol Fe 56 g Fe
b) 50 g FeO ? ? ? =
72 g FeO 1 mol FeO 1 mol Fe
= 38.88 g of Fe
1 mol H 2 22.4 L H 2
c) 12 g H 2 ? ? = 15.5 L of H2
2 g H2 1 mol H 2
1
6 a) H2 + O2 " H2O
2
1 mol 285 kJ
b) 100 g ? ? " Q = 1583.3 kJ
18 g 1 mol
7 a) N2 + 3 H2 " 2 NH3
CH4 + 2 O2 " CO2 + 2 H2O
b)
HCℓ + KOH " KCℓ + H2O
c)
8 Statement d) is false.
9 The first reaction will be fastest, because it takes place
between gaseous substances and collisions are more likely.

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Solutions
Remember that...
The concentration of a solution indicates the proportion of solute in the mixture.

We are going to look at how to make a more dilute solution from a more concentrated one.
SOLVED PROBLEM
We have an 8 M solution of a salt in water and we want half a litre of a less concentrated solution
with the same solute, for example 5 M. We have as much water as we need.
How do we do it?
ANSWER
We need to dilute it. Obviously, the best way to do this is to add more solvent (water).
But the question is: how much do we need to obtain half a litre of the new 5 M solution?
Steps:
1. Firstly, we have to work out how much substance, in moles of solute, there should be in half a litre of the solution
we are going to make so that we have 5 M.
5 mol of solute
0.5 L of solution ? = 2.5 g of solute
1 L of solution
2. We need to take the 2.5 mol of solute from the 8 M solution it is dissolved in.
Now we have to work out what volume of the 8 M solution we need to get the 2.5 mol we need.
1 L of solution
2.5 mol ? = 0.313 L, which is the amount of the 8 M solution we need
8 mol
to obtain our 2.5 mol of solute.
3. Once we know that these 0.313 litres contain the 2.5 mol we need, we add the solvent (water) until we have
half a litre, and then stir it.
We will then have made half a litre of solution containing 2.5 mol of solute, which means that in each litre there
would be 5 mol; in other words, it is 5 M.
1 Following the three steps above, explain how you would make three litres of a 2 M solution from a 7 M
solution of the same solute and solvent.

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Remember that...
To calculate the concentration of a mixture of two solutions with different concentrations, we need to know
the number of moles of each solution.
We are going to learn how to calculate the final concentration of a mixture of two solutions with different
concentrations.
SOLVED PROBLEM
If we mix 250 cm3 of a 2 M solution with 500 cm3 of a 5 M solution of the same solute and solvent,
what will the molarity of the final solution be?
Remember that 1 L = 1000 cm3.
ANSWER
1. We calculate the quantity of substance (moles) of solute in the new solution, which will be the sum of the moles
of solution in the 250 cm3 (0.25 L) of the first solution and in the 500 cm3 (0.5 L) of the second:
• In the first solution:
2 mol
0.25 L of solution ? = 0.5 mol of solute in the 250 cm3
1 L of solution of the first solution
• In the second solution:

5 mol
1 L of solution of the second solution
In total, there are 2.5 + 0.5 = 3 mol of solute in the new solution.
2. We calculate the volume of the new solution, which will be the sum of the first two:
250 cm3 + 500 cm3 = 750 cm3 = 0.75 L
Now we calculate the concentration:
n solute 3 mol
M= = = 4 M " molarity of the new solution
Vsolution 0.75 L
2 Following the steps above, calculate the molarity of a solution made by mixing 2.5 L of a 2.8 M
solution with 300 cm3 of a 9 M solution of the same solute and solvent.

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Remember that...
We can calculate the molarity of a solution if we know its density and percentage by mass.
SOLVED PROBLEM
The following information is shown on the label on a bottle of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCℓ):
• d = 1.18 g/mL.
• 35 % by mass.
What will its molarity be?
Atomic masses: H =1 u, Cℓ = 35.5 u.
ANSWER
1. We express the values for density and percentage by mass as ratios so that we can use them more easily:
1.18 g of solution
• dsolution = 1.18 g/mL "
1 mL of solution
Note that this gives the relationship between mass and volume, both properties of the solution.
35 g of solute
• 35 % by mass "
100 g of solution
Note that this gives the relationship between the mass of solute and the mass of solution,
which are properties of the solute and solution respectively.
2. Our aim is to work out the quantity of substance (number of moles of solute) in each litre of solution (molarity).
We begin by working out the mass of a litre of solution. We use the data about the density of the solution.
1.18 g of solution
1000 mL of solution ? = 1180 g of mass in each litre of solution
1 mL of solution
3. The 1180 g above are a homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent (this is the definition of a solution).
Now we have to work out what proportion of this is solute. We use the percentage by mass data:
35 g of solute
1180 g of solution ? = 413 g of solute in each litre of solution
100 g of solution
Here we have calculated 35 % of the 1180 g, which is what % by mass means.
4. Once we know the grams of solute per litre of solution, we calculate the quantity of substance (moles).
This is the definition of the molarity.
Molar mass of HCℓ:
M = 1 u + 35.5 u = 36.5 u " 36.5 g/mol
The quantity of substance is:
m 413 g
n= = = 11.3 mol of solute in each litre of solution
M 36.5 g/mol
Solution is 11.3 M

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
3 A solution of potassium bromide (KBr) is 70 % by mass and its density is 1.7 g/cm3.
Atomic masses: K = 39 u; Br = 80 u.
a) Following the steps from the previous example, calculate the molarity of the solution:
1. Show the data as ratios. (1 cm3 = 1 mL).
2. Work out the mass of a litre of solution.
3. Work out what proportion of this is solute.
4. Convert the grams into moles and find the molarity.
b) What mass of solute is there in 60 g of solution? What mass of solvent is there?
c)
What mass of solute is there in 400 mL of solution?
d) What volume will 2 kg of this solution have?
e)
What is the concentration of the solution in g/L?

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Remember that...
SOLUTIONS WITH A LIQUID SOLUTE

We are used to the solute being a solid and the solvent being a liquid, but the solute can also be a liquid
(examples: alcohol dissolved in water, dilute acid, etc.). In these cases it is very important to use the density
data for the solute correctly:
mass of solute
d solute =
volume of solute
There are different ways to express the concentration:

n solute
• Molarity: M =
Vsolution (L)
mass of solute (g)
• g/L:
volume of solution (L)
mass of solute
• % by mass: ? 100
mass of solution
volume of solute
• % by volume: ? 100
volume of solution
SOLVED PROBLEM
500 g of a solution of hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) in a solvent contains 73 g of acid. Express the concentration
of the solution in the four different ways described above.
Data: dsolution = 1.3 g/mL; dsolute = 1.1 g/mL.
ANSWER
1. We express the density values as ratios so that we can use them more easily:
1.3 g of solution
1mL of solution
Note that this gives the relationship between the mass and volume of the solution, both of which are properties
of the solution.
1.1 g of solute
• dsolute = 1.1 g/mL "
1mL of solution
Note that this gives the relationship between the mass and volume of the solute, both of which are properties
of the solute.
2. We start with the % by mass, since we can calculate this directly from the data given in the question:
mass of solute 73 g
% by mass = ? 100 = ? 100 = 14.6 % by mass
mass of solution 500 g
3. We work out the concentration in g/L using the dsolution data:
There are 73 g of solute in 500 g of solution. These 500 g of solution have a volume of:
1 mL of solution
500 g of solution ? = 384.6 mL = 0.3846 L of solution
1.3 g of solution
Therefore:
mass of solute (g) 73 g
g/L = = = 189.8 g/L
volume of solution (L) 0.3846 L
continues "

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
4.
Now that we have calculated the g/L, we can easily work out the molarity by converting
the 189.8 g of solute into moles:
m 189.8 g
n= = = 5.2 mol in each litre of solution " Solution is 5.2 M
M (1 + 35.5) g/mol
5. We work out the % by volume using the dsolute data:
In part 3, we saw that there were 73 g of solute in 500 g of solution. We also saw that these 500 g of solution
had a volume of 348.6 mL, but how much of this volume is solution? In other words, what is the volume
of the 73 g of solute?
1 mL of solute
73 g of solute ? = 66.36 mL of solute
1.1 g of solute
volume of solute 66.36 mL
Therefore, % by volume = ? 100 = ? 100 = 17.25 % by volume
volume of solution 384.6 mL
4 Two litres of a solution of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in a solvent contain 20 cm3 of the solute H2S.
Express the concentration of the solution in the four different ways described on the previous page.
Data: dsolution = 1.6 g/mL; dsolute = 1.4 g/mL. Atomic masses: H = 1 u; S = 32 u.
1. Express the densities as a ratio:
2. Work out the % by volume.
3. Work out the g/L.
4. Work out the molarity.
5. Work out the % by mass.

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Limiting reactant and excess reactant

Remember that...
Stoichiometric coefficients are the numbers written in front of the formula of each substance. They indicate the ratio
in which their moles combine in a reaction.
Imagine that you are on holiday with your family, and your parents give you and your little brother some money to spend.
They explain that for every two euros you spend, your brother has to spend one euro. Before looking at the answer,
think about how much money each of you would go home with in the following cases:
SOLVED PROBLEM
a) If they give you ten euros and your brother four euros.
b) If they give you ten euros and your brother six euros.
ANSWER
a)
Your brother would spend his four euros and you would spend eight. He would go home with nothing
and you would come home with two euros.
b) Your brother would spend five euros and you would spend your ten. He would go home with one euro
and you would come home with nothing.
1 If they give you twelve euros and your brother five euros.
2 If they give you six euros and your brother four euros.
If you look at all the answers above, one person always ends up with no money and the other has some left over.
We call what is left over the ‘excess’, and you will notice that it is the person who is left with nothing that forces
the other person to stop spending their money, because the parents have said that for each euro the younger
brother spends, the older brother must spend two. We say that this person is the ‘limiting’ factor.
Something very similar happens with a chemical reaction involving random quantities of reactants.
In this case, the relationship in which the older brother spends two euros for each euro the younger brother
spends is equivalent to the proportion in which the reactants react with one another. This is given by
the stoichiometric coefficients. As the reaction progresses, the moles of reactants will be used up in proportion
to the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation, until one of the two runs out.
At this point the reaction will stop, but some of one of the reactants will still be left over without anything to react with.
One of the reactants is always completely used up (this is the limiting reactant) and some of the other one
is usually left over (this is the excess reactant), unless they are in the exact proportions to react fully.
In this case, both would be completely used up.

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
SOLVED PROBLEM
Ammonia gas (NH3) is formed by hydrogen gas (H2) and nitrogen gas (N2) in the following reaction:
N2 + H2 " NH3
We have 100 g of N2 and 100 g of H2. How much is left over? Atomic masses: N = 14 u; H = 1 u.
ANSWER
ince a chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms (the bonds between them are broken and they form
S
different bonds), the number of atoms that there are to begin with (reactants) will be the same as the number
of atoms at the end (the products), so we have to ‘balance’ the reaction:
N2 + 3 H2 " 2 NH3
One way of interpreting the stoichiometric coefficients of the balanced reaction is: for each mole of N2
that is used up, three moles of H2 are also used up, and two moles of NH3 are produced.
If we have 100 g of the gases that are reacting:
N2 + 3 H2 " 2 NH3
100 g 100 g
1. We work out what quantity of substance (moles) we have of each of the gases.
mN 100 g
• n N = =
2
= 3.57 mol of N2
2
MN 2
28 g/mol
mH 100 g
• n H = = 2
= 50 mol of H2
MH 2 g/mol
2
2. Next we work out, for example, how many moles of H2 are necessary to use up the 3.57 mol of N2
we have. To do this, we look at the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical reaction
and work out the ratio:
3 mol of H 2
3.57 mol of N 2 ? = 10.7 mol of H2 (three times the number of moles of N2)
1 mol of N 2
Conclusion: as we have 50 mol of H2 and we only need 10.7 mol, the amount left over will be
(50 - 10.7) = 39.3 mol of H2. Therefore, H2 will be the excess reactant.
Since the 3.57 mol of N2 have been used up, meaning that 39.3 mol of excess H2 do not react,
N2 is the limiting reactant.
Now let’s look at how we could have reached the same conclusion using the 50 mol of H2. How many moles
of N2 are necessary to use up the 50 mol of N2 we have?
We look at the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical reaction and work out the ratio:
1 mol of N 2
50 mol of H 2 ? = 16.67 mol of N2
3 mol of H 2
Since we would need 16.67 mol of N2, which is more than the 3.57 mol we have, we do not have enough N2
to use up all the H2. Therefore, H2 will be in excess and the other reactant, N2, will be used up completely.
This will cause the reaction to stop, with some H2 left over. This means that N2 will be the limiting reactant.
3. Now, to work out the quantity of product formed, we need to work out the ratio with the quantity of either
of the reactants used up (3.57 mol of N2 or 10.7 mol of H2). We cannot use the 50 mol of H2, as this has not
all reacted. How many grams of NH3 will be formed?
continues "

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
We can work this out in two ways:

2 mol of NH 3
3.57 mol of N 2 ? = 7.14 mol of NH3
1 mol of N 2
Or:
2 mol of NH 3
10.7 mol of H 2 ? = 7.14 mol of NH3
3 mol of H 2
Therefore:
m NH
n NH = 3
" m NH = n NH ? M NH = 7.14 mol ? (14 + 3) g/mol = 121.4 g of NH3
M NH
3 3 3 3
3 Look at the following combustion reaction of propane (C3H8):

C3H8 + O2 " CO2 + H2O
a) Write the balanced chemical equation.
b) If 60 g of C3H8 comes into contact with 200 g of O2, work out which will be the limiting reactant, which will be
in excess, and how much of each will be used up and left over.
c)
What volume of CO2 is formed under normal pressure and temperature conditions? What would
the volume of this CO2 be if the laboratory was at T = 30 °C and p = 800 mmHg?
d) How many molecules of water are formed? How many atoms of H and O are there in this number of molecules?

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Purity of a reactant
Remember that...
Sometimes we want to know the mass of reactants necessary to obtain a certain quantity of product, for example,
in a factory that produces this product. This is a simple calculation. However, the reactant in the container
will not usually be 100 % pure, as it will contain impurities. So, how much reactant should we use?
SOLVED PROBLEM
Look at the following balanced chemical equation:
Zn + 2 HCℓ " ZnCℓ2 + H2

How many grams of zinc powder from a jar with 15 % impurities would we need to use if we wanted
to obtain 120 g of zinc chloride (ZnCℓ2)?
Atomic masses: Cℓ = 35.5 u; Zn = 65 u.
ANSWER
1. We work out the quantity of substance (moles) of product that we want to obtain.
m ZnCℓ 120 g
n ZnCℓ = 2
= = 0.88 mol of ZnCℓ2 is the quantity we want to obtain.
M ZnCℓ (65 + 2 ? 35.5) g/mol
2
2. Now calculate how many grams of the reactant Zn are necessary to obtain 0.88 mol of the product ZnCl2,
without taking into account that the jar of Zn powder contains impurities:
1 mol of Zn
0.88 mol of ZnC ℓ2 ? = 0.88 mol of Zn
1 mol of ZnCℓ2
Which is:
m Zn = n Zn ? M Zn = 0.88 mol ? 65 g/mol "

" mZn = 57.2 g is the amount of zinc necessary
3. Now we must consider the fact that the jar of Zn also contains impurities.
Since we are going to get our 57.2 g of Zn from a jar containing Zn as well as other things (impurities),
we are going to have to take more than 57.2 g, but how many grams more?
We work out the ratio. Since there are 15 % impurities, the purity of the Zn in the jar is 85 %, so for every
100 g we take from the jar, 85 g will be Zn and the remaining 15 g will be impurities. In other words,
for every 85 g of Zn that we need, we will have to take 100 g from the jar.
How much, then, will we need to take if we want 57.2 g of Zn?
100 g from the jar

57.2 g of Zn ? = 67.3 g
85 g of Zn
We will have to take 67.3 g of Zn from the jar if we want to obtain 120 g of ZnCℓ2.

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
1 Look at the following chemical reaction:

Copper + Silver nitrate " Silver + Copper(II) nitrate
Cu + AgNO3 " Ag + Cu(NO3)2
b) If we want to obtain 300 g of the salt Cu(NO3)2, how many grams would we have to use from a jar of the salt AgNO3
with 8 % impurities?
Atomic masses: Cu = 64 u; Ag = 108 u; N = 14 u; O = 16 u.
1. Work out the quantity of substance (moles) of the product that you want to obtain.
2. Calculate how many grams of the reactant AgNO3 are necessary to obtain the quantity of substance (moles)
of Cu(NO3)2 calculated, without taking into account the impurities in the reactant.
3. Now consider the fact that the jar of AgNO3 contains impurities.
c)
Using your intuition, without performing the calculations above, work out how much AgNO3 we would have to use
if its purity was:
• 1 %:
• 25 %:
• 50 %:
• 75 %:

5
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
The efficiency of a chemical reaction

Remember that...
Often, when we are trying to obtain a certain quantity of product from a chemical reaction, we end up with less product
than we would expect from our theoretical calculations.
This is because the efficiency of the reaction is not 100 %. The efficiency of a chemical reaction is a comparison of the quantity
of product obtained in practice with the quantity that should have been obtained in theory. It is expressed as a %.
Quantity of product in practice
Efficiency = ? 100
Quantity of product in theory
SOLVED PROBLEM

CaO + 3 C " CaC2 + CO
If 48 g of C are used up, how many grams of CaC2 will be formed if the efficiency of the reaction is 80 %?
Atomic masses: Ca = 40 u; O = 16 u; C = 12 u.
ANSWER
1. We work out how many moles of C are used up:
mC 48 g
nC = = = 4 mol of C are used up.
MC 12 g/mol
2. We calculate the grams of CaC2 that would be obtained if the efficiency was 100 %.
1 mol of CaC 2
4 mol of C ? = 1.33 mol of CaC2 "
3 mol of C
" m CaC = n CaC ? M CaC = 1.33 mol ? (40 + 2 ? 12) g/mol = 85.12 g of CaC2
2 2 2
3. Now we take into account the fact that the efficiency is 80 %. The simplest method is to work out
80 % of 85.12 " 68.1 g of CaC2.

FeS + HCℓ " FeCℓ2 + H2S
a) Balance the equation.
b) If 146 g of HCℓ are used, how many grams of FeCℓ2 will be formed if the efficiency of the reaction is 90 %?
Atomic masses: Fe = 56 u; S = 32 u; H = 1 u; Cℓ = 35.5 u.
c)
If we had obtained 200 g of FeCℓ2, what would the efficiency of the reaction have been?

5
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Solutions
Remember that...
The concentration of a solution indicates the proportion of solute in the mixture. We are going to look at how to make
a more dilute solution from a more concentrated one.
SOLVED PROBLEM
We have an 8 M solution of a salt in water and we want half a litre of a less concentrated solution
with the same solute, for example 5 M. We have as much water as we need.
How do we do it?
ANSWER
We need to dilute it. Obviously, the best way to do this is to add more solvent (water).
But the question is: how much do we need to obtain half a litre of the new 5 M solution?
Steps:
1. Firstly, we have to work out how much substance, in moles of solute, there should be in half a litre of the solution
we are going to make so that we have 5 M.
5 mol of solute
0.5 L of solution ? = 2.5 g of solute
1 L of solution
2. We need to take the 2.5 mol of solute from the 8 M solution it is dissolved in.
Now we have to work out what volume of the 8 M solution we need to get the 2.5 mol we need.
1 L of solution
2.5 mol ? = 0.313 L, which is the amount of the 8 M solution we need
8 mol
to obtain our 2.5 mol of solute.
3. Once we know that these 0.313 litres contain the 2.5 mol we need, we add the solvent (water) until we have
half a litre, and then stir it.
We will then have made half a litre of solution containing 2.5 mol of solute, which means that in each litre there
would be 5 mol; in other words, it is 5 M.
1 Following the three steps above, explain how you would make three litres of a 2 M solution from a 7 M
solution of the same solute and solvent.
ANSWER
1. In this case:
2 mol
3 L of solution ? = 6 mol is the quantity of solute we need
1 L of solution
2. We have:
1 of solution
6 mol ? = 0.86 L is the amount of 7 M solution we need to use
7 mol
3. Keep adding solvent to the 0.86 L of solution until we have three litres, then stir it.

5
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Remember that...
To calculate the concentration of a mixture of two solutions with different concentrations, we need to know
the number of moles of each solution.
We are going to learn how to calculate the final concentration of a mixture of two solutions with different concentrations.
SOLVED PROBLEM
If we mix 250 cm3 of a 2 M solution with 500 cm3 of a 5 M solution of the same solute and solvent,
what will the molarity of the final solution be?
Remember that 1 L = 1000 cm3.
ANSWER
1. We calculate the quantity of substance (moles) of solute in the new solution, which will be the sum of the moles
of solute in the 250 cm3 (0.25 L) of the first solution and in the 500 cm3 (0.5 L) of the second:
• In the first solution:
2 mol
1 L of solution
of the first solution
• In the second solution:

5 mol
1 L of solution
of the second solution
In total, there are 2.5 + 0.5 = 3 mol of solute in the new solution.
2. We calculate the volume of the new solution, which will be the sum of the first two:
250 cm3 + 500 cm3 = 750 cm3 = 0.75 L
Now we calculate the concentration:
n solute 3 mol
M= = = 4 M " molarity of the new solution
Vsolution 0.75 L
2 Following the steps above, calculate the molarity of a solution made by mixing 2.5 L
of a 2.8 M solution with 300 cm3 of a 9 M solution of the same solute and solvent.
ANSWER
1. In the first solution:
2.8 mol
2.5 L of solution ? = 7 mol of solute in the 2.5 L of the first solution
1 L of solution
In the second solution:
9 mol
0.3 L of solution ? = 2.7 mol of solute in the 300 cm3 of the second solution
1 L of solution
In total, there are 7 + 2.7 = 9.7 mol of solute.
2. Vsolution = 2.5 L + 0.3 L = 2.8 L.
3. Now we calculate the molarity:
n solute 9.7 mol
M= = = 3.5 M " molarity of the new solution
Vsolution 2.8 L

5
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Remember that...
We can calculate the molarity of a solution if we know its density and percentage by mass.
SOLVED PROBLEM
The following information is shown on the label on a bottle of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCℓ):
• d = 1.18 g/mL.
• 35 % by mass.
What will its molarity be?
ANSWER
1. We express the values for density and percentage by mass as ratios so that we can use them more easily:
1.18 g of solution
1 mL of solution
Note that this gives the relationship between mass and volume, both properties of the solution.
35 g of solute
• 35 % by mass "
100 g of solution
Note that this gives the relationship between the mass of solute and the mass of solution,
which are properties of the solute and solution respectively.
2. Our aim is to work out the quantity of substance (number of moles of solute) in each litre of solution (molarity).
We begin by working out the mass of a litre of solution. We use the data about the density of the solution.
1.18 g of solution
1000 mL of solution ? = 1180 g of mass in each litre of solution
1 mL of solution
3. The 1180 g above are a homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent (this is the definition of a solution).
Now we have to work out what proportion of this is solute. We use the percentage by mass data:
35 g of solute
100 g of solution
Here we have calculated 35 % of the 1180 g, which is what % by mass means.
4. Once we know the grams of solute per litre of solution, we calculate the quantity of substance (moles).
This is the definition of the molarity.
Molar mass of HCℓ:
M = 1 u + 35.5 u = 36.5 u " 36.5 g/mol
The quantity of substance is:
m 413 g
n= = = 11.3 mol of solute in each litre of solution
M 36.5 g/mol
Solution is 11.3 M

5
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
3 A solution of potassium bromide (KBr) is 70 % by mass and its density is 1.7 g/cm3.
Atomic masses: K = 39 u; Br = 80 u.
a) Following the steps from the previous example, calculate the molarity of the solution:
1. Show the data as ratios. (1 cm3 = 1 mL).
Density:
1.7 g of solution
dsolution = 1.7 g/mL "
1 mL of solution
And percentage by mass:
70 g of solute
70% by mass "
100 g of solution
2. Work out the mass of a litre of solution.
1.7 g of solution
1000 mL of solution ? = 1700 g is the mass of each litre of solution
1 mL of solution
3. Work out what proportion of this is solute.
70 g of solute
100 g of solution
4. Convert the grams into moles and find the molarity.
m 1190 g
n= = = = 10 mol of solute in each litre of solution
M (39 + 80) g/mol
The solution is 10 M
b) What mass of solute is there in 60 g of solution? What mass of solvent is there?

Solution:
70 % of 60 g = 42 g of solute
Solvent:
60 g - 42 g = 18 g of solvent
c)
What mass of solute is there in 400 mL of solution?
1.7 g of solution
400 mL of solution ? = 680 g of solution
1 mL of solution
d) What volume will 2 kg of this solution have?
Using the density:

1 mL of solution
2000 g of solution ? = 1176.5 mL of solution
1.7 g of solution
e)
What is the concentration of the solution in g/L?
From part a) " 1190 g/L.

5
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Remember that...
SOLUTIONS WITH A LIQUID SOLUTE

We are used to the solute being a solid and the solvent being a liquid, but the solute can also be a liquid
(examples: alcohol dissolved in water, dilute acid, etc.). In these cases it is very important to use the density
data for the solute correctly:
mass of solute
d solute =
volume of solute
There are different ways to express the concentration:

n solute
• Molarity: M =
Vsolution (L)
mass of solute (g)
• g/L:
volume of solution (L)
mass of solute
• % by mass: ? 100
mass of solution
volume of solute
• % by volume: ? 100
volume of solution
SOLVED PROBLEM
500 g of a solution of hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) in a solvent contains 73 g of acid. Express the concentration
of the solution in the four different ways described above.
Data: dsolution = 1.3 g/mL; dsolute = 1.1 g/mL.
ANSWER
1. We express the density values as ratios so that we can use them more easily:
1.3 g of solution
1mL of solution
Note that this gives the relationship between the mass and volume of the solution, both of which
are properties of the solution.
1.1 g of solute
• dsolute = 1.1 g/mL "
1mL of solution
Note that this gives the relationship between the mass and volume of the solute, both of which
are properties of the solute.
2. We start with the % by mass, since we can calculate this directly from the data given in the question:
mass of solute 73 g
% by mass = ? 100 = ? 100 = 14.6 % by mass
3. We work out the concentration in g/L using the dsolution data:
There are 73 g of solute in 500 g of solution. These 500 g of solution have a volume of:
1 mL of solution
500 g of solution ? = 384.6 mL = 0.3846 L of solution
1.3 g of solution
Therefore:
mass of solute (g) 73 g
g/L = = = 189.8 g/L
volume of solution (L) 0.3846 L
continues "

5
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
4.
Now that we have calculated the g/L, we can easily work out the molarity by converting
the 189.8 g of solute into moles:
m 189.8 g
n= = = 5.2 mol in each litre of solution " the solution is 5.2 M
M (1 + 35.5) g/mol
5. We work out the % by volume using the dsolute data:
In part 3, we saw that there were 73 g of solute in 500 g of solution. We also saw that these 500 g of solution
had a volume of 348.6 mL, but how much of this volume is solution? In other words, what is the volume
of the 73 g of solute?
1 mL of solute
73 g of solute ? = 66.36 mL of solute
1.1 g of solute
volume of solute 66.36 mL
Therefore, % by volume = ? 100 = ? 100 = 17.25 % by volume
volume of solution 384.6 mL
4 Two litres of a solution of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in a solvent contains 20 cm3 of the solute H2S.
Express the concentration of the solution in the four different ways described on the previous page.
Data: dsolution = 1.6 g/mL; dsolute = 1.4 g/mL. Atomic masses: H = 1 u; S = 32 u.
ANSWER
1. Express the densities as a ratio:
1.6 g of solution 1.4 g of solute

dsolution = 1.6 g/mL " ; 1.4 g/mL "
1 mL of solution 1 mL of solution
2. Work out the % by volume.
volume of solute 20 m 3
% by volume = ? 100 = ? 100 = 1 % by volume
volume of solution 2000 cm 3
3. Work out the g/L.
There are 20 cm3 of solute in 2 litres of solution. Now we work out the mass of these 20 cm3 of solute
using the dsolute data. (Remember that 1 cm3 " 1 mL).
1.4 g of solute mass of solute (g) 28 g
20 mL of solution ? = 28 g of solute " g/L = = = 14 g/L
1 mL of solution mass of solution (L) 2L
4. Work out the molarity.
We convert the 14 g/L above into moles/L:
m 14 g
n= = = 0.41 mol in each litre of solution " Solution is 0.41 M
M (2 + 32) g/mol
5. Work out the % by mass.
In part 3 we saw that there was 20 cm3 of solute in 2 L of solution, and that the 20 cm3 had a mass of 28 g.
What is the mass of 2 L of solution? We use the dsolution data:
1.6 g of solution
2000 mL of solution ? = 3200 g of solution
1 mL of solution
mass of solute 28 g
Therefore, % by mass = ? 100 = ? 100 = 0.875 % by mass

5
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Limiting reactant and excess reactant

Remember that...
Stoichiometric coefficients are the numbers written in front of the formula of each substance. They indicate the ratio
in which their moles combine in a reaction.
Imagine that you are on holiday with your family, and your parents give you and your little brother some money to spend.
They explain that for every two euros you spend, your brother has to spend one euro. Before looking at the answer,
think about how much money each of you would go home with in the following cases:
SOLVED PROBLEM
a) If they give you ten euros and your brother four euros.
b) If they give you ten euros and your brother six euros.
ANSWER
a)
Your brother would spend his four euros and you would spend eight. He would go home with nothing
and you would come home with two euros.
b) Your brother would spend five euros and you would spend your ten. He would go home with one euro
and you would come home with nothing.
1 If they give you twelve euros and your brother five euros.
ANSWER
Your brother would spend his five euros and you would spend ten. He would come home with nothing and you would come home
with two euros.
2 If they give you six euros and your brother four euros.
ANSWER
Your brother would spend three euros and you would spend your six. He would come home with one euro and you would come
home with nothing.
If you look at all the answers above, one person always ends up with no money and the other has some left over.
We call what is left over the ‘excess’, and you will notice that it is the person who is left with nothing that forces
the other person to stop spending their money, because the parents have said that for each euro the younger
brother spends, the older brother must spend two. We say that this person is the ‘limiting’ factor.
Something very similar happens with a chemical reaction involving random quantities of reactants.
In this case, the relationship in which the older brother spends two euros for each euro the younger brother
spends is equivalent to the proportion in which the reactants react with one another. This is given by
the stoichiometric coefficients. As the reaction progresses, the moles of reactants will be used up in proportion
to the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation, until one of the two runs out.
At this point the reaction will stop, but some of one of the reactants will still be left over without anything to react with.
One of the reactants is always completely used up (this is the limiting reactant) and some of the other one
is usually left over (this is the excess reactant), unless they are in the exact proportions to react fully.
In this case, both would be completely used up.

5
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
SOLVED PROBLEM
Ammonia gas (NH3) is formed by hydrogen gas (H2) and nitrogen gas (N2) in the following reaction:
N2 + H2 " NH3
We have 100 g of N2 and 100 g of H2. How much is left over? Atomic masses: N = 14 u; H = 1 u.
ANSWER
ince a chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms (the bonds between them are broken and they form
S
different bonds), the number of atoms that there are to begin with (reactants) will be the same as the number
of atoms at the end (the products), so we have to ‘balance’ the reaction:
N2 + 3 H2 " 2 NH3
One way of interpreting the stoichiometric coefficients of the balanced reaction is: for each mole of N2
that is used up, three moles of H2 are also used up, and two moles of NH3 are produced.
If we have 100 g of the gases that are reacting:
N2 + 3 H2 " 2 NH3
100 g 100 g
1. We work out what quantity of substance (moles) we have of each of the gases.
mN 100 g
• n N = =
2
= 3.57 mol of N2
2
MN 2
28 g/mol
mH 100 g
• n H = = = 50 mol of H2
2
MH 2 g/mol
2
2. Next we work out, for example, how many moles of H2 are necessary to use up the 3.57 mol
of N2 we have. To do this, we look at the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical reaction
and work out the ratio:
3 mol of H 2
3.57 mol of N 2 ? = 10.7 mol of H2 (three times the number of moles of N2)
1 mol of N 2
Conclusion: as we have 50 mol of H2 and we only need 10.7 mol, the amount left over will be
(50 - 10.7) = 39.3 mol of H2. Therefore, H2 will be the excess reactant.
Since the 3.57 mol of N2 have been used up, meaning that 39.3 mol of excess H2 do not react,
N2 is the limiting reactant.
Now let’s look at how we could have reached the same conclusion using the 50 mol of H2. How many moles
of N2 are necessary to use up the 50 mol of N2 we have?
We look at the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical reaction and work out the ratio:
1 mol of N 2
50 mol of H 2 ? = 16.67 mol of N2
3 mol of H 2
Since we would need 16.67 mol of N2, which is more than the 3.57 mol we have, we do not have enough N2
to use up all the H2. Therefore, H2 will be in excess and the other reactant, N2, will be used up completely.
This will cause the reaction to stop, with some H2 left over. This means that N2 will be the limiting reactant.
3. Now, to work out the quantity of product formed, we need to work out the ratio with the quantity of either
of the reactants used up (3.57 mol of N2 or 10.7 mol of H2). We cannot use the 50 mol of H2, as this has not
all reacted. How many grams of NH3 will be formed?
continues "

5
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
We can work this out in two ways:

2 mol of NH 3
3.57 mol of N 2 ? = 7.14 mol of NH3
1 mol of N 2
Or:
2 mol of NH 3
10.7 mol of H 2 ? = 7.14 mol of NH3
3 mol of H 2
Therefore:
m NH
n NH = 3
" m NH = n NH ? M NH = 7.14 mol ? (14 + 3) g/mol = 121.4 g of NH3
M NH
3 3 3 3
3 Look at the following combustion reaction of propane (C3H8):

C3H8 + O2 " CO2 + H2O
ANSWER
C3H8 + 5 O2 " 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
b) If 60 g of C3H8 comes into contact with 200 g of O2, work out which will be the limiting reactant, which will be
in excess, and how much of each will be used up and left over.
C3H8 + 5 O2 " 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
60 g 200 g
mC H 60 mO 200
nC H = 3
= 8
= 1.36 mol of C 3 H8 ; n O = = = 6.25 mol of O 2 2
3 8
MC H
3
12 ? 3 + 8
8
MO 32 2
Since we can see that 6.25 is less than five times 1.36, we know that there will not be enough O2 to react with all the C3H8,
so we use the 6.25 mol of O2 to work out the ratio.
1 mol of CH 3
6.25 mol of O 2 ? = 1.25 mol is the quantity of C3H8 necessary to react fully with the 6.25 mol of O2 we have.
5 mol of O 2
Since we have 1.36 mol of C3H8, we will be left with (1.36 mol - 1.25 mol) = 0.11 mol of C3H8. Conclusion: O2 is the limiting
reactant and all 200 g are used up. C3H8 is the excess reactant and only 1.25 mol are used, which is:
m C H = n C H ? M C H = 1.25 mol ? (12 ? 3 + 8) g/mol = 55 g of C3H8
3 8 3 8 3 8
The quantity left over is (60 - 55) = 5 g of C3H8.
c)
What volume of CO2 is formed under normal pressure and temperature conditions? What would the
volume of this CO2 be if the laboratory was at T = 30 °C and p = 800 mmHg?
3 mol of CO 2
1.25 mol of C 3 H 8 ? = 3.75 mol of CO2 are formed "
1 mol of C 3 H 8
22.4 L
" 3.75 mol CO2 in n.c. ? = 84 L of CO2
1 mol CO 2 in n.c.
nCO ? R ? T 3.75 ? 0.082 ? (273 + 30)
VCO = 2
= = 88.5 L of CO2
2
p 800 / 760
d) How many molecules of water are formed? How many atoms of H and O are there in this number of molecules?
4 mol of H 2 O
1.25 mol of C 3 H 8 ? = 5 mol of H2O are formed "
1 mol of C 3 H 8
6.022 ? 10 23 molec. of H 2 O
" 5 mol of H 2 O ? 3 ? 1024 molecules of H2O are formed
1 mol of H 2 O
2 atoms of H
3 ? 10 24 molecules of H 2 O ? = 6 ? 1024 atoms of H
1 molecules of H 2 O
Since there is one atom of O in each molecule of H2O, there are 3 ? 1024 atoms of O.

5
WORKSHEET 3
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
Purity of a reactant
Remember that...
Sometimes we want to know the mass of reactants necessary to obtain a certain quantity of product, for example,
in a factory that produces this product. This is a simple calculation. However, the reactant in the container
will not usually be 100 % pure, as it will contain impurities. So, how much reactant should we use?
SOLVED PROBLEM
Zn + 2 HCℓ " ZnCℓ2 + H2

How many grams of zinc powder from a jar with 15 % impurities would we need to use if we wanted
to obtain 120 g of zinc chloride (ZnCℓ2)?
Atomic masses: Cℓ = 35.5 u; Zn = 65 u.
ANSWER
1. We work out the quantity of substance (moles) of product that we want to obtain.
m ZnCℓ 120 g
n ZnCℓ = 2
= = 0.88 mol of ZnCℓ2 is the quantity we want to obtain.
M ZnCℓ (65 + 2 ? 35.5) g/mol
2
2. We now calculate how many grams of the reactant Zn are necessary to obtain 0.88 mol of the product ZnCl2,
without taking into account that the jar of Zn powder contains impurities:
1 mol of Zn
0.88 mol of ZnCℓ2 ? = 0.88 mol of Zn
1 mol of ZnCℓ2
Which is:
m Zn = n Zn ? M Zn = 0.88 mol ? 65 g/mol "
" mZn = 57.2 g is the amount of zinc necessary

3. Now we must consider the fact that the jar of Zn also contains impurities.
Since we are going to get our 57.2 g of Zn from a jar containing Zn as well as other things (impurities),
we are going to have to take more than 57.2 g, but how many grams more?
We work out the ratio. Since there are 15 % impurities, the purity of the Zn in the jar is 85 %, so for every
100 g we take from the jar, 85 g will be Zn and the remaining 15 g will be impurities. In other words,
for every 85 g of Zn that we need, we will have to take 100 g from the jar.
How much, then, will we need to take if we want 57.2 g of Zn?

100 g from the jar
57.2 g of Zn ? = 67.3 g
85 g of Zn
We will have to take 67.3 g of Zn from the jar if we want to obtain 120 g of ZnCℓ2.

5
WORKSHEET 3
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:

Copper + Silver nitrate " Silver + Copper(II) nitrate
Cu + AgNO3 " Ag + Cu(NO3)2
ANSWER

Cu + 2 AgNO3 " 2 Ag + Cu(NO3)2
b) If we want to obtain 300 g of the salt Cu(NO3)2, how many grams would we have to use from a jar of the salt AgNO3
with 8 % impurities?
Atomic masses: Cu = 64 u; Ag = 108 u; N = 14 u; O = 16 u.
1. Work out the quantity of substance (moles) of the product that you want to obtain.
nCu(NO ) 300 g
nCu(NO ) = 3 2
= = 1.6 mol of Cu(NO3)2
3 2
M Cu(NO )
3 2
[64 + 2 ? (14 + 3 ? 16)] g/mol
2. Calculate how many grams of the reactant AgNO3 are necessary to obtain the quantity of substance (moles)
of Cu(NO3)2 calculated, without taking into account the impurities in the reactant.
2 mol of AgNO 3
1.6 mol of Cu (NO 3) 2 ? = 3.2 mol of AgNO3
1 mol of Cu (NO 3) 2
This is:
m AgNO = n AgNO ? M AgNO = 3.2 mol ? (108 + 14 + 16 ? 3) g/mol = 543 g is the quantity of AgNO3 necessary.
3 3 3
3. Now consider the fact that the jar of AgNO3 contains impurities.
Its purity is 92 %:
100
543 g ? = 590 g
92
We will have to take 590 g of AgNO3 if we want to obtain 300 g of Cu(NO3)2.
c)
Using your intuition, without performing the calculations above, work out how much AgNO3 we would have
to use if its purity was:
• 1 %:
A purity of 1 % means that for each part we want we will need to take 100:
543 g ? 100 = 54 300 g of AgNO3
• 25 %:
A purity of 25 % means that for each part we want we will need to take four:
543 g ? 4 = 2172 g of AgNO3
• 50 %:
A purity of 50 % means that we will have to take twice as much:
543 g ? 2 = 1086 g of AgNO3
• 75 %:
4
A purity of 75 % means that for every three parts we want we will need to take four. This means we have to multiply by .
3
4
543 g ? = 724 g of AgNO3
3
Note that for every 75 g (three parts of 25 g) we have to take 100 g (four parts of 25 g).

5
WORKSHEET 4
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
The efficiency of a chemical reaction

Remember that...
Often, when we are trying to obtain a certain quantity of product from a chemical reaction, we end up with less product
than we would expect from our theoretical calculations.
This is because the efficiency of the reaction is not 100 %. The efficiency of a chemical reaction is a comparison of the quantity
of product obtained in practice with the quantity that should have been obtained in theory. It is expressed as a %.
Quantity of product in practice
Efficiency = ? 100
Quantity of product in theory
SOLVED PROBLEM

CaO + 3 C " CaC2 + CO
If 48 g of C are used up, how many grams of CaC2 will be formed if the efficiency of the reaction is 80 %?
Atomic masses: Ca = 40 u; O = 16 u; C = 12 u.
ANSWER
1. We work out how many moles of C are used up:
mC 48 g
nC = = = 4 mol of C are used up.
MC 12 g/mol
2. We calculate the grams of CaC2 that would be obtained if the efficiency was 100 %.
1 mol of CaC 2
4 mol of C ? = 1.33 mol of CaC2 "
3 mol of C
" m CaC = n CaC ? M CaC = 1.33 mol ? (40 + 2 ? 12) g/mol = 85.12 g of CaC2
2 2 2
3. Now we take into account the fact that the efficiency is 80 %. The simplest method is to work out
80 % of 85.12 " 68.1 g of CaC2.

FeS + HCℓ " FeCℓ2 + H2S
ANSWER
FeS + 2 HCℓ " FeCℓ2 + H2S
b) If 146 g of HCℓ are used, how many grams of FeCℓ2 will be formed if the efficiency of the reaction is 90 %?
Atomic masses: Fe = 56 u; S = 32 u; H = 1 u; Cℓ = 35.5 u.
mHCℓ 146 g 1 mol of FeCℓ2
nHCℓ = = = 4 mol of HCℓ " 4 mol of HCℓ ? = 2 mol of FeCℓ2 "
MHCℓ (1 + 35.5) g/mol 2 mol of HCℓ
" mFeCℓ2 = nFeCℓ2 ? MFeCℓ2 = 2 mol ? (56 + 35.5 ? 2) g/mol = 254 g of FeCℓ2
Since the efficiency is 90 % " 90 % of 254 g = 228.6 g is the quantity of FeCℓ2 that will be formed.
c)
If we had obtained 200 g of FeCℓ2, what would the efficiency of the reaction have been?
Quantity of product in practice 200
Efficiency = ? 100 = ? 100 = 78.7 %
Quantity of product in theory 254
100 % efficiency 200
Or: 200 g of FeCℓ2 ? = ? 100 = 78.7 %
254 g of FeCℓ2 254

5
SOLVED PROBLEMS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
Balance the following chemical equation and explain what it tells us:
Fe2O3 (s) + CO (g) " Fe (s) + CO2 (g)
Approach and answer

Firstly, to balance the equation we need to make sure Therefore, the balanced equation will be:
that there are the same number of atoms of each Fe2O3 (s) + 3 CO (g) " 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g)
element on both sides of the equation.
This equation tells us:
Since there are two atoms of Fe on the left of the
equation, the coefficient of Fe on the right should 1. The formulas of the substances involved in the reaction
be two. and their physical states.
To ensure that the number of oxygen atoms is equal 2. The number of atoms involved in the reaction.
on both sides, the coefficient of carbon monoxide (CO) 3. The relationship in moles between the substances
and carbon dioxide (CO2) should be three. involved in the reaction.
ACTIVITIES
1 Balance the following chemical reactions: 4 Write the balanced chemical equations for
a) CuO + H2SO4 " CuSO4 + H2O the following reactions:
b) Ca(OH)2 + HCℓ " CaCℓ2 + H2O a)

Copper(II) sulphide + oxygen " copper(II)
oxide + sulphur dioxide
c) C3H8 + O2 " CO2 + H2O
b) Lead + silver nitrate" lead(II) nitrate + silver
d) C4H10 + O2 " CO2 + H2O
) 2 CuS + 3 O2 " 2 CuO +2 SO2;
Answer: a
b) Pb + 2 AgNO3 " Pb(NO3)2 +2 Ag
equations:
The chemical equation:
5
a)
Silver + hydrogen sulphide " 9
silver sulphide + hydrogen C3H6 + O2 " 3 CO2 + 3 H2O
2
b) Dinitrogen pentoxide + water " nitric acid Tells us that:
c)
Zinc + hydrochloric acid " zinc chloride + a)
1 molecule of C3H6 reacts with 4.5 molecules
+ hydrogen of O2
Answer: a) 2 Ag + H2S " Ag2S + H2 b) 1 gram of C3H6 reacts with 4.5 g of O2
b) N2O5 + H2O " 2 HNO3
c) Zn + 2 HCℓ " ZnCℓ2 + H2 c)
1 mole of C3H6 reacts with 4.5 moles of O2
d) 1 mole of C3H6 reacts with 9 moles of O2
3 Balance the following chemical equation and write Answer: c)
out all the information it tells us:
Aℓ (s) + S (s) " Aℓ2S3 (s)
Answer: 2 Aℓ (s) + 3 S (s) " Aℓ2S3 (s)
Two moles of aluminium react with three moles
of sulphur, forming one mole of aluminium
sulphide.

5
SOLVED PROBLEMS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
You have a sample of 34 grams of NH3.

Calculate:
a) The quantity of substance that the sample contains.
b) The number of molecules that the sample contains.
c) The number of atoms of N and H that the sample contains.
Data: atomic masses: N = 14 u; H = 1 u.
Approach and answer

a)
Firstly, we calculate the molar mass: c)
To calculate the number of atoms of each element
M(NH3) = 1 ? 14 + 3 ? 1 = 17 g/mol we need to look at the ratio in one molecule.
We calculate the quantity of substance by dividing In each molecule there is one atom of N and three
the mass in grams by the molar mass: atoms of H, so the number of atoms will be:
34 g No. of nitrogen atoms:

n= = 2 mol of NH3
17 g/mol No. of N atoms = 1 ? 1.204 ? 1024 =
b) Since each mole contains Avogadro’s number = 1.204 ? 1024 atoms of N
of molecules, in two moles there will be: No. of hydrogen atoms:
23
No. of molecules = 2 ? 6.022 ? 10 = No. of H atoms = 3 ? 1.204 ? 1024 =
= 1.204 ? 1024 molecules of NH3 = 3.612 ? 1024 atoms of H
ACTIVITIES
1 How many grams of SO2 are there in 0.5 mol 5 The mass of 1.5 mol of H2SO4 in grams is:
of this substance? a) 98 g
Answer: 32 g b) 147 g
2 Calculate the number of moles and molecules c) 196 g

in 72 g of H2O. d) 49 g
Answer: 4 moles and 2.4 ? 1024 molecules Answer: b)
3 Which of the following samples contains 6 The number of molecules in 72 grams of water is:
the greatest number of molecules? a) 6.02 ? 1023
a) 34 g of H2S b) 3.01 ? 1023
b) 40 g of SO3 c) 9.03 ? 1023
c) 36 g of H2O d) 2.41 ? 1024
d) 66 g of CO2 Answer: d)
Answer: c) Note: you may refer to the atomic mass data below
when necessary.
4 You have 2 moles of CO2.
Atomic masses: S = 32 u; O = 16 u; H = 1 u;
a) How many grams is this? C = 12 u.
b) How many molecules are there?
Answer: a) 88 g; b) 1.2 ? 1024 molecules

5
SOLVED PROBLEMS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
SOLVED PROBLEM 3
Calculate the molarity of a solution if you know that it contains 80 grams of NaOH in 500 mL of solution.
Data: molar mass of NaOH = 40 g/mol.
Approach and answer

Molarity is a way of expressing the concentration Now we substitute the values into the molarity equation,
of a solution. It is defined as the number of moles making sure we convert the 500 mL of solution into litres:
contained in each litre of solution. 500 L = 0.5 L
Therefore: Therefore:
No. of moles
M= 2
litres of solution M= mol/L
0.5
Firstly, we calculate the number of moles in 80 grams
M = 4 mol/L
of NaOH.
grams of NaOH
No. of moles = =
molar mass
80 g
No. of moles = = 2 mol
40 g/mol
ACTIVITIES
1 The mass of acid in 1 litre of a 0.5 M solution 5 What would the concentration of a solution made up
of H2SO4 is: of 10 g of solute and 90 g of solvent be in percentage
a) 196 g by mass?
b) 147 g a) 11 %
c) 49 g b) 10 %
d) 98 g c) 20 %
Answer: c) d) 15 %
Answer: b)
2 Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by
dissolving 28 g of CaO in half a litre of solution. 6 The concentration in g/L of a solution containing
Answer: 1 M 5 g of solute in 100 mL of solution is:
a) 500 g/L
3 How many grams of an 8 % solution of Na2SO4 b) 50 g/L
would I need if I want 2 g of Na2SO4?
c) 5 g/L
Answer: 25 g
d) 0.05 g/L
4 What would the concentration of a solution Answer: b)
of 250 mL containing 25 g of solute be in g/L? Note: you may refer to the atomic mass data below
Answer: 100 g/L when necessary.
Atomic masses: H = 1 u; S = 32 u; O = 16 u;
Ca = 40 u; Na = 23 u.

5
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Factors that affect the speed of a reaction
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Rack and test tubes.
• To calculate the average speed
• Stopwatch.
of a reaction.
• Hydrochloric acid.
• To observe and describe the effect of
certain factors on the speed of a reaction. • Small pieces of zinc.
• To write out and balance a chemical
equation.
PROCEDURE
1. Take a piece of zinc, weigh it and make a note of its mass.
2. Carefully pour a little hydrochloric acid into a test tube.
3. Add the piece of zinc you weighed to the test tube.
4. Use the stopwatch to time how long it takes for the zinc to ‘disappear’.
5. Repeat the previous steps to try to reduce the experimental error, and fill in the following table:
Zinc mass (g) Time (s)
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
QUESTIONS
1 The zinc reacts with the hydrochloric acid, forming the salt zinc chloride and releasing hydrogen
(you will have observed the bubbles). Write the balanced chemical equation.
2 Calculate the average speed of the reaction, using the equation: speed = mass/time.
The effect of the hydrochloric acid concentration
• Prepare two thoroughly clean and dry test tubes.
• Add 5 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid to one and the same volume of dilute acid to the other.
• Weigh two pieces of zinc with the same mass.
• Add one of the pieces of zinc to each of the test tubes containing the hydrochloric acid.
3 Calculate the average speed of the reaction, using the equation: speed = mass/time.
The effect of the surface area of the zinc particles
• Prepare two thoroughly clean and dry test tubes.
• Add 5 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid to each one.
• Weigh out two equal quantities of zinc, one as a whole piece and the other divided into smaller pieces.
Add them to each test tube.
4 Describe what happens in both test tubes. What do you think causes this difference?
(If you like, you can also measure the time the zinc takes to disappear in each tube and calculate
the speed of each reaction.)

5
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
The air we exhale
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Beakers. • Filter paper.
To test for the presence of carbon dioxide
• Calcium hydroxide. • Erlenmeyer flask.
in the air we exhale.
• Water. • Drinking straw.
PROCEDURE
During respiration, the oxygen we breathe in binds to haemoglobin in the blood, which transports
it to different tissues. The oxygen is then exchanged for CO2, which we then exhale.
Air rich
in O2
G
Oxygen
G
Lungs G Blood
CO2
G
Air rich
in CO2
To demonstrate this phenomenon:

1.
Prepare limewater. To do this, dissolve calcium hydroxide
in water in a beaker.
2. Fill the Erlenmeyer flask up to half way with limewater.
3.
Start by breathing into the Erlenmeyer flask through the drinking straw.
As the carbon dioxide from our lungs passes through the limewater,
it turns milky and opaque due to the formation of calcium carbonate,
which is insoluble.
4.
If you continue blowing into the water, you will notice that it becomes
clear again. Why does this happen? Because the excess gas causes
calcium bicarbonate to form, which is soluble.
QUESTIONS
1 Write out and balance the chemical reaction that takes place in the Erlenmeyer flask when we blow through
the drinking straw.
2 Calculate the quantity of CO2 necessary to form 10 g of calcium carbonate.
3 Calculate the volume of this quantity of carbon dioxide under normal pressure and temperature conditions.
Data: one mole of any gas occupies 22.4 L under normal pressure and temperature conditions.

5
ASSESSMENT
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 Complete the following sentences:
a)
In a chemical reaction, the initial substances are called ,
and the substances that are formed are called .
b) If energy is released in the overall process of a reaction then it is called ,
and if energy is absorbed it is called .
c)
The speed of a chemical reaction can be increased if we increase the ,
the and the of the reactants.
d) In a chemical reaction, the number of of each element is conserved but
the of the reactants is changed.
2 Which of the following samples contains the greatest number of atoms?

a)
3.6 ? 1022 molecules of CO2.
b) 2 mol of NH3.
3 The atomic mass of sulphur is 32 u and the atomic mass of oxygen is 16 u.

Calculate:
a)
The molar mass of sulphur trioxide.
b) How many moles there are in 160 g of sulphur trioxide.
c)
The mass of 4 moles of sulphur trioxide.
d) How many sulphur atoms and how many oxygen atoms there are in 2 moles of sulphur trioxide.
4 Seawater contains 2.8 % NaCℓ and has a density of 1.03 g/cm3.

Calculate:
a)
The mass of seawater necessary to obtain
a kilogram of sodium chloride.
b) How many cubic metres of seawater would
contain the kilogram of salt from part a).

Name: Class: Date:
5 We want to make marble react with hydrochloric acid. In the laboratory,

we have 250 mL of 0.5 M hydrochloric acid solution.
a)
How many moles of solute are there in this solution?
b) Calculate how many grams of HCℓ we need.
c)
Give the concentration in g/L.
6 Look at the following chemical equation:

CaH2 + H2O " Ca(OH)2 + H2
b) Calculate the moles of hydrogen formed when 6.3 g of calcium hydride
react completely.
c)
Work out how many grams of calcium hydroxide are formed.
Atomic masses: Fe = 40 u; O = 16 u; H = 1 u.

5
ASSESSMENT
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1 a) In a chemical reaction, the initial substances are called reactants, and the substances that are formed
are called products.
b)
If energy is released in the overall process of a reaction then it is called exothermic, and if energy is absorbed
it is called endothermic.
c)
The speed of a chemical reaction can be increased if we increase the temperature, the concentration
and the surface area of the reactants.
d)
In a chemical reaction, the number of atoms of each element is conserved but the composition of the reactants
is changed.
2 a) 3.6 ? 1022 molecules of CO2. Each molecule contains 3 atoms.
Number of atoms = 3 ? 3.6 ? 1022 = 1.08 ? 1023 atoms
b)
2 mol of NH3. Each mole contains Avogadro’s number of molecules and each ammonia molecule is made
up of 4 atoms.
Number of atoms = 2 ? 6.022 ? 1023 ? 4 = 4.8 ? 1024 atoms
Sample b) contains the greatest number of atoms.
3 a) The formula of sulphur trioxide is SO3. And its molar mass is: M = 32 u + 3 ? 16 u " 80 g/mol.
m (g) 160 g
b)
n= = = 2 mol
M 80 g/mol
c)
m = 4 mol ? 80 g/mol = 320 g
d)
Molecules of SO3 = 2 ? 6.022 ? 1023 = 1.2 ? 1024 molecules of SO3.
For each molecule of sulphur trioxide, we have 1 atom of sulphur and 3 atoms of oxygen. In two moles there are:
1.2 ? 1024 atoms of sulphur; 3.6 ? 1024 atoms of oxygen
4 a) The seawater is a solution. We calculate the mass of seawater that contains 1 kg of salt, given that 2.8 % by mass
means that in 100 g of solution there are 2.8 g of solute. In this case sodium chloride:
1 kg of NaCℓ 100
2.8 = ? 100 " m = = 35.7 kg
m (seawater) 2.8
m 35.7 kg
d = 1.03 g/cm3 = 1030 kg/m3 " V =
b) = = 0.03466 m3 = 34.66 L
d 1030 kg /m3
n
5 M=
a) " n = M ? V = 0.5 mol/L ? 0.25 L = 0.125 mol of HCℓ
V (L)
b) The molar mass of HCℓ is 36.5 g/mol.
36.5 g of HCℓ
0.125 mol of HCℓ ? = 4.6 g of HCℓ
1 mol of HCℓ
mol of HCℓ 36.5 g of HCℓ
c) 0.5 M " 0.5 ? = 18.25 g/L
L 1 mol of HCℓ
6 a) CaH2 + 2H2O " Ca(OH)2 + 2H2
b) The molar mass of CaH2 is: M (CaH2)= 40 + 1 ? 2 = 42 g/mol
We calculate the moles of CaH2 in 6.3 g:
1 mol of CaH2
6.3 g of CaH2 ? = 0.15 moles of CaH2
42 g of CaH2
For each mole of CaH2, 2 moles of H2 are formed. In other words, twice as many. Therefore, 0.30 mol of H2 are formed.
c) Proportionally, 0.15 mol of Ca(OH)2 will be formed.
We calculate the molar mass of Ca(OH)2: M (Ca(OH)2) = 40 + (16 + 1) ? 2 = 74 g/mol
Now we express the 0.15 mol of Ca(OH)2 in grams:
74 g of Ca(OH)2
0.15 mol of Ca(OH)2 ? = 11.1 g of CaH2
1 mol of Ca(OH)2

6
EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION
1.
In this unit, we will study specific examples of chemical generate gaseous substances which cause damage
reactions in detail, classifying them according to the to the environment, such as the depletion of the ozone
behaviour and properties of the substances involved: layer, the increase in the greenhouse effect and acid rain.
acid‐base reactions, combustion and synthesis. We start Other reactions generate waste products that have
the unit by revising acids, hydroxides and salts, to help to be specially treated before they are released into rivers,
students understand their behaviour in the reactions they lakes or seas, in order to avoid causing serious harm
will be studying. to living things.
2. In this unit, we also consider the impact of certain chemical 3. We also study some biologically important reactions.
substances on the environment. Many chemical reactions
OBJECTIVES
• Identify acids and bases, understand their chemical • Understand the environmental impact of different human
properties and measure the acidity or basicity of a medium. activities.
• Perform laboratory experiments involving neutralisation, • Understand and propose solutions for the most serious
combustion and synthesis reactions, and observe and environmental problems that affect life on Earth.
interpret what happens.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • Acids, bases and salts.

• Acids and bases. Neutralisation reactions.
• Biologically important neutralisation reactions.
• Combustion reactions.
• Synthesis and condensation reactions.
• Chemistry and the environment.
KNOW HOW TO • Identify chemical reactions in our surroundings.

• Perform experiments in the laboratory involving chemical reactions.
• Find ways to help reduce the damage that humans have caused to the environment.
BE ABLE TO • Appreciate the importance of industrial chemistry in our society.

• Be aware of the environmental problems affecting our planet and the need to make changes
in order to reduce harmful emissions.

6
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
We start the unit by revising the acids, hydroxides and therefore some acids, such as citric and tartaric acid,
salts involved in neutralisation reactions to help students are used as additives to preserve food. Acidic and basic
understand these reactions more easily. Annex 1 substances are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry.
of the Student’s Book will help students understand the For example, acetylsalicylic acid is the active ingredient
behaviour of the compounds involved in these reactions. in the painkiller aspirin, while sodium hydrogen carbonate
Annex 2 will help students name and write the formulas (bicarbonate of soda) is used as an antacid to relieve
of some of the organic compounds involved in combustion heartburn. In the agrochemical industry, acids such
and condensation reactions. as nitric, sulphuric and phosphoric acid are used in
2. Acids and bases are substances with numerous uses in combination with basic compounds like ammonia
the food, pharmaceutical and fertiliser industries. Acidic to produce salts. These are used as fertilisers, such
conditions prevent the growth of many fungi and bacteria, as ammonium nitrate.
INTERNET RESOURCES APPS FOR TABLETS AND SMARTPHONES
WEBSITES Go React (iOs and Android). This app allows students

QUIA – Types of Chemical Reactions. This website to experiment with real chemical reactions. They can try
features a game that helps students revise types combining different elements in the periodic table by dragging
of reactions, balancing equations and other general and dropping the different substances to make them react
aspects of chemical reactivity. with one another. Go React can be used in a number
Keywords: chemical reaction types game. of different ways. At its simplest, students can touch an
element’s symbol to see a brief description of its properties
Carolina – Classifying Chemical Reactions. This website and uses. They can also drag elements into the ‘Reaction
features examples of experiments that help students Area’ to see if they will combine to form a compound. If they
understand different types of chemical reactions. It also do combine, an image of the compound formed will appear,
suggests experiments and activities that can be performed along with a brief summary of its uses. There are also short
in the classroom. videos about some of the compounds.
Keywords: classifying chemical reactions.

6
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
1 State which of the following are properties of acidic 5 State which of the following categories each of the
substances and which are properties of basic reactions below belongs to. Remember that a reaction
substances. Bear in mind that some may be properties can belong to more than one category:
of both and some may not be properties of either. 1. Acid‐base. 4. Condensation.
a) They dissolve in water. d) They dissolve fats. 2. Combustion. 5. Decomposition.
b) They have a sour taste. e) They have a bitter taste. 3. Synthesis.
c) They dissolve some f) They are a pink colour. a) C + O2 " CO2
metals. g) They are a blue colour. b) KCℓO3 " KCℓ + O2
c) NH3 + HNO3 " NH4NO3
2 To find out whether a substance is acidic or basic,
d) CH3OH + CH3COOH " CH3OCOCH3 + H2O
we use indicators. One of these is known as red
cabbage water, a dark blue liquid that turns pink 6 Complete the following chemical reactions and state
when an acid is added to it, and green when
which type they are (acid‐base, combustion, synthesis
a base is added.
or condensation):
We pour red cabbage water into several test tubes
a) Ca(OH)2 + " CaCℓ2 + 2 H2O
and then add the following substances. State which
colour it will turn: b) CH3OH + CH3OH " CH3OCH3 +
c) CH4 + O2 " + H2O
Colour of the red
Substance d) PCℓ3 + " PCℓ5
cabbage water
Vinegar 7 State which of the following describes how an
Juice ammonia factory could pollute the environment:
Soap a) An increase in the area’s temperature.
Alcohol b) Increased acidity of rivers and lakes around the factory.
Bicarbonate of soda c) A decrease in the area’s temperature.
Gastric juice d) Decreased acidity of rivers and lakes around the factory.
Coffee
8 State which of the following is not a consequence
of the greenhouse effect:
3 Which of the following is an acid‐base reaction?
a) Increased depletion of the ozone layer.
a) ZnO + CO " Zn + CO2
b) An increase in the average temperature of the planet.
b) O2 + H2 " 2 H2O
c) Rising sea levels.
c) HCℓ + Cu " CuCℓ2 + H2
d) Increasing desertification.
d) HNO3 + KOH " KNO3 + H2O
9 Many human activities generate CO2 emissions, either
4 Propane (C3H8) is a fuel that is sometimes used directly or indirectly. State which of the following
to heat homes. facilities or activities does not generate CO2 emissions.
a) Write out the combustion reaction of propane. a) A wind farm.
b) How many moles of oxygen are needed to burn b) Travelling on aeroplanes.
1 mol of propane? c) Using electric cars.
c) How many moles of carbon dioxide are released into d) Natural-gas central heating.
the atmosphere when we burn 1 mol of propane?
10 State which of the following activities is a direct cause
d) How many moles of water are formed when we burn
of acid rain:
1 mol of propane?
a) Ammonia production.
b) The production of sulphuric acid.
c) Burning natural gas.
d) Radioactive emissions.

6
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
1 5 a) C + O2 " CO2. Combustion and synthesis.

Acidic Basic
b) KCℓO3 " KCℓ + O2. Decomposition.
a) They dissolve in water. a) They dissolve in water. c) NH3 + HNO3 " NH4NO3. Acid‐base and synthesis.
b) They have a sour e) They have a bitter d) CH3OH + CH3COOH " CH3OCOCH3 + H2O. Condensation.
taste. taste.
6 a) Ca(OH)2 + 2 HCℓ " CaCℓ2 + 2 H2O. Acid‐base.
c) They dissolve some d) They dissolve fats. b) CH3OH + CH3OH " CH3OCH3 + H2O. Condensation.
metals.
c) CH4 + 2 O2 " CO2 + 2 H2O. Combustion.
Not properties of acids or bases: d) PCℓ3 + Cℓ2 " PCℓ5. Synthesis.
f) They are a pink colour.
7 a) An increase in the area’s temperature. No, because the
g) They are a blue colour. gases directly related to this process do not contribute
to the greenhouse effect.
2 Colour of the red b) Increased acidity of rivers and lakes around the factory.
Substance No, because ammonia is a base.
cabbage water
Vinegar Pink c) A decrease in the area’s temperature. No, for the same
reason given in a).
Juice Pink
d) Decreased acidity of rivers and lakes around
Soap Green the factory. Yes, because ammonia is a base.
Alcohol Blue
Bicarbonate of soda Green
8 a) T he increased depletion of the ozone layer is not a
consequence of greenhouse effect.
Gastric juice Pink
Coffee Pink 9 a) A wind farm does not generate CO2 emissions.
10 b) The production of sulphuric acid is a direct cause

3 Reaction d) is the acid‐base reaction.
of acid rain.
4 a) C3H8 + 5 O2 " 3 CO2 + 4 H2O.
b) 5 moles of O2.
c) 3 moles of carbon dioxide.
d) 4 moles of water.

6
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 We pour 25 mL of a 1 M HCℓ solution into an 7 Imagine that a factory has to dispose of water
Erlenmeyer flask. State whether the solution containing sodium hydroxide. Explain which
will be acidic, basic or neutral after we add of the following options would be best:
each of the following:
a) Before it reaches the river, the solution should
a) 20 mL of a 0.5 M solution of sodium hydroxide. be neutralised with hydrochloric acid.
b) 20 mL of a 0.5 M solution of magnesium hydroxide. b) Before it reaches the river, more water should be added.
c) 20 mL of a 0.5 M solution of aluminium hydroxide. c) There is no need to do anything, since sodium
hydroxide is not a pollutant.
2 We could use either sodium hydroxide, magnesium d) Before it reaches the river, the solution should
hydroxide or aluminium hydroxide to neutralise be neutralised with bicarbonate of soda.
a 100 mL solution of 1 M hydrochloric acid. If we have
0.5 M solutions of each of these hydroxides, state 8 During cellular respiration, the following reaction
what quantity we would need of each one.
involving glucose takes place in the mitochondria
in our cells:
3 The pH scale is a logarithmic scale. This means that
every time the scale changes by one unit, acidity C6H12O6 + O2 " CO2 + H2O
changes by a factor of ten. Therefore, a solution with a) Balance the reaction.
pH = 1 will be 10 times more acidic than a solution
b) Explain why it is classed as a combustion reaction.
with pH = 2. We have a 1 M solution of an acid with
a pH of 2. What will the concentration of a solution c) Where does the O2 in the reaction come from?
of the same acid with a pH of 5 be? d) What is the energy released used for?
a) 0.001 M. c) 30 M.
b) 3 M. d) 3000 M. 9 Sometimes when carbon burns, it forms carbon
monoxide instead of carbon dioxide.
4 In terms of basicity, when the logarithmic pH scale a) Write the chemical equation for each of these processes.
increases by one unit, basicity increases by a factor
b) Calculate how many oxygen molecules react with each
of ten. We have a 1 M solution of a base with a pH
mole of carbon when carbon dioxide is formed.
of 12. What will the concentration of a solution
of this same base with a pH of 14 be? c) Calculate how many oxygen molecules react with each
mole of carbon when carbon monoxide is formed.
a) 2 M. c) 0.01 M.
d) Explain whether carbon monoxide is more likely
b) 100 M. d) 0.002 M.
to be formed in the fireplace of a house or in a campfire
in the countryside.
5 Bicarbonate of soda, which is the common name
of sodium hydrogen carbonate, can be used to
10 The composition of the atmosphere on Venus
treat heartburn.
is 96.5 % carbon dioxide and 3.5 % nitrogen.
a) Explain whether bicarbonate of soda is an acidic What conclusion we can draw from this?
or a basic substance.
a) The atmosphere on Venus is acidic.
b) Complete the chemical equation for the reaction
b) There is no acid rain on Venus.
and balance it:
c) Carbon will not burn on Venus.
HCℓ + NaHCO3 " + CO2 +
d) Combustion of carbon on Venus will always produce
6 One of the problems caused by acid rain is that it carbon monoxide.
dissolves limestone. If acid rain is caused by sulphuric
acid, its reaction with limestone can be expressed as: 11 The fuels used for space travel are different to the
fuels used for conventional transport. The Apollo 11
H2SO4 + CaCO3 " CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
mission to the Moon used hydrazine (N2H4), a fuel that
a) Identify the formula of the substance that forms forms nitrogen and water, and releases a large amount
limestone. of energy when it comes into contact with dinitrogen
b) Explain why we say that acid rain causes the erosion tetroxide (N2O4). Write the balanced chemical equation
of limestone. for the process.

6
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
1 a) Acidic. 8 a) C6H12O6 + 6 O2 " 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

b) Acidic. b) Because it is a reaction of an organic compound
c) Basic. with oxygen, forming CO2 and H2O.
c) From the air.
2 200 mL of NaOH; 100 mL of Mg(OH)2; 66.7 mL of Aℓ(OH)3.
d) To carry out vital processes.
3 a) 0.001 M.
9 a) C + O2 " CO2
4 b) 100 M. 2 C + O2 " 2 CO
5 a) It is a basic substance. b) 1 mole of O2.
b) HCℓ + NaHCO3 " NaCℓ + CO2 + H2O c) ½ mole of O2.
6 a) Limestone: CaCO3. d) Carbon monoxide is more likely to form in the fireplace
b) Because it transforms the rock into substances of a house because the oxygen supply in the room can
that are soluble in water. be used up. This does not happen in the open air.
10 c) Carbon will not burn on Venus; the lack of O2 means that
7 a) Before it reaches the river, the solution should be
the combustion reaction of carbon cannot take place.
neutralised with hydrochloric acid. This is the best option,
since it is the only one that will successfully neutralise water. 11 2 N2H4 + N2O4 " 3 N2 + 4 H2O.

6
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
Chemical reactions in solution

Remember that...
In many chemical reactions, the reactants are in solution, meaning they are mixed with a solvent.
When the solutions containing the two reactants come into contact, the solutes react with one another,
while the solvents are only ‘spectators’.
To work out how much of each solute (reactant) is reacting, we need to know how to use the data
on the solutions. Having reactants in solution is very useful since it allows us to handle any amount
of solute, no matter how small, using very dilute solutions.
SOLVED PROBLEM

CaCO3 + 2 HCℓ " CaCℓ2 + CO2 + H2O
Calculate how many grams of a solution of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) at 80 % by mass (80 % purity)
are necessary to react completely with 150 cm3 of a 2 M solution of HCℓ.
ANSWER
Steps:
1. We work out how many moles of HCℓ need to react:
2 mol of solute HCℓ

We have a 2 M solution of HCℓ "
1 litre of HCℓ solution
Since we have 150 cm3 = 0.15 L, we use a conversion factor:

0.15 litres of HCℓ solution ? = 0.3 mol of solute HCℓ in the 150 cm3
1 litres of HCℓ solution
of HCℓ solution
2. We calculate the quantity of substance (moles of CaCO3) necessary to react with 0.3 mol of HCℓ using
the stoichiometric coefficients from the balanced equation:
1 mol of CaCO 3
0.3 mol of HCℓ ? = 0.15 mol of CaCO3
2 mol of HCℓ
3. Now we convert this into grams:
m CaCO = n CaCO ? M CaCO = 0.15 mol ? (40 + 12 + 16 ? 3) g/mol = 15 g of CaCO3
3 3 3
They are necessary to react completely with 150 cm3 of a 2 M solution of HCℓ.
4. Since the CaCO3 is in solution, we work out the mass of CaCO3 solution that will contain these 15 g of solute.
80 g of solute CaCO3
The % by mass of the CaCO3 solution is 80 % "
100 g of CaCO3 solution
Since we need 15 grams of CaCO3, we use a conversion factor:
100 g of CaCO 3 solution
15 g of solute CaCO 3 ? = 18.75 g of CaCO3 solution react
80 g of solute CaCO 3
with 150 cm3 of a 2 M solution of HCℓ.
(Check: 80 % of 18.75 g = 15 g).

6
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:

BaCℓ2 + Na2SO4 " NaCℓ + BaSO4

b) What volume of a 3 M solution of BaCℓ2 is necessary to react completely with 120 g of a solution
of Na2SO4 at 75 % by mass?
Atomic masses: Na = 23 u; S = 32 u; O = 16 u; Cℓ = 35.5 u.
1. Work out how many grams of Na2SO4 there are.

2. Convert this into moles.
3. Calculate how many moles of BaCℓ2 are needed to react with this quantity of Na2SO4.
4. Work out the volume of solution that will contain this many moles of BaCℓ2.
c)
How many grams of NaCℓ will be formed when the reaction in part b) takes place?
What volume of solution should the quantity above be dissolved in for it to have a concentration of 5 M?
What volume of this solution would we need if we wanted 20 g of NaCℓ?

6
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
Nuclear reactions
Remember that...
Nuclear reactions are different to the chemical reactions we have looked at so far.
Chemical reactions involve profound changes to the structure of matter, breaking the bonds joining atoms to one another
and rearranging them. In these reactions, the number of atoms is conserved, as is the overall mass of the reactants.
This is therefore the same as that of the products (law of conservation of mass). When atoms bond to different atoms,
they produce new compounds (products) with different properties to the original substances (reactants).
Furthermore, since chemical reactions involve the breaking and forming of bonds, which are always formed by the interactions
between electrons (they are lost, gained or shared), the reaction processes all take place in the outer part of the atom,
not in the nucleus.
While profound changes to the structure of matter also occur in nuclear reactions, they involve the atomic nuclei, unlike in other
chemical reactions. An atom’s nucleus can break apart into other smaller nuclei, or even join with other nuclei to form bigger ones.
Both processes can involve the formation of other subatomic particles and the release of very large amounts of energy. The first
nuclear reaction was performed by E. Rutherford (1871‑1937) in 1919, when he bombarded isotopes of nitrogen with mass
number 14, with positively charged particles called a particles (which were helium nuclei " 42He):
14
7 N + 42He " 178O + 11H
As you can see from the reaction above, in nuclear reactions, atoms are not conserved, but are transformed into different
elements. However, the total charge is conserved (7 + 2 = 8 + 1), along with the total mass number (14 + 4 = 17 + 1).
Using a particles to bombard atoms was difficult because of the repulsion between the positively charged protons
in the nuclei of the atoms. Therefore, using neutrons (10n) became more common, as they do not have an electric charge
and can easily enter the nucleus. For example:
27
13 Aℓ + 10 n " 12
27
Mg + 11H
The two types of nuclear reaction are nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
NUCLEAR FISSION
This involves splitting a heavy nucleus into other lighter nuclei, which are more stable than the original one.
The first nuclear fission took place in 1938, when two scientists (Hahn and Strassmann) discovered that a uranium
isotope (the isotope with mass number 236) was highly unstable and would quickly split into:
• Other atoms: krypton (90 141
36Kr ) and barium ( 56Ba).
• Neutrons (10n).
• Energy.
To obtain the isotope uranium 236 (23692U) they had
to bombard uranium 235 (23592U), the most common
uranium isotope, with neutrons (10n).
The nuclear reaction is:
235
92 U + 10n " 236
92U " 36Kr + 56Ba + 3 0n + energy
92 141 1
Control room in a nuclear power station.

6
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
The energy released in any reaction corresponds to the mass, Dm, that has ‘disappeared’
(Dm = mass of reactants - mass of products). In fact, what has happened is that the mass
has been transformed into energy, as explained by Albert Einstein’s equation:
E = D m ? c2, with: *Dm= mass that has disappeared

E = energy produced
c = speed of light in a vacuum = 3 ? 108 m/s
As we can see, c = 3 ? 108 m/s is a very big number, so for each small decrease in mass, Dm, a huge amount
of energy is released.
To be exact, the energy generated in the reaction above is millions of times greater than the energy produced
by a traditional combustion reaction, for example. Therefore, it is evident that nuclear energy is extremely useful,
as long as regulations are in place to deal appropriately with the waste products from the reaction, as well as rigorous
safety measures at nuclear power stations.
Each 236 235 1
92U isotope is produced by bombarding an atom of uranium 92U with a neutron ( 0n). The fission of each
of these 92U isotopes produces three more of these neutrons, which can bombard another three uranium 235
236
92U atoms.
These, in turn, will produce three more neutrons each, and so on.
92
36 Kr
Nucleus 1
Neutrons
236
92U
Neutrons
(chain
reaction)
Neutron
Initial nucleus
141
56Ba
Nucleus 2
This is known as a chain reaction; an uncontrolled fission that produces an enormous amount of energy
and can be highly destructive, such as that of an atomic bomb.
In nuclear power stations, which are built to produce energy for people to use, the fission reaction needs
to be controlled. In these reactions the speed of the neutrons is controlled, as is the quantity of fissile material.
This is so that it does not exceed the ‘critical mass’ above which the process becomes spontaneous and the
chain reaction begins. It is therefore very important that these materials are stored correctly.
The only fissile materials that we currently have the technology to store and use to produce a nuclear fission
reaction are uranium‐235, thorium‐232, plutonium‐239 and protactinium‐231. Out of these, the only one that
occurs naturally on Earth, albeit in very scarce quantities, is uranium‐235.

6
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
NUCLEAR FUSION
This is the opposite of nuclear fission. It occurs when light nuclei join together to form heavier nuclei,
which are more stable. The energy of the more stable nuclei formed is less than the total energy of the light nuclei,
and this difference in energy is the energy released during the fusion reaction.
For example:
H + 31H " 42He + 10n + energy
2
1
1
0n
2
1 H
Fusion
4
He
2
3
H
1
In this nuclear reaction, two hydrogen isotopes fuse, forming an a particle, a neutron and a large amount of energy,
greater than that of fission reactions.
Controlled fusion reactions are impossible to carry out on Earth as temperatures of millions of degrees are required
to make the nuclei collide with enough velocity to overcome the huge forces of repulsion between the protons
in their nuclei.
The reaction above takes place continuously inside stars such as our Sun, releasing a huge amount of energy.
The Sun is currently made up of 73 % hydrogen, 26 % helium and 1 % other elements. Every second, the Sun
transforms four million tonnes of matter into energy. At this rate, it will live on for many millions of years,
due to the vast quantity of matter it contains.
1 Bearing in mind that the total charge and mass number (A) are conserved in a nuclear reaction,
fill in the gaps in the following reactions with the correct atoms:
a) 94Be + 42He " + 10n c) 105B + 10n " + 42He
b) 73Li + " 42He + 42He d) 13
27
Aℓ + " 15
30
P + 10n
2 If the combustion of a kilogram of carbon produces 3 ? 107 J of energy. How many kilograms of carbon
would we have to burn to produce the same amount released when one gram of mass is converted
into energy?
3 The first nuclear fission reaction was carried out in 1938. State which historical event began the following year.
What kind of historical events usually lead to major scientific advances? Why?

6
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
Chemical reactions in solution

Remember that...
In many chemical reactions, the reactants are in solution, meaning they are mixed with a solvent.
When the solutions containing the two reactants come into contact, the solutes react with one another,
while the solvents are only ‘spectators’.
To work out how much of each solute (reactant) is reacting, we need to know how to use the data on the solutions.
Having reactants in solution is very useful since it allows us to handle any amount of solute, no matter how small,
using very dilute solutions.
SOLVED PROBLEM

CaCO3 + 2 HCℓ " CaCℓ2 + CO2 + H2O
Calculate how many grams of a solution of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) at 80 % by mass (80 % purity)
are necessary to react completely with 150 cm3 of a 2 M solution of HCℓ.
ANSWER
Steps:
1. We work out how many moles of HCℓ need to react:
2 mol of solute HC ℓ
We have a 2 M solution of HCℓ "
1 litre of HC ℓ solution
Since we have 150 cm3 = 0.15 L, we use a conversion factor:

0.15 litres of HCℓ solution ? = 0.3 mol of solute HCℓ in the 150 cm3
1 litres of HCℓ solution
of HCℓ solution
2. We calculate the quantity of substance (moles of CaCO3) necessary to react with 0.3 mol of HCℓ using
the stoichiometric coefficients from the balanced equation:
1 mol of CaCO 3
0.3 mol of HCℓ ? = 0.15 mol of CaCO3
2 mol of HCℓ
3. Now we convert this into grams:
m CaCO = n CaCO ? M CaCO = 0.15 mol ? (40 + 12 + 16 ? 3) g/mol = 15 g of CaCO3
3 3 3
They are necessary to react completely with 150 cm3 of a 2 M solution of HCℓ.
4. Since the CaCO3 is in solution, we work out the mass of CaCO3 solution that will contain these 15 g of solute.
80 g of solute CaCO3
The % by mass of the CaCO3 solution is 80 % "
100 g of CaCO3 solution
Since we need 15 grams of CaCO3, we use a conversion factor:
100 g of CaCO 3 solution
15 g of solute CaCO 3 ? = 18.75 g of CaCO3 solution react
80 g of solute CaCO 3
with 150 cm3 of a 2 M solution of HCℓ.
(Check: 80 % of 18.75 g = 15 g).

6
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:

BaCℓ2 + Na2SO4 " NaCℓ + BaSO4
ANSWER

BaCℓ2 + Na2SO4 " 2 NaCℓ + BaSO4
b) What volume of a 3 M solution of BaCℓ2 is necessary to react completely with 120 g of a solution
of Na2SO4 at 75 % by mass?
Atomic masses: Na = 23 u; S = 32 u; O = 16 u; Cℓ = 35.5 u.
1. Work out how many grams of Na2SO4 there are.
75 % of 120 g = 90 g of the solute Na2SO4
2. Convert this into moles.
m Na SO 90 g
n Na SO = 2
=4
= 0.63 mol of Na2SO4
2 4
M Na SO
2 4
(2 ? 23 + 32 + 4 ? 16) g/mol
3. Calculate how many moles of BaCℓ2 are needed to react with this quantity of Na2SO4.
1 mol of BaCℓ2
0.63 mol of Na 2 SO 4 ? =0.63 mol of BaCℓ2
1 mol of Na 2 SO 4
4. Work out the volume of solution that will contain this many moles of BaCℓ2.
3 mol of solute BaCℓ2
3 M solution "
1 L of BaCℓ2 solution
Using a conversion factor:

1 L of BaCℓ2 solution
0.63 mol of solute BaCℓ2 ? = 0.21 L of the BaCℓ2 solution are necessary.
3 mol of solute BaCℓ2
c)
How many grams of NaCℓ will be formed when the reaction in part b) takes place?
2 mol of NaCℓ
0.63 mol of BaCℓ2 ? = 1.26 mol of NaCℓ
1 mol of BaCℓ2
Therefore:
mNaCℓ = nNaCℓ ? MNaCℓ = 1.26 mol ? (23 + 35.5) g/mol = 73.7 g de NaCℓ will be formed.
What volume of solution should the quantity above be dissolved in for it to have a concentration of 5 M?
mNaCℓ 73.7 g
nNaCℓ = = = 1.26 mol of NaCℓ
MNaCℓ (23 + 35.5) g/mol
5 mol of solute 1 L of solution

5M" " 1.26 mol of solute ? = 0.25 L of solution
1 L of solution 5 mol of solute
What volume of this solution would we need if we wanted 20 g of NaCℓ?

mNaCℓ 20 g
nNaCℓ = = = 0.34 mol of NaCℓ
MNaCℓ (23 + 35.5) g/mol
Therefore:
1 L of solution
0.34 mol of solute ? = 0.068 L of solution
5 mol of solute

6
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
Nuclear reactions
Remember that...
Nuclear reactions are different to the chemical reactions we have looked at so far.
Chemical reactions involve profound changes to the structure of matter, breaking the bonds joining atoms to one another
and rearranging them. In these reactions, the number of atoms is conserved, as is the overall mass of the reactants.
This is therefore the same as that of the products (law of conservation of mass). When the atoms bond to different atoms,
they produce new compounds (products) with different properties to the original substances (reactants).
Furthermore, since chemical reactions involve the breaking and forming of bonds, which are always formed by the interactions
between electrons (they are lost, gained or shared), the reaction processes all take place in the outer part of the atom,
not in the nucleus.
While profound changes to the structure of matter also occur in nuclear reactions, they involve the atomic nuclei, unlike in other
chemical reactions. An atom’s nucleus can break apart into other smaller nuclei, or even join with other nuclei to form bigger ones.
Both processes can involve the formation of other subatomic particles and the release of very large amounts of energy. The first
nuclear reaction was performed by E. Rutherford (1871‑1937) in 1919, when he bombarded isotopes of nitrogen, with mass
number 14, with positively charged particles called a particles (which were helium nuclei " 42He):
14
7 N + 42He " 178O + 11H
As you can see from the reaction above, in nuclear reactions atoms are not conserved, but are transformed into different
elements. However, the total charge is conserved (7 + 2 = 8 + 1), along with the total mass number (14 + 4 = 17 + 1).
Using a particles to bombard atoms was problematic because of the repulsion between the positively charged protons
in the nuclei of the atoms. Therefore, using neutrons (10n) became more common, as they do not have an electric charge
and can easily enter the nucleus. For example:
27
13 Aℓ + 10 n " 12
27
Mg + 11H
The two types of nuclear reaction are nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
NUCLEAR FISSION
This involves splitting a heavy nucleus into other lighter nuclei, which are more stable than the original one.
The first nuclear fission took place in 1938, when two scientists (Hahn and Strassmann) discovered that a uranium
isotope (the isotope with mass number 236) was highly unstable and would quickly split into:
• Other atoms: krypton (90 141
36Kr ) and barium ( 56Ba).
• Neutrons (10n).
• Energy.
To obtain the isotope uranium 236 (23692U) they had
to bombard uranium 235 (23592U), the most common
uranium isotope, with neutrons (10n).
The nuclear reaction is:
235
92 U + 10n " 236
92U " 36Kr + 56Ba + 3 0n + energy
92 141 1
Control room in a nuclear power station.

6
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
The energy released in any reaction corresponds to the mass, Dm, that has ‘disappeared’
(Dm = mass of reactants - mass of products). In fact, what has happened is that the mass
has been transformed into energy, as explained by Albert Einstein’s equation:
E = D m ? c2, with: *Dm= mass that has disappeared

E = energy produced
c = speed of light in a vacuum = 3 ? 108 m/s
As we can see, c = 3 ? 108 m/s is a very big number, so for each small decrease in mass, Dm, a huge amount
of energy is released.
To be exact, the energy generated in the reaction above is millions of times greater than the energy produced
by a traditional combustion reaction, for example. Therefore, it is evident that nuclear energy is extremely useful,
as long as regulations are in place to deal appropriately with the waste products from the reaction, as well as rigorous
safety measures at nuclear power stations.
Each 236 235 1
92U isotope is produced by bombarding an atom of uranium 92U with a neutron ( 0n). The fission of each
of these 92U isotopes produces three more of these neutrons, which can bombard another three uranium 235
236
92U atoms.
These, in turn, will produce three more neutrons each, and so on.
92
36 Kr
Nucleus 1
Neutrons
236
92U
Neutrons
(chain
reaction)
Neutron
Initial nucleus
141
56 Ba
Nucleus 2
This is known as a chain reaction; an uncontrolled fission that produces an enormous amount of energy
and can be highly destructive, such as that of an atomic bomb.
In nuclear power stations, which are built to produce energy for people to use, the fission reaction needs
to be controlled. In these reactions the speed of the neutrons is controlled, as is the quantity of fissile material.
This is so that it does not exceed the ‘critical mass’ above which the process becomes spontaneous and the
chain reaction begins. It is therefore very important that these materials are stored correctly.
The only fissile materials that we currently have the technology to store and use to produce a nuclear fission
reaction are uranium‐235, thorium‐232, plutonium‐239 and protactinium‐231. Out of these, the only one that
occurs naturally on Earth, albeit in very scarce quantities, is uranium‐235.

6
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
NUCLEAR FUSION
This is the opposite of nuclear fission. It occurs when light nuclei join together to form heavier nuclei,
which are more stable. The energy of the more stable nuclei formed is less than the total energy of the light nuclei,
and this difference in energy is the energy released during the fusion reaction.
For example:
2
1H + 31H " 42He + 10n + energy
1
0n
2
1 H
Fusion
4
He
2
3
1H
In this nuclear reaction, two hydrogen isotopes fuse, forming an a particle, a neutron and a large amount of energy,
greater than that of fission reactions.
Controlled fusion reactions are impossible to carry out on Earth as temperatures of millions of degrees are required
to make the nuclei collide with enough velocity to overcome the huge forces of repulsion between the protons
in their nuclei.
The reaction above takes place continuously inside stars such as our Sun, releasing a huge amount of energy.
The Sun is currently made up of 73 % hydrogen, 26 % helium and 1 % other elements. Every second, the Sun
transforms four million tonnes of matter into energy. At this rate, it will live on for many millions of years,
due to the vast quantity of matter it contains.
1 Bearing in mind that the total charge and mass number (A) are conserved in a nuclear reaction,
fill in the gaps in the following reactions with the correct atoms:
ANSWER
9
Be + 42He " 126C + 10n
4 10
5 B + 10n " 73Li + 42He
7
3Li + 11H " 42He + 42He 27
13 Aℓ + 42He " 15
30
P + 10n
2 If the combustion of a kilogram of carbon produces 3 ? 107 J of energy. How many kilograms of carbon
would we have to burn to produce the same amount released when one gram of mass is converted
into energy?
ANSWER
1 kg of carbon
E = Dm ? c 2 = 10-3 kg ? (3 ? 10 8) 2 m 2 /s 2 = 9 ? 1013 J " 9 ? 1013 J ? = 3 ? 10 6 "
3 ? 10 7 J
" 3 million kilograms of carbon
3 The first nuclear fission reaction was carried out in 1938. State which historical event began the following year.
What kind of historical events usually lead to major scientific advances? Why?
ANSWER
The Second World War. During wars, governments usually invest very heavily in scientific research in the hope that the resulting
advances will have military applications.

6
SOLVED PROBLEMS
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
Heartburn is a painful sensation caused by excess hydrochloric acid in the gastric juices. To help relieve it,
we can take antacids, which are sometimes made of aluminium hydroxide.
a) Write the equation for the neutralisation reaction that takes place between hydrochloric acid and aluminium
hydroxide.
b) One dose of antacid usually contains around 2 g of aluminium hydroxide. How many moles is this?
c) If the HCℓ in our gastric juices reaches a concentration of 1 M, what volume could we neutralise with one
dose of antacid?
Approach and answer

a) 3 HCℓ + Aℓ(OH)3 " AℓCℓ3 + 3 H2O c) We can use the stoichiometry of the reaction
b) We calculate the molar mass of Aℓ(OH)3 to calculate the moles of HCℓ that will react with
each dose of antacid:
Looking at the periodic table, we see that:
3 mol HCℓ
M (Aℓ) = 26.98 g/mol 2.56 ? 10-2 mol Aℓ(OH)3 ? =
1 mol Aℓ (OH) 3
M (O) = 16.00 g/mol = 7.69 ? 10-2 mol HCℓ
M (H) = 1.008 g/mol By rearranging the molarity formula, we can work
M (Aℓ(OH)3) = 26.98 + 3 ? (16.00 + 1.008) = out the volume from the moles of HCℓ and their
= 78.00 g/mol concentration in the gastric juices:
1 mol A ℓ(OH)3 no. mol of solute
2 g Aℓ(OH)3 ?
78.00 g Aℓ (OH)3
= 2.56 ? 10-2 mol Aℓ(OH)3 M=
V solution (L)
"
nHCℓ 7.29 ? 10-2
" V=
MHCℓ
=
1
= 7.29 ? 10-2 L = 72.9 mL
ACTIVITIES
1 If someone is suffering from heartburn, which 4 Ammonia is an industrial product sometimes used
of the following substances could help them? to make fertilisers. One of these is ammonium
a) Vinegar. sulphate, which is obtained by combining ammonia
with sulphuric acid.
b) Bicarbonate of soda.
a) Write out the reaction that produces ammonium
c) Lemon juice. sulphate.
d) A fizzy drink. b) Calculate the mass of ammonia necessary to react
Answer: b) fully with 5 L of 2 M sulphuric acid.
c) Calculate the mass of fertiliser that will be produced
2 It takes 16 mL of a solution of KOH to neutralise 10 mL from this reaction.
of 2 M sulphuric acid. What is its concentration?
Answer: b) 340 g; c) 1320 g
Answer: 2.5 M
5 Another common fertiliser, often used for its high
3 In the laboratory we have a 50 mL solution of 1 M nitrogen content, is ammonium nitrate. We want to
nitric acid. Before throwing it away we need to prepare 1 kg of fertiliser by reacting 10 M nitric acid
neutralise it, so we use a 2 M solution of Ca(OH)2. with ammonia. Calculate:
What volume of this solution will we need
a) The volume of nitric acid necessary.
to neutralise the acid completely?
b) The mass of ammonia necessary.
Answer: 12.5 mL
Answer: a) 1.25 L; b) 212.5 g

6
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
pH and concentration of acids and bases
PURPOSE Equipment
• 2 racks (each with 4 test tubes). • 1 M sodium hydroxide.

In this experiment, we will
• 4 100 mL beakers. • 1 M ammonium hydroxide.
show that the pH of a
solution of an acid or base • A 10 mL graduated cylinder. • Stirring rod.
depends on the • A 100 mL graduated cylinder. • pH paper or pH meter.
concentration and the type
of acid or base. • 1 M hydrochloric acid. • Permanent marker.
• 1 M acetic acid.
PROCEDURE
1. Start by using the 1 M HCℓ solution to prepare 0.1 M 3. Next, use the 1 M NaOH solution to prepare 0.1 M
and 0.01 M solutions. and 0.01 M solutions.
a) Measure 90 mL of water and pour it into a beaker. a) Measure 90 mL of water and pour it into a beaker.
b) Then, measure 10 mL of the 1 M HCℓ solution and b) Then, measure 10 mL of the 1 M NaOH solution
add it to the same beaker. and add it to the same beaker.
c) Write ‘0.1 M HCℓ’ on the beaker with the marker. c) Write ‘0.1 M NaOH’ on the beaker.
d) Using another beaker, take the 0.1 M HCℓ solution d) Using another beaker, take the 0.1 M NaOH solution
and repeat steps a), b) and c) to prepare a 0.01 M HCℓ and repeat steps a), b) and c) to prepare a 0.01 M
solution. NaOH solution.
2. Mark the test tubes in the first rack as 1, 2, 3 and 4. 4. Mark the test tubes in the second rack as A, B, C and D.
Put 3 mL of the 1 M HCℓ in the first one, 3 mL Put 3 mL of the 1 M NaOH in the first one, 3 mL
of the 0.1 M HCℓ in the second one, 3 mL of the 0.01 M of the 0.1 M NaOH in the second one, 3 mL of the 0.01 M
HCℓ in the third one, and 3 mL of 1 M acetic acid NaOH in the third one, and 3 mL of 1 M ammonium
in the fourth one. hydroxide in the fourth one.
5. Now stir each test tube with a clean stirring rod and then measure the pH. Record the results in a table.
ACIDS BASES
1: HCℓ 2: HCℓ 3: HCℓ 4: ac. Acetic A: NaOH B: NaOH C: NaOH D: NH4OH

1 M 0.1 M 0.01 M 1 M 1M 0.1 M 0.01 M 1M
pH
QUESTIONS
1 Which of the HCℓ solutions has the closest 4 Can you find a relationship between the concentration
pH to the acetic acid? of a solution of HCℓ and its pH?
2 Which of the NaOH solutions has the closest 5 How does the pH vary across the three sodium
pH to the ammonium hydroxide? hydroxide solutions? What about the concentration?
3 How does the pH vary across the three hydrochloric 6 Can you find a relationship between the concentration
acid solutions? What about the concentration? of a solution of NaOH and its pH?

6
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
The combustion reaction
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Porcelain capsule. • Watch glass.
The aim of this experiment is to
• Glass funnel (large). • Spatula.
demonstrate that CO2 is a product
of the combustion of an organic • Flexible tube (50 cm). • Scales.
compound. Sometimes the • Beakers. • Barium hydroxide.
formation of water can also
• Ethanol.
be detected.
PROCEDURE
1.
Connect the flexible tube to the end of the funnel.
2. Place some ethanol in the porcelain capsule.
3. Put 100 mL of water in the beaker and dissolve 2 g of Ba(OH)2 in it. Make sure that all of it has dissolved.
4. Light the ethanol and when it is burning, place the funnel over it like a hood.
Place the end of the flexible tube in the Ba(OH)2 solution.
5. Look at the bubbles of gas and the appearance of the solution.
6. When the ethanol stops burning and the funnel has cooled down, check for drops of liquid on the inner surface
of the funnel.
QUESTIONS
1 Write the combustion reaction of ethanol.
2 What is the gas bubbling through the liquid in the beaker? Why does the appearance of the solution change?
3 Does all of the ethanol in the capsule burn? Why?
4 The list of equipment specifies that the funnel should be large. What could happen if it wasn’t big enough?
5 If you noticed drops of liquid on the inner surface of the funnel once it had cooled, what do you think they were?
Is there any way of checking this?

6
ASSESSMENT
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 Bearing in mind Arrhenius’ theory, state which of the following substances are acidic and which are basic.
Substance Acid Base
HBr
KOH
Ba(OH)2
NH4OH
Fe(OH)3
HNO3
H2CO3
Choose an acid and a base and explain why, when they react completely with one another, the resulting
solution is neutral.
2 We use a 1 M NaOH solution to calculate the concentration of an H2SO4 solution. We find that we need
16 mL of the H2SO4 solution to neutralise 20 mL of NaOH.
a) Write the balanced chemical equation for the neutralisation reaction.
b) Calculate the concentration of the H2SO4 solution.
c) Bearing in mind the behaviour of the indicators shown in the table below, state
what colour a solution will turn when a few drops are added to the following
mixtures of NaOH and H2SO4. Use your knowledge of the pH scale to state
whether the pH of each mixture will be more than, less than or equal to 7.
Indicator Colour in acid Colour in base
Litmus Red Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Mixture Litmus Phenolphthalein pH
20 mL of NaOH + 8 mL of H2SO4
3 Complete the following chemical reactions, balance them and state which type they are (acid‐base,
combustion or synthesis):
a) + " NH3 d) SCℓ4 + " SCℓ6
b) CH3COOH + CH3OH " CH3COOCH3 + e) H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 " +
c) C3H8 + O2 " + H2O

Name: Class: Date:
4 Methane (CH4) is the most abundant component in the fuel known

as natural gas.
a) Write the balanced chemical equation for the combustion reaction
of methane.
b) Calculate the mass of oxygen needed and the mass of CO2 released
into the atmosphere when we burn 1 kg of methane.
c) If every time we burn 1 mol of methane we obtain 890 kJ of energy,
what mass of methane do we need to burn to obtain one million joules?
5 Most combustion reactions involve the reaction between an organic substance or carbon and oxygen.
These reactions are mainly used to obtain energy.
a) The combustion of glucose (C6H12O6) takes place inside cells. Write the balanced chemical
equation for this reaction.
b) Compare this combustion reaction to the combustion of carbon (C) or natural gas (CH4).
How are they similar? How are they different?
c) Explain which of the following activities involve combustion reactions:
A. Transport.
B. The manufacture of ammonia.
C. Central heating.
D. Treating heartburn.
E. Generating electricity at thermal power stations.

6
ASSESSMENT
1 3 a) Synthesis reaction: N2 + 3 H2 " NH3

Substance Acid Base
b) Condensation reaction:
HBr ✗ CH3COOH + CH3OH " CH3COOCH3 + H2O
KOH ✗ c) Combustion reaction: C3H8 + 5 O2 " 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
Ba(OH)2 ✗ d) Synthesis reaction: SCℓ4 + Cℓ2 " SCℓ6

e) Acid‐base reaction: H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 " CaSO4 + 2 H2O
NH4OH ✗
4 a) The chemical equation for the combustion
Fe(OH)3 ✗
of methane is:
HNO3 ✗ CH4 + 2 O2 " CO2 + 2 H2O
H2CO3 ✗ b) We need to express the amount of methane, 1 kg,

in moles. To do this, we first calculate its molar mass:
M CH = 12.01 + 4 ? 1.008 = 16.04 g/mol ;
According to Arrhenius’ theory, acids are substances 4
that release protons (H+) when they dissolve in water, 1 mol CH 4

1000 g CH 4 ? = 62.34 mol of CH 4
and bases are substances that release hydroxyls (OH-) 16.04 g CH 4
when they dissolve in water. We can use the stoichiometry of the reaction
Neutralisation takes place because when an acid to calculate the moles of O2 needed and their
and a base come into contact with one another, the H+ equivalent in g:
combine with the OH-, forming H2O. 2 mol O 2
62.34 mol CH 4 ? = 124.68 mol O 2
Examples of neutralisation reactions are: 1 mol CH 4
• 2 HBr + Ba(OH)2 " BaBr2 + 2 H2O M O = 2 ? 16.00 = 32.00 g/mol ;

2
• H2CO3 + 2 NH4OH " (NH4)2CO3 + 2 H2O 32.00 g O 2

124.68 mol O 2 ? = 3.99 ? 10 3 g O 2 = 3.99 kg O 2
• HNO3 + KOH " KNO3 + H2O 1 mol O 2
• 3 HNO3 + Fe(OH)3 " Fe(NO3)3 + 3 H2O We can calculate the mass of CO2 released into the
atmosphere in the same way:
2 a) The balanced chemical equation for the neutralisation
reaction is: 1 mol CO 2
62.34 mol CH 4 ? = 62.34 mol CO 2
2 NaOH + H2SO4 " Na2SO4 + 2 H2O 1 mol CH 4
b) To calculate the concentration of the H2SO4 solution, we first M CO = 12.01 + 2 ? 16.00 = 44.01 g/mol ;
2
calculate the moles of NaOH that have been neutralised: 44.01 g CO 2

62.34 mol CO 2 ? = 2.74 ? 10 3 g CO 2 = 2.74 kg CO 2
n solute 1 mol CO 2
M= " nNaOH = 1? 20 ? 10 = 0.02 mol of NaOH
-3
V
c) We use the stoichiometry of the process to calculate
We use the stoichiometry of the reaction to calculate
the mass of methane we need to burn to obtain one
the moles of H2SO4 that have been neutralised:
million (106) joules.
1 mol of H 2 SO 4
0.02 mol of NaOH ? = 0.01 mol of H 2 SO 4 1 mol CH 4
2 mol of NaOH 10 6 J ? = 1.12 mol CH 4;
890 ? 10 3 J
Now we calculate the concentration of the solution
16.04 g CH 4
of the acid: 1.12 mol CH 4 ? = 17.97 g CH 4
1 mol CH 4
n solute 0.01 mol of H 2 SO 4
M= = = 0.625 M
V 16 ? 10-3 L
c)
Mixture Litmus Phenolphthalein pH
20 mL of NaOH + 8 mL of H2SO4 Blue Pink More than 7
20 mL of NaOH + 16 mL of H2SO4 Blue‐red Transparent 7
20 mL of NaOH + 20 mL of H2SO4 Red Transparent Less than 7
Less than 7 and less than the pH

20 mL of NaOH + 30 mL of H2SO4 Red Transparent
of the previous mixture

1
5 a) The balanced chemical equation for the combustion c) A. Transport. Most motorised forms of transport are
of glucose is: powered by the combustion of a fuel such as diesel,
petrol or fuel oil.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 " 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
B. The manufacture of ammonia. This synthesis reaction
b) • Both involve reactions between a fuel (glucose
does not require combustion.
or methane) and oxygen (O2) and result in the
formation of the same products (CO2 and H2O). C. Central heating. Sometimes the heat for central heating
Both also release energy. is obtained directly from the combustion of natural gas
or fuel oil. Central heating that runs on electricity may
• They differ in the stoichiometric coefficients of the
also require combustion, if the electricity was
substances involved. They also differ in the fact that
generated at a thermal power station.
the combustion of glucose takes place within cells
and the energy released is used by the organism to D. Treating heartburn. This requires an acid‐base reaction,
carry out its vital functions. Methane is a fuel used to not combustion.
obtain domestic energy (kitchens, central heating, etc.) E. Generating electricity at thermal power stations. This
or in industry, for example to produce electricity requires a combustion reaction to generate the heat
in thermal power stations. which converts water into steam to move a turbine.

NOTES

7
MOTION
INTRODUCTION
1.
In order to identify whether a body is in motion or not, 3.
This unit includes a lot of graph work. Graphs are
we need to know the frame of reference. It is therefore a very useful tool for studying motion, especially
essential that students understand this concept. rectilinear motion.
2.
They should also be able to distinguish between
different types of movement, both in terms of
trajectory and velocity.
OBJECTIVES
• Understand that we need a frame of reference • Classify movements according to their trajectory.
in order to describe motion. • Identify URM, UARM and UCM.
• Know the basic concepts related to motion. • Use the equations of motion correctly.
• Differentiate between average velocity and • Know how to represent observations in a graph.
instantaneous velocity.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • Frames of reference.

• The relative nature of motion.
• Basic concepts used to describe motion: trajectory, position and displacement.
• Classification of movements according to their trajectory.
• Velocity vectors.
• Average and instantaneous velocity.
• Acceleration and its vectorial nature.
• URM, characteristics and URM equations.
• x‑t, v‑t graphs of a URM.
• UARM, characteristics and UARM equations.
• x‑t, v‑t graphs of a UARM.
• Free fall motion.
• UCM, characteristics and linear and angular quantities.
KNOW HOW TO • Draw and read graphs.

• Solve problems on rectilinear motion using graphs and analysis.
• Solve problems involving UCM calculations.
• Convert units.
• Study instantaneous velocity in a UARM in the laboratory.
BE ABLE TO • Observe and analyse motion in our surroundings.

• Understand the difference between the scientific meaning and common
meaning of terms used in everyday language.

7
MOTION
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
It is important for students to be given the opportunity 3.
To help students understand the different types
to think about how the movement of an object can be of motion studied in this unit, it is important to focus
viewed from different positions, using simple examples. on the different trajectories (rectilinear and circular)
This will help them understand the concepts of ‘frame and on the change (or not) in speed (uniform and
of reference’, ‘absolute motion’ and ‘relative motion’. uniformly accelerated). We recommend highlighting
2.
At this stage, students are not usually familiar with the importance of the equation that relates position
vectors. It is important to explain the concept clearly, and time and, therefore, motion.
so that they understand the difference between scalar 4.
Each type of motion has a characteristic graph
and vector quantities. Giving examples involving force (position‐time, speed‐time), which illustrates
usually helps to illustrate the vector nature of a quantity. the relationship between the quantities represented.
We recommend this as a starting point, before We recommend studying different examples, changing
explaining that displacement, velocity and acceleration the values, using both the negative and the positive
are vector quantities. It is important to establish which part of the axes, and combining the two types of motion
type of signs will be used to determine the direction in different parts of the same graph.
of these magnitudes.
WEBSITES YouTube: Motion in a Straight Line: Crash Course

Little Bins for Little Hands – Simple Physics Activities Physics. In this tutorial, Dr. Shini Somara introduces us
and Experiments for Kids. This website features a wide to the concept of motion in a straight line: displacement,
variety of simple and fun Physics activities that allow acceleration, time, velocity, and the definition of acceleration.
students to explore topics such as the laws of motion, She also looks at how a physicist defines ‘speed’ from the
and sound and light waves. The site is also a great source point of view of a police officer. Did the driver deserve that
for stimulating STEM activities, which are updated on speeding ticket? Doctor Somara explains why he does,
a regular basis. with the help of Physics and its laws.
Keywords: kinematics, physics, activities for kids.
Simulation List. The Boston University website features
a variety of simulations that can be used to practise VMS – Velocity and Acceleration Animation (iOs).
the concepts of motion and other phenomena studied This app helps us to understand the maths behind motion.
in Year 4 Physics. It also shows us how to describe, calculate and represent
Keywords: simulation, list, motion. motion in a graph.

7
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
1 The movement of a particle following a rectilinear 4 Answer the following questions:

trajectory is shown in the graph below: a) What does displacement mean?
x (m)
b) What is the trajectory of a mobile object?
40
c) Are average velocity and instantaneous velocity
30 the same?
d) What does acceleration measure?
20
5 In Physics, what does it mean if the acceleration
10 of a mobile object is 2 m/s2? What about if the
acceleration is -2 m/s2?
0
0 10 20 30 t (s)
Study the graph and work out:

Type of Initial
Equation Acceleration
a) The initial position of the particle. motion speed
b) The position, displacement and distance travelled UARM v=5?t
when t = 10 s.
UARM v = 10 + 2 ? t
c)
The position, displacement and distance travelled
when t = 30 s. UARM v = 30 - 2 ? t
d) The speed in each section of the graph.
e)
The average speed throughout the whole journey. 7 How long would a mobile object take to reach
a speed of 80 km/h if it starts off at rest and
2 Classify the following movements according accelerates at 0.5 m/s2? Do the calculation and
to the shape of their trajectory: a penalty kick, an write the motion equations for this mobile object.
ascending lift, a bee in flight, a falling body, a straight
100 m race and a satellite in orbit around the Earth. 8 Identify the quantities that the following
In which type of movements is the displacement measurements correspond to and express
the same as the distance travelled? them in International System units.
a) 30 km/h.
3 A car travels at 60 km/h for 1 hour and 15 minutes,
b) 1200 m/s.
stops for 5 minutes and then turns around and drives
towards the starting point at 10 m/s for 45 minutes. c)
600 cm/min2.
Calculate: d) 2.53 ? 104 m/h.
a) The final position.
9 A car that is travelling at 108 km/h slows down
b) The total distance travelled.
uniformly and stops in 10 s.
c) The average speed.
a)
Work out the acceleration and the distance
travelled until it stopped.
b) Draw the v‑t and x‑t graphs for this motion.

7
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
1 a) x0 = 10 m. 6 Type of Initial
b)
x10 = 30 m; Dx = x10 - x0 = 30 - 10 = 20 m; Ds = 20 m. Equation Acceleration
motion speed
c)
x30 = 0 m; Dx = x30 - x0 = 0 - 10 = -10 m; UARM 0 5 m/s2
v=5?t
Ds = 20 + 30 = 50 m.
30 - 10 m 30 - 30 m UARM v = 10 + 2 ? t 10 m/s 2 m/s2
d) v 1 = = 2 ; v2 = =0 ;
10 - 0 s 20 - 10 s UARM v = 30 - 2 ? t 30 m/s -2 m/s2
0 - 30 m
v3 = = -3 .
!
30 - 20 s 7 First we convert it into SI units:
e) vm = 50/30 = 1.6 m/s. 80 km/h = 80 000 m/3600 s = 22.22 m/s
2 • Rectilinear: ascending lift, falling body, straight 100 m race. We substitute it in the general equation:
• Curvilinear: penalty kick, bee, satellite. v = v0 + a ? t " 22.22 = 0 + 0.5 ? t " t = 44.4 s
The movements that follow a rectilinear trajectory. It is a uniformly accelerated motion:
3 There are three sections in the movement: 1
v = 0.5 ? t ; s = ? 0.5 ? t2
2
• The car travels forward at v1 = 60 km/h and t =1.25 h.
The distance travelled, s1 = 60 ? 1.25 = 75 km.
8 a) 30 km/h = 8.33 m/s (speed).
b)
1.2 s (time).
• The car is parked: v2 = 0 km/h and t = 5 min.
The distance travelled, s2 = 0 km. c)
600 cm/min2 = 1.66 ? 10-3 m/s2 (acceleration).
d)
2.53 ? 104 m/h = 7.03 m/s (speed).
• The car goes back: v´ = 36 km/h and t = 0.75 h.
The distance travelled in this section will be 0 - 30
9 a)
The acceleration will be: a = = -3 m/s2.
s3 = 36 km/h ? 0.75 h = 27 km. 10
1
So: The distance travelled will be: s = v0 ? t - ? a ? t 2 =
2
a) xfinal = 75 km - 27 km = 48 km. 1 2
= 30 ? 10 - ? 3 ? 10 = 150 m.
b) sT = 75 km + 27 km = 102 km. 2
c)
va = distance travelled / total time taken. b) x (m)
200
The total time taken was: = 1 h 15 min +
+ 5 min + 45 min = 2 h 5 min = 2.08 h. 150
102 km
Therefore: va = = 48.96 km/h.
2.08 h 100
4 a) Displacement is the distance between the initial position
and the final position. 50
b)
The trajectory is the path that the mobile object follows
0
throughout its movement. 0 5 10 t (s)
c)
No. Average velocity is the relationship between the total
distance travelled and the total time taken to do so. v (m/s)
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of a mobile object 40
at a given moment.
d)
Acceleration measures the change in velocity over time. 20
5 • If a = 2 m/s2, the speed of the mobile object increases
by 2 m/s each second. t (s)
0
• If a = -2 m/s2, the speed of the mobile object decreases 0 5 10

by 2 m/s each second.

7
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 2
MOTION
1 Put the following in order from slowest to fastest: 6 In the v‑t graph below, v is expressed in m/s, and
3
72 km/h; 120 m/min; 15 m/s; 5.4 ? 10 cm/s t is expressed in s. In each section, determine:
v (m/s)
2 In which of the following cases would the driver
receive a fine when driving on the motorway: 20
a) If she is driving at 40 m/s.
b) If she is driving at 1200 cm/min.
10
(The maximum speed limit on the motorway is 120 km/h).
3 Put the following accelerations in order from greatest

0
to least: 0 5 10 15
2 2
4 km/h ; 40 m/s ; 4000 cm/min 2 t (s)
• The type of motion.

4 A mobile object starts from a resting position
and after 5 s, reaches a speed of 5 m/s. It continues • The speed.
at this speed for 4 s and then slows down uniformly • The acceleration.
and stops after 3 s.
a)
Draw the v‑t graph for this movement. 7 A cyclist begins to cycle on a straight track,
b) Calculate the acceleration of the mobile object reaching a speed of 25 m/s in 10 s. Assuming
in each section. that the acceleration is constant:
c)
Calculate the total distance travelled throughout a)
Complete the table below:
the whole journey.
t (s) 0 2 6 8 10
5 In the x‑t graph below, x is expressed in m and t is v (m/s)
expressed in s. Analyse the movement of the mobile
object in each section and determine: s (m)
x (m) a (m/s2)
35
30 b) Draw the v‑t, x‑t and a‑t graphs.
25
20
B
15
C
10
5 A
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t (s)
a)
The speed in sections A and C.
b) The type of movement in section B.
c)
The total distance travelled.

7
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 2
MOTION
10
1 We convert them into m/s so we can compare them: 5 a) Section A: URM, v = = 5 m/s.
2
• 72 km/h = 72 000 m/3600 s = 20 m/s.
30
• 120 m/min = 120 m/60 s = 2 m/s. Section C: URM, v = - = -10 m/s.
3
• 5.4 ? 103 cm/s = 54 m/s. b) In section B, the mobile object is moving
We put them in order from slowest to fastest: at a changing speed.
2 m/s < 15 m/s < 20 m/s < 54 m/s Section A " s1 = 5 ? 2 = 10 m
c)
120 m/min < 15 m/s < 72 km/h < 5.4 ? 10 cm/s 3 Section B " s2 = 30 - 10 = 20 m
2 In a), since 40 m/s = 144 km/h, which exceeds Section C " s3 = 10 ? 3 = 30 m

the maximum speed limit. The total distance travelled is:
1200 cm/min = 12 m/60 s = 0.2 m/s = 7.2 km/h sT = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60 m
2
3 We convert them into m/s so we can compare them: 6 Section 1: URM; v = 10 m/s; a = 0.
4000 m
• 4 km/h2 = = 0.0003 m/s2 Section 2: UARM; v = 10 + 4 ? t ; a = 4 m/s2.
(3600 ? 3600) s 2
40 m Section 3: URM; v = 20 m/s; a = 0.
• 4000 cm/min2 = = 0.011 m/s2
(60 ? 60) s 2 Section 4: UARM; v = 20 - 2 ? t ; a = -2 m/s2.
We put them in order from greatest to least: 7 a)
40 m/s2 > 0.011 m/s2 > 0.0003 m/s2 t (s) 0 2 6 8 10
40 m/s2 > 4000 cm/min2 > 4 km/h2 v (m/s) 0 5 15 20 25
4 a)
t (s) 0 5 6 8 9 12 s (m) 0 5 45 80 125
v (m/s) 0 5 5 5 5 0 a (m/s2) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
v (m/s)
b) v (m/s)
6 30
5 25
4 20
3 15
2 10
1 5
0 t (s)
0 t (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 5 10
x (m)
b)
Section 1: a = 1 m/s2. 140
120
Section 2: a = 0.
! 100
Section 3: a = -1.6 m/s2. 80
1 1 60
c) ? a ? t2 = ? 1 ? 52 = 25 m.
In the first section: s1 =
2 2 40
In the second section: s2 = 5 ? 4 = 20 m. 20
1 0 t (s)
In the third section: s3 = v0 t - ? a ? t2 =
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
!
2
1
= 5 ? 3 - ? 1.6 ? 32 = 15 - 7.5 = 7.5 m. a (m/s2)
2
3
The total distance travelled will be:
Ds = 25 + 20 + 7.5 = 52.5 m 2
0 t (s)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

7
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 The equation of motion of a particle is x(t) = 2 + 10t, 5 If the magnitude of a velocity is constant,
where t is measured in seconds and x, in metres. is there acceleration?
Determine: a)
Only if the motion is rectilinear.
a)
The initial position of the mobile object. b) Only if the motion is not rectilinear.
b) The position and displacement of the mobile c)
Only if the velocity is negative.
object 3 s after starting to move.
d) Never.
c)
The shape of the trajectory followed by the mobile object.
d) Is the displacement the same as the distance travelled 6 Write an expression that relates the distance
during this time interval? travelled and the final speed in a UARM.
2 Study the graph and decide which of the statements 7 A tram starts from a resting position and after
below describes the motion represented in the graph: travelling 25 m with UARM, reaches a speed
v (m/s) of 36 km/h. It continues at this speed for 1 minute
15 and then slows down, decreasing its speed until
it stops exactly 650 m away from the starting point.
10 Calculate:
a)
The acceleration and time taken in the first section
5 of the journey.
b) The distance travelled in the second section.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 c)
The acceleration in the third section.
t (s)
a)
A car that starts accelerating and continues 8 The equation of motion of a particle is: x = 4 + 5t,
moving at a constant speed. where t is expressed in hours and x, in kilometres.
b) A car that is at rest. a)
Complete the following table:
c)
A car that is moving with zero acceleration. Position (km) 14 24
d) A car that moves at a constant speed and slows down.
Time (h) 0 1 6

3 A passenger is sitting on a seat inside a train that
b) Draw the x‑t graph.
is travelling at a constant velocity. Which of the
sentences below correctly describes the kinematic c)
What type of motion does the particle have? What
state of the passenger? do the parameters 4 and 5 mean in the equation?
a)
She is at rest independently of the frame of reference
9 Light propagates at a speed of 3 ? 108 m/s. The distance
that is chosen.
between the Earth and the Sun is 8 light minutes.
b) She is at rest only if we choose something inside Express this distance in kilometres.
the train as a frame of reference.
c)
She is in motion with regard to the frame of reference 10 A particle that moves with URM has a constant
located inside the train, which is in motion. speed of 10 m/s. The initial position of the particle
d) She is in motion independently of the frame is x0 = 10 m. Complete the following table and draw
of reference that is chosen. the x‑t and v‑t graphs corresponding to the motion
of this particle.
4 Draw a Cartesian coordinate system, using vectors
to represent the velocity and acceleration of each t (s) 0 2 4 6
of the following mobile objects:
x (m)
a)
A car accelerating on a straight road.
v (m/s)
b) A car slowing down on a straight road.
c)
A ball that is thrown upwards.
d) The same ball when it falls to the ground.

7
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
1 a)
x0 = 2 m. 7 a) In the first section:
b)
x3 = 32 m; Dx = 32 m - 2 m = 30 m. 36 000 m
vf = 36 km/h = = 10 m/s
3600 s
c)
Rectilinear.
Since vf2 = v02 + 2 ? a ? s, by substituting we have:
d)
Yes, because the trajectory is a straight line
102 = 0 + 2 ? a ? 25 " 100 = 50 ? a " a = 2 m/s2
and the motion is always in the same direction.
And substituting in vf = v0 + a ? t:
2 a) No.
10 = 2 ? t " t = 5 s
b) No.
Ds = v ? t " Ds = 10 ? 60 = 600 m.
b)
c) Yes.
c)
Since vf2 = v02 + 2 ? a ? s, by substituting we have:
d) No.
0 = 102 + 2 ? a ? (650 - 25 - 600)
3 a) No. 0 = 100 + 50 ? a " a = -2 m/s2
b) Yes. 8 a)
c) No. Position (km) 4 9 14 24 34
d) No. Time (h) 0 1 2 4 6
4 a) b)
b) x (km)
40
a v a v 30
20
10
c) v
d)
0 t (h)
0 2 4 6 8
c)
It has uniform rectilinear motion.
a x0 = 4 km; v = 5 km/h.
9 d = 3 ? 108 m/s ? 8 ? 60 s = 1440 ? 108 m = 1.44 ? 108 km.
a v
10
t (s) 0 2 4 6
5 a) No.
b)
Yes. x (m) 10 30 50 70
c) No. v (m/s) 10 10 10 10
d) No.
1 x (m)
6 xf - x0 = v0 ? t + ? a ? t 2 [1]
2 80
v f = v0 + a ? t [2]
60
We isolate t in equation [1] and substitute it in [2]:
40
xf - x0 = v0 ? d n+ ? a ? d n
vf - v0 1 vf - v0 2
a 2 a 20
Then, we do the calculation: t (s)
0
v 0 ? vf - v02 1 v 2f + v02 - 2vf ? v0 0 2 4 6 8
xf - x0 =
a
+ ? a?
2
"
a2
v (m/s)
v 0 ? vf v02 v 2f v02 vf ? v0
" xf - x0 = a
-
a
+
2?a
+
2?a
-
a
"
v 2f v02 20
" xf - x0 = 2?a
-
2?a
" 2 ? a ? (x f - x 0) = v2f - v02 "
" v2f = v02 + 2 ? a ? s
10
0 t (s)
0 2 4 6 8

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
Composition of movements
Remember that…
Some movements seem complex, but they are just a combination or composition of more simple movements
like the ones we have studied (URM, UARM, etc.).
The most interesting thing about these more complex movements is that we can study them easily by analysing
the simpler movements that they are made up of separately, as they are independent of each other. It is as
if they act separately.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Two helicopters flying at an altitude of 500 m

are distributing humanitarian aid to a village.
One of them (helicopter 1) is hovering in the air
and the other (helicopter 2) is moving parallel
to the ground at 100 km/h.
Analyse the movement of a sack dropped from

each of the helicopters.
ANSWER
Helicopter 1
y (m)
The sack is moving in a vertical UARM (free fall) (Y axis).
The equations of motion are:
• Y axis (UARM):
Speed on the Y axis:
vy = v0y - g ? t
y coordinate:
in t = 0 1
500 y = y0 + v0y ? t - ? g ? t2
2
Substitute the data we have: y0 = 500 m,
gW
400 v0y = 0 m/s (as the sack is dropped) and g = 9.8 m/s2.
v = -9.8 ? t
300
y coordinate:
y = 500 - 4.9 ? t2
200
The trajectory of sack 1 as seen by a villager
is rectilinear.
gW
100
vWy
continues "

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
y (m)
Helicopter 2
Sack 2 has the same vertical (Y axis) UARM (free fall) v = 27.78 m/s
as sack 1, but it also has the movement of the 600
helicopter it was dropped from: a horizontal URM
v = 27.78 m/s
(X axis) independent of the other. vx = 27.78 m/s
500
The motion equations are:
gW
• Y axis (UARM): same as with sack 1.
400
• X axis (URM):
vx = 27.78 m/s
323.6
Speed on the X axis: vx = vhelicopter. 300 gW
vW
x coordinate: x = x0 + vx ? t.
vWy
Substitute the data we have: x0 = 0 200
and vx = 100 km/h = 27.78 m/s:
Y axis: v = -9.8 ? t X axis: vx = 27.78 100
UARM " y = 500 - 4.9 ? t 2 URM" x = 27.78 ? t

x (m)
0
The trajectory of sack 2 as seen by a villager 0 75 150
166.7
225
280.6
300
is a parabola.
We can now ask several questions, such as:
a) Which sack falls to the ground first?
This question refers to the vertical motion (Y axis) and, since they have the same equations on this axis,
the two sacks will take the same amount of time to fall to the ground.
To calculate this, we have to find out how long it takes until the y coordinate is 0:
500
y = 0 = 500 - 4.9 ? t2 " 500 = 4.9 ? t2 " t = = +10.1 s
4.9
(Disregard the answer t = -10.1 s since it doesn’t make sense for time to be negative).
b) How far does sack 2 move forward along the X axis until it falls to the ground? (This is known as reach).
This question refers to the horizontal motion (X axis) of sack 2. To calculate this, we have to find out
what the x coordinate of sack 2 is when 10.1 s have passed. We found this data previously.
x = 27.78 ? t " x = 27.78 m/s ? 10.1 s = 280.6 m
c) What is the position of sack 2 when it has been in the air for six seconds?
• y = 500 - 4.9 ? t2 " y = 500 - 4.9 ? 62 = 323.6 m

3 " Coordinates: (166.7, 323.6) m
• x = 27.78 ? t " x = 27.78 ? 6 = 166.7 m
d) Now find the answer to the following questions. What trajectory will sack 2 have from the point of view
of the pilot in helicopter 2? What conclusion can you draw from this?
The trajectory will be a straight line because the horizontal motion is the same.
(v x doesn’t change for both cases).
Conclusion: the motion observed is relative: it depends on the frame of reference chosen.

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
1 A rhinoceros has been injured in the jungle. In order to treat it, a vet must shoot the rhinoceros
with a tranquilizer dart. He takes the gun with one hand, holding it parallel to the ground, 1.5 m high.
He shoots the dart and at exactly the same time he drops a dart, which he had in his other hand at the same
height as the gun. The dart shoots out at a speed of 200 m/s and the rhinoceros manages to dodge it.
a)
Draw a diagram of the situation on a Cartesian coordinate system, indicating the trajectory
that the two darts will follow.
b) Indicate which type of motion they have on each axis and write their equations.
c)
Calculate the time it will take each dart to reach the ground. What conclusion can you draw?

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
d) Calculate the reach of the dart that was shot from the gun.
e)
Indicate the coordinates of each dart two tenths of a second after they start moving and draw them
in the diagram from section a. Which is furthest from the ground?
f)
In the equations of the dart that was shot, isolate the time in the equation of the x coordinate and substitute
it into the equation of the y coordinate. What conclusion can you draw from the expression obtained?

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
2 A boy is in a boat on the bank of a 200 m wide river. He is trying to reach the other side, where his brother
is waiting for him. He starts to row perpendicular to the river at a constant speed of 4 m/s.
Imagine this situation in two cases:
• Case 1 " The water in the river is calm.
• Case 2 " The water in the river is flowing at a constant speed of 3 m/s.
a)
Draw the velocity vectors for the question and the v Total vector of the boat in each case
on a Cartesian coordinate system, using the parallelogram rule when you need to.
Case 1 Case 2
y y
x x
b) Draw the trajectory of the boat in each case.
c) Write the motion equations on each axis for each case.
d) In which of the two cases will the boat reach the other bank first? Calculate the time it will take.
What conclusion can you draw?
.

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
e)
At what distance from his brother will the boy in the boat be when he arrives at the other bank in case 2?
f)
Which of the two boats will have travelled a greater distance to cross the river? Calculate it.
g)
Do your answers for questions d) and f) seem contradictory? How can you explain this?
h) Which direction would the boat in case 2 have to be facing so that if the velocity that the boy rowed at, or the velocity
of the water flow didn’t change, he would arrive directly in front of where his brother is? Draw a diagram.

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
Mobile objects that change their type of motion

SOLVED PROBLEM
A car that is travelling at 65 km/h starts to accelerate with a constant acceleration of 4 m/s2. After accelerating
for 5 s, the driver sees a deer crossing the road and brakes sharply for 3 s with a constant acceleration of -5 m/s2.
After this time, and with the deer now out of danger, the driver lifts his foot off the brake and maintains this constant
speed for 15 s. He then enters a tunnel.
• At what distance from the tunnel was he when he started to accelerate? Draw graphs to represent the position,
speed and acceleration with respect to time.
ANSWER
Follow these steps:
1. Draw a frame of reference indicating the type of motion in each section and write the data
from the question in each one.
t=5s t=3s t = 15 s
1 2 3
a1 = 4 m/s2 a2 = -5 m/s2
v01 = 65 km/h
vW01 vW02 vW3 = constant
a1
W
x (m)
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
UARM UARM URM
2. Now look at the position x of the car at the end of each section (its position at the end of the last section
will be the answer to the question).
• Section 1 (UARM):
We have:
1 1
? a1 ? t 12 = 18.1 m/s ? 5 s +
x1 = x 01 + v 01 ? t1 + ? 4 m/s 2 ? 5 2 s 2 = 140.5 m
2 2
If x 01 = 0, v 01 = 65 km/h = 18.1 m/s, t 1 = 5 s and a1= 4 m/s2.
Now:
1 1
x 2 = x 02 + v 02 ? t 2 +? a 2 ? t 22 = 140.5 m + 38.1 m/s ? 3 s - ? 5 m/s 2 ? 3 2 s 2 = 232.3 m
2 2
If x 02 = x1 = 140 m (the initial position in the second section is the final position in the first):
v 02 = v f 1 = v 01 + a1 ? t1 = 18.1 m/s + 4 m/s 2 ? 5 s = 38.1 m/s
(The initial speed in the second section is the final speed in the first)
t2 = 3 s and a2 = -5 m/s2
• Section 3 (URM):
So:
x3 = x03 + v3 ? t3 = 232.3 m + 23.1 m/s ? 15 s = 578.8 m away from the tunnel when he started to accelerate.
If x03 = x2 (the initial position in the third section is the final position in the second):
v 3 = v f 2 = v 02 + a 2 ? t 2 = 38.1 m/s - 5 m/s 2 ? 3 s = 23.1 m/s
(The initial speed in the second section is the final speed in the first):
t3 = 15 s
continues "

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
3. Now we can draw the x‑t, v‑t, and a‑t graphs:
Section 1 (UARM) goes from t = 0 until t = 5 s:
• The x‑t graph is a parabola. We draw the points on the graph. To do this, we substitute the t1
1
values in the equation: x1 = x 01 + v 01 ? t1 + ? a1 ? t 12 = 18.1 ? t1 + 2 ? t 12.
2
t1 = 0 s " x1 = 0; t1 = 1 s " x1 = 20 m; t1 = 2 s " x1 = 44 m; t1 = 3 s " x1 = 72 m
• The v‑t graph is a straight line with a slope of a1= 4 m/s2. To draw the straight line, we find two of its points
by substituting in: v 1 = v 01 + a 1 ? t1 = 18.1 + 4 ? t 1.
t1 = 0 s " v1 = 18.1 m/s; t1 = 5 s " v1 = 38.1 m/s
• The a‑t graph is a constant function of value a1 = 4 m/s2.
Section 2 (UARM) goes from t = 5 s until t = 8 s:

• The x‑t graph is a parabola. In t = 5 s " x2 = 140.5. In t = 8 s " x = 232.3 m.
• The v‑t graph is a straight line with a slope of a1 = -5 m/s2. To draw the straight line, we know that:
in t = 5 s " v = 38.1 m/s, and in t = 8 s " v = 23.1 m/s
• The a‑t graph is a constant function of value a2 = -5 m/s2.
Section 3 (URM) goes from t = 8 s until t = 23 s:

• The x‑t graph is a straight line with a slope of speed v3 = 23.1 m/s.
in t = 8 s " x = 232.3 m, and in t = 23 s " x = 578.8 m
• The v‑t graph is a constant function of value v3 = 23.1 m/s.
x-t x (m)
600
578.8
400
232.3
200
140.5
0 t (s)
0 5 8 10 15 20 23
v (m/s)
v-t 40
38.1
30
23.1
20
18.1
10
0 t (s)
0 5 8 10 15 20 23
2
5 a (m/s )
a-t 4
2 3
1
-5 t (s)
0 5 8 10 15 20 23

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
Problems with different mobile objects

Remember that…
With the help of two examples, we will look at the different steps we need to take to solve problems involving different moving
objects that have the same or different types of motion. Study the examples carefully to help you solve the problems.
SOLVED PROBLEM
A father leaves his house and forgets his lunch. His son realises he has left it behind when his father
is already 200 m away from the house, and follows him on his bicycle. The father walks at a constant
speed of 5 km/h and his son follows him at a speed of 22 km/h, also constant. Analyse the motion.
ANSWER
1. Draw the situation at the moment the son leaves the house (t = 0) in a frame of reference that
is the same for both of them.
Son Father
vson = 22 km/h vfather = 5 km/h
0 200 x (m)
2. Identify the type of motion each person has and write their equations of position and speed against time.
Son " URM Father " URM
• v1 = 22 km/h = 6.11 m/s • v2 = 5 km/h = 1.39 m/s
• x1 = x01 + v1 ? t1 = 6.11 ? t1 • x2 = x02 + v2 ? t2 = 200 + 1.39 ? t2
3. Now we can ask the question: how long does it take the son to reach his father?
At what distance from the house does he reach him?
In order to answer these questions, we draw the situation presented in the question and ask ourselves
what the father and son have in common to be able to compare them: is it velocity?
Is it the time taken? Is it position?
t1
0 200 t2 x1 x (m)
x2
After thinking about it, you will discover that when the son reaches his father, their velocities are not the same,
but the time taken and the position of both are. In other words:
x1 = x2 and t1 = t2
4. Make the calculation (Hint: it is easier to start with x1 = x2):
x1 = x2 " 6.11 ? t1 = 200 + 1.39 ? t2
Since t1 = t2, we name both times t:
6.11 ? t = 200 + 1.39 ? t
continues "

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
Isolate t:
200 m
(6.11 - 1.39) ? t = 200 " t = = 42.37 s
6.11 m/s - 1.39 m/s
So, it takes 42.37 s for the son to reach his father.
Since they are both in the same position at this moment (remember: x1 = x2), to find the distance
from the house we can substitute this time into any of the two equations: x1 or x2. For example,
we substitute it into x1, which is the simplest:
x1 = 6.11 ? t1 = 6.11 m/s ? 42.37 s = 258.9 m
Therefore, they meet at a distance of 258.9 m from the house.

Check that we would get the same result if we substituted into the x2 equation.
x2 = 200 + 1.39 ? t2 = 200 m + 1.39 m/s ? 42.37 s = 258.9 m
5. Now we can draw graphs to represent position, speed and acceleration compared with time
for the father and the son:
Draw them on the same axes so it is easy to compare them.

x (m)
300
258.9 To draw the x‑t graph, which is a straight line
250
in a URM, we only need to know two points
200 of the straight line, for example:
Son:
150
• In t = 0 " x1 = 0
100 • In t = 10 s " x1 = 6.11 m/s ? 10 s = 61.1 m
61.1
50 Father:
• In t = 0 " x2 = 200 m
0 t (s)
0 10 20 30 40 42.37
• In t = 10 s " x2 =
= 200 m + 1.39 m/s ? 10 s = 213.9 m
v (m/s) Notice that we could have chosen the same
6.11
6 point for both since we know that:
In t = 42.37 s " x1 = x2 = 258.9 m
4
We can now check that this is the point
2 where the straight lines intersect.
1.39
To draw the v‑t and a‑t graphs, remember
0 t (s)
0 10 20 30 40 42.37 that they are constant functions, where the
value of acceleration is zero since they
a (m/s2)
are URMs.
t (s)
0 10 20 30 40 42.37

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
1 A car has stopped at the traffic lights. When the lights turn green, the car starts moving with a constant
acceleration a = 2 m/s2. At this moment, a lorry that is moving at a constant speed of 60 km/h
overtakes it. Answer the following questions:
a) How long does it take for the car to reach the lorry?
b) At what distance from the traffic lights does it catch up with it?
c) What is the speed of each vehicle at this moment?
1.
Draw the situation when the lorry overtakes the car (t = 0) in a frame of reference
(X axis, and use the traffic lights as the origin).
2.
Indicate the type of motion of each vehicle and write their equations of position and speed against time.
3.
Imagine what will happen and draw the moment at which the car reaches the lorry in the frame of reference.

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
4.
Write which variables are the same at this moment.

5.
Solve the equations from the step above (remember that a 2nd degree equation without an independent
term can be solved more easily by factoring).
We obtained two values for t. Why? Do they both make sense?
6.
Using the time above, find the position they are in. This is the distance away from the traffic lights.
7.
Find the speed of each one at this moment.

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
2 n athlete is running in a park at a speed of 10 km/h. Suddenly, she thinks she sees a coin shining under
A
a tree. She accelerates at a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2, just as a bird that was in the tree top drops
a pine cone.
At what distance from the tree did the athlete start to accelerate if the pine cone falls on her head?
(Data: height of the tree = 44 m. We won’t consider the height of the athlete).
y (m)
44
gW v0 = 0
1.
Find the time it takes the pine cone to fall
v01 = 10 km/h
to the ground. In other words, how long
it takes before the y coordinate is 0:
vW01
aW1
a1 = 2 m/s2
x (m)
2. Now calculate the distance travelled by the athlete in this time:

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
3 Another athlete was running behind y (m)

at a speed of 15 km/h and sees what
is happening. He looks at the bird
and sees that the bird is dropping another
pine cone. At this moment, he slows down
at a constant acceleration of 1 m/s2.
What distance away from the tree was
he when he started to slow down if the
pine cone also fell on his head? 44
gW
v02 = 15 km/h
vW02
aW2
a2 = 1 m/s2
x (m)
4 To have some fun, they don’t warn a third y (m)

athlete who gets up from a bench and starts
to walk towards the tree at a constant speed
of 6 km/h, at the exact moment that the bird
repeats the action.
What distance away from the tree is the
bench if the pine cone also falls on his head?
44
gW
v = 5 km/h
vW
x (m)

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
5 Fernando Alonso's car crosses the finish

line, which is located on a long straight,
for the third time. Its speed is 310 km/h.
In doing so, it overtakes Felipe Massa’s
car, which is travelling at 285 km/h.
How far away from each other are they
3 s later, assuming that they maintained
the same velocity?
Follow these steps:

1.
Draw the two cars in the same frame of reference and write their equations of motion using SI units.
2.
Find the position of each car after 3 s.
3. Find the distance between them.

7
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
6 A girl is getting ready to go on an amusement park ride with two friends. The ride consists of an iron bar
with three seats that spin parallel to the ground, around an axis that is perpendicular to the ground.
In which of the three seats should she sit to make the ride more exciting?
The ride seen from above, and the trajectory of each girl would be:
R1
R2
R3
a)
Put the radii of the girls’ trajectories in order from greatest to least.
b) Which of the three will take longest to complete one full spin?
What angle has each one traced when they have completed one full spin?
What can you say about the angular speeds, ~, of the three girls? (~ = angle traced/time taken).
c)
Using the information from sections a and b, put the linear speeds v of each girl in order from highest to lowest
(remember that v = ~ ? R).
d) So, where should the girl sit to have the best time? Which physical quantity is associated with this sensation
on this amusement park ride?

7
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
Composition of movements
Remember that…
Some movements seem complex, but they are just a combination or composition of more simple movements
like the ones we have studied (URM, UARM, etc.).
The most interesting thing about these more complex movements is that we can study them easily by analysing
the simpler movements that they are made up of separately, as they are independent of each other. It is as
if they act separately.
SOLVED PROBLEM
Two helicopters flying at an altitude of 500 m

are distributing humanitarian aid to a village.
One of them (helicopter 1) is hovering in the air
and the other (helicopter 2) is moving parallel
to the ground at 100 km/h.
Analyse the movement of a sack dropped from

each of the helicopters.
ANSWER
Helicopter 1
y (m)
The sack is moving in a vertical UARM (free fall) (Y axis).
The equations of motion are:
• Y axis (UARM):
vy = v0y - g ? t
y coordinate:
in t = 0 1
500 y = y0 + v0y ? t - ? g ? t2
2
We substitute the data we have: y0 = 500 m,
gW
400 v0y = 0 m/s (as the sack is dropped) and g = 9.8 m/s2.
v = -9.8 ? t
300
y coordinate:
y = 500 - 4.9 ? t2
200
The trajectory of sack 1 as seen by a villager
is rectilinear.
gW
100
vWy
continues "

7
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
y (m)
Helicopter 2
Sack 2 has the same vertical (Y axis) UARM (free fall) v = 27.78 m/s
as sack 1, but it also has the movement of the 600
helicopter it was dropped from: a horizontal URM
v = 27.78 m/s
(X axis) independent of the other. vx = 27.78 m/s
500
The motion equations are:
gW
• Y axis (UARM): same as with sack 1.
400
• X axis (URM):
vx = 27.78 m/s
323.6
Speed on the X axis: vx = vhelicopter. 300 gW
vW
x coordinate: x = x0 + vx ? t. vWy
Substitute the data we have: x0 = 0 200
and vx = 100 km/h = 27.78 m/s:
Y axis: v = -9.8 ? t X axis: vx = 27.78 100
UARM " y = 500 - 4.9 ? t 2 URM" x = 27.78 ? t

x (m)
0
The trajectory of sack 2 as seen by a villager 166.7 280.6
0 75 150 225 300
is a parabola.
We can now ask several questions, such as:
a) Which sack falls to the ground first?
This question refers to the vertical motion (Y axis) and, since they have the same equations on this axis,
the two sacks will take the same amount of time to fall to the ground.
To calculate this, we have to find out how long it takes until the y coordinate is 0:
500
y = 0 = 500 - 4.9 ? t2 " 500 = 4.9 ? t2 " t = = +10.1 s
4.9
(Disregard the answer t = -10.1 s since it doesn’t make sense for time to be negative).
b) How far does sack 2 move forward along the X axis until it falls to the ground? (This is known as reach).
This question refers to the horizontal motion (X axis) of sack 2. To calculate this, we have to find out
what the x coordinate of sack 2 is when 10.1 s have passed. We found this data previously.
x = 27.78 ? t " x = 27.78 m/s ? 10.1 s = 280.6 m
c) What is the position of sack 2 when it has been in the air for six seconds?
• y = 500 - 4.9 ? t2 " y = 500 - 4.9 ? 62 = 323.6 m

3 " Coordinates: (166.7, 323.6) m
• x = 27.78 ? t " x = 27.78 ? 6 = 166.7 m
d) Now find the answer to the following questions. What trajectory will sack 2 have from the point of view
of the pilot in helicopter 2? What conclusion can you draw from this?
The trajectory will be a straight line because the horizontal motion is the same.
(v x doesn’t change for both cases).
Conclusion: the motion observed is relative: it depends on the frame of reference chosen.

7
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
1 A rhinoceros has been injured in the jungle. In order to treat it, a vet must shoot the rhinoceros
with a tranquilizer dart. He takes the gun with one hand, holding it parallel to the ground, 1.5 m high.
He shoots the dart and at exactly the same time he drops a dart, which he had in his other hand at the same
height as the gun. The dart shoots out at a speed of 200 m/s and the rhinoceros manages to dodge it.
ANSWER
a)
Draw a diagram of the situation on a Cartesian coordinate system, indicating the trajectory
that the two darts will follow.
y (m)
1.7
vx = 200 m/s
1.5
1.3 vx = 200 m/s
1.2
vWy
0.9
vx = 200 m/s
0.6
0.3 vWy
0.0 x (m)
0 40
b) Indicate which type of motion they have on each axis and write their equations.
Dart 1 (the one that falls):
• X axis: there is no motion.
• Y axis (UARM):
vy = v0y - g ? t = -9.8 ? t
1
y = y0 + v0y ? t - ? g ? t2 = 1.5 - 4.9 ? t2
2
Dart 2 (the one that is shot):
• X axis (URM):
vx = 200
x = x0 + vx ? t = 200 ? t
• Y axis (UARM):
vy = v0y - g ? t = -9.8 t
1
y = y0 + v0y ? t - ? g ? t2 = 1.5 - 4.9 ? t2
2
c)
Calculate the time it will take each dart to reach the ground. What conclusion can you draw?
This question refers to the vertical motion (Y axis) and, since the two darts have the same equation on this axis,
they will take the same amount of time to fall to the ground.
To calculate it, we have to find how long it takes for the y coordinate to reach 0:
1.5
y = 0 = 1.5 - 4.9 ? t2 " t = = 0.55 s
4.9

7
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
d) Calculate the reach of the dart that was shot from the gun.
This question refers to the horizontal motion (X axis) of dart 2. To calculate it, we have to find coordinate x
of dart 2 when 0.55 s have passed, which is the data we found out previously.
x = 200 ? t " x = 200 ? 0.55 = 110 m
e)
Indicate the coordinates of each dart two tenths of a second after they start moving and draw them
in the diagram from section a. Which is furthest from the ground?
Dart 1 (the one that falls):

• X axis:
x=0m
• Y axis:
y = 1.5 - 4.9 ? t2 = 1.5 - 4.9 ? 0.22 = 1.3 m
Coordinates: (0, 1.3) m.
Dart 2 (the one that is shot):
• X axis:
x = 200 ? t = 200 m/s ? 0.2 s = 40 m
• Y axis:
y = 1.5 - 4.9 ? t2 = 1.5 m - 4.9 m/s2 ? 0.22 s2 = 1.3 m
Coordinates: (40, 1.3) m.
Since the two darts have the same equations on the Y axis, they are the same height above the ground.
f)
In the equations of the dart that was shot, isolate the time in the equation of the x coordinate and substitute
it into the equation of the y coordinate. What conclusion can you draw from the expression obtained?
x
x = 200 ? t " t =
200
y = 1.5 - 4.9 ? t2 " y = 1.5 - 4.9 ? d n " y = 1.5 - 0.000 12 ? x 2

2
x
200
The equation y = f(x) is the shape y = Ax2 + B, A and B being constants. This equation is of a parabola.
We can then check if it is the same as the trajectory expected.
y
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0 x
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

7
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
2 A boy is in a boat on the bank of a 200 m wide river. He is trying to reach the other side, where his brother
is waiting for him. He starts to row perpendicular to the river at a constant speed of 4 m/s.
Imagine this situation in two cases:
• Case 1 " The water in the river is calm.
• Case 2 " The water in the river is flowing at a constant speed of 3 m/s.
ANSWER
a)
Draw the velocity vectors for the question and the v Total vector of the boat in each case
on a Cartesian coordinate system, using the parallelogram rule when you need to.
Case 1 Case 2
y 200 y
Trajectory case 1
Trajectory
case 2
vrow = 4 m/s
vrow = 4 m/s
vtotal boat
vcurrent = 3 m/s
x x
b) Draw the trajectory of the boat in each case.

(See drawing above).
c) Write the motion equations on each axis for each case.
Case 1
• X axis " There is no motion:
x=0
• Y axis " (URM):
y = vy ? t = 4 ? t
Case 2
• X axis " (URM):
x = vx ? t = 3 ? t
• Y axis " (URM):
y = vy ? t = 4 ? t
d) In which of the two cases will the boat reach the other bank first? Calculate the time it will take.
What conclusion can you draw?
This question refers to the motion on the Y axis. Since they have the same equations on the Y axis,
they will take the same amount of time to reach the other bank. This time is:
y 200 m
y = vy ? t = 4 ? t " t = = = 50 s
vy 4 m/s
The motion on the Y axis is independent of the motion on the X axis.

7
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
e)
At what distance from his brother will the boy in the boat be when he arrives at the other bank in case 2?
This question refers to the X axis. To solve the problem, we have to find the distance travelled by the boat
on the X axis in the 50 s it takes to reach the other bank.
x = vx ? t = 3 m/s ? 50 s = 150 m
f)
Which of the two boats will have travelled a greater distance to cross the river? Calculate it.
In case 1, the boat will have travelled:
200 m
In case 2, according to Pythagoras’ theorem, the boat will have travelled:
d= 200 2 + 150 2 = 250 m
The boat in case 2 travels a greater distance.
g)
Do your answers for questions d) and f) seem contradictory? How can you explain this?
(Hint: calculate the total speed of the boat in case 2 using Pythagoras' theorem).
It seems contradictory that the boat in case 2 travels a greater distance to reach the other bank, but it takes
the same amount of time. However, it isn’t because the total speed in case 2 is greater than in case 1.
We can check this fact by finding out the magnitude of the velocity vector for case 2 using Pythagoras’ theorem:
Case 2:
v Total = 3 2 + 4 2 = 5 m/s
We check that it takes 50 s to reach the other bank:
s 250 m
s=v?t"t= = = 50 s
v 5 m/s
h) Which direction would the boat in case 2 have to be facing so that, if the velocity that the boy rowed at, or the velocity
of the water flow didn’t change, he would arrive directly in front of where his brother is? Draw a diagram.
We have to think about which direction the rowing velocity has to be in so that when we add it vectorally to the direction
of the current velocity, we get a vector that is perpendicular to the river. In other words, in the direction of the trajectory
we want.
We indicate the direction the boy has to row in by finding
the angle a.
y By studying the right‐angled triangle that contains a,
we see that the cathetus opposite to a measures the same
Trajectory as vcurrent = 3 m/s, and the hypotenuse is vrow = 4 m/s. So:
3 3
sin a = " a = arc sin
4 4
So:
vrow = 4 m/s
a = 48.6°
vtotal boat
x
vcurrent = 3 m/s

7
WORKSHEET 2
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
Mobile objects that change their type of motion

SOLVED PROBLEM
A car that is travelling at 65 km/h starts to accelerate with a constant acceleration of 4 m/s2. After accelerating
for 5 s, the driver sees a deer crossing the road and brakes sharply for 3 s with a constant acceleration of -5 m/s2.
After this time, and with the deer now out of danger, the driver lifts his foot off the brake and maintains this constant
speed for 15 s. He then enters a tunnel.
• At what distance from the tunnel was he when he started to accelerate? Draw graphs to represent the position,
speed and acceleration with respect to time.
ANSWER
Follow these steps:
1. Draw a frame of reference indicating the type of motion in each section and write the data
from the question in each one.
t=5s t=3s t = 15 s
1 2 3
a1 = 4 m/s2 a2 = -5 m/s2
v01 = 65 km/h
vW01 vW02 vW3 = constant
a1
W
x (m)
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
UARM UARM URM
2. Now look at the position x of the car at the end of each section (its position at the end of the last section
will be the answer to the question).
We have:
1 1
? a1 ? t 12 = 18.1 m/s ? 5 s +
x1 = x 01 + v 01 ? t1 + ? 4 m/s 2 ? 5 2 s 2 = 140.5 m
2 2
If x 01 = 0, v 01 = 65 km/h = 18.1 m/s, t 1 = 5 s and a1= 4 m/s2.
Now:
1 1
x 2 = x 02 + v 02 ? t 2 +? a 2 ? t 22 = 140.5 m + 38.1 m/s ? 3 s - ? 5 m/s 2 ? 3 2 s 2 = 232.3 m
2 2
If x 02 = x1 = 140 m (the initial position in the second section is the final position in the first):
v 02 = v f 1 = v 01 + a1 ? t1 = 18.1 m/s + 4 m/s 2 ? 5 s = 38.1 m/s
(The initial speed in the second section is the final speed in the first)
t2 = 3 s and a2 = -5 m/s2
• Section 3 (URM):
So:
x3 = x03 + v3 ? t3 = 232.3 m + 23.1 m/s ? 15 s = 578.8 m away from the tunnel when he started to accelerate.
If x03 = x2 (the initial position in the third section is the final position in the second):
v 3 = v f 2 = v 02 + a 2 ? t 2 = 38.1 m/s - 5 m/s 2 ? 3 s = 23.1 m/s
(The initial speed in the second section is the final speed in the first):
t3 = 15 s
continues "

7
WORKSHEET 2
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
3. Now we can draw the x‑t, v‑t, and a‑t graphs:
Section 1 (UARM) goes from t = 0 until t = 5 s:
• The x‑t graph is a parabola. We draw the points on the graph. To do this, we substitute the t1
1
values in the equation: x1 = x 01 + v 01 ? t1 + ? a1 ? t 12 = 18.1 ? t1 + 2 ? t 12.
2
t1 = 0 s " x1 = 0; t1 = 1 s " x1 = 20 m; t1 = 2 s " x1 = 44 m; t1 = 3 s " x1 = 72 m
• The v‑t graph is a straight line with a slope of a1= 4 m/s2. To draw the straight line, we find two of its points
by substituting in: v 1 = v 01 + a 1 ? t1 = 18.1 + 4 ? t 1.
t1 = 0 s " v1 = 18.1 m/s; t1 = 5 s " v1 = 38.1 m/s
Section 2 (UARM) goes from t = 5 s until t = 8 s:

• The x‑t graph is a parabola. In t = 5 s " x2 = 140.5. In t = 8 s " x = 232.3 m.
• The v‑t graph is a straight line with a slope of a1 = -5 m/s2. To draw the straight line, we know that:
in t = 5 s " v = 38.1 m/s, and in t = 8 s " v = 23.1 m/s.
• The a‑t graph is a constant function of value a2 = -5 m/s2.
Section 3 (URM) goes from t = 8 s until t = 23 s:

• The x‑t graph is a straight line with a slope of speed v3 = 23.1 m/s.
in t = 8 s " x = 232.3 m, and in t = 23 s " x = 578.8 m.
• The v‑t graph is a constant function of value v3 = 23.1 m/s.
x-t x (m)
600
578.8
400
232.3
200
140.5
0 t (s)
0 5 8 10 15 20 23
v (m/s)
v-t 40
38.1
30
23.1
20
18.1
10
0 t (s)
0 5 8 10 15 20 23
2
5 a (m/s )
a-t 4
2 3
1
-5 t (s)
0 5 8 10 15 20 23

7
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
Problems with different mobile objects

Remember that…
With the help of two examples, we will look at the different steps we need to take to solve problems involving different moving
objects that have the same or different types of motion. Study the examples carefully to help you solve the problems.
SOLVED PROBLEM
A father leaves his house and forgets his lunch. His son realises he has left it behind when his father
is already 200 m away from the house, and follows him on his bicycle. The father walks at a constant
speed of 5 km/h and his son follows him at a speed of 22 km/h, also constant. Analyse the motion.
ANSWER
1. Draw the situation at the moment the son leaves the house (t = 0) in a frame of reference that
is the same for both of them.
Son Father
vson = 22 km/h vfather = 5 km/h
0 200 x (m)
2. Identify the type of motion each person has and write their equations of position and speed against time.
Son " URM Father " URM
• v1 = 22 km/h = 6.11 m/s • v2 = 5 km/h = 1.39 m/s
• x1 = x01 + v1 ? t1 = 6.11 ? t1 • x2 = x02 + v2 ? t2 = 200 + 1.39 ? t2
3. Now we can ask the question: how long does it take the son to reach his father?
At what distance from the house does he reach him?
In order to answer these questions, we draw the situation presented in the question and ask ourselves
what the father and son have in common to be able to compare them: is it velocity?
Is it the time taken? Is it position?
t1
0 200 t2 x1 x (m)
x2
After thinking about it, you will discover that when the son reaches his father, their velocities are not the same,
but the time taken and the position of both are. In other words:
x1 = x2 and t1 = t2
4. Make the calculation (Hint: it is easier to start with x1 = x2):
x1 = x2 " 6.11 ? t1 = 200 + 1.39 ? t2
Since t1 = t2, we name both times t:
6.11 ? t = 200 + 1.39 ? t
continues "

7
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
Isolate t:
200 m
(6.11 - 1.39) ? t = 200 " t = = 42.37 s
6.11 m/s - 1.39 m/s
So, it takes 42.37 s for the son to reach his father.
Since they are both in the same position at this moment (remember: x1 = x2), to find the distance
from the house we can substitute this time into any of the two equations: x1 or x2. For example,
we substitute it into x1, which is the simplest:
x1 = 6.11 ? t1 = 6.11 m/s ? 42.37 s = 258.9 m
Therefore, they meet at a distance of 258.9 m from the house.

Check that we would get the same result if we substituted into the x2 equation.
x2 = 200 + 1.39 ? t2 = 200 m + 1.39 m/s ? 42.37 s = 258.9 m
5. Now we can draw graphs to represent position, speed and acceleration compared with time for the father
and the son:
Draw them on the same axes so it is easy to compare them.

x (m)
300
258.9 To draw the x‑t graph, which is a straight line
250
in a URM, we only need to know two points
200 of the straight line, for example:
Son:
150
• In t = 0 " x1 = 0
100 • In t = 10 s " x1 = 6.11 m/s ? 10 s = 61.1 m
61.1
50 Father:
• In t = 0 " x2 = 200 m
0 t (s)
0 10 20 30 40 42.37
• In t = 10 s " x2 =
= 200 m + 1.39 m/s ? 10 s = 213.9 m
v (m/s) Notice that we could have chosen the same
6.11
6 point for both since we know that:
In t = 42.37 s " x1 = x2 = 258.9 m
4
We can now check that this is the point
2 where the straight lines intersect.
1.39
To draw the v‑t and a‑t graphs, remember
0 t (s)
0 10 20 30 40 42.37 that they are constant functions, where the
value of acceleration is zero since they
a (m/s2)
are URMs.
t (s)
0 10 20 30 40 42.37

7
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
1 A car has stopped at the traffic lights. When the lights turn green, the car starts moving with a constant
acceleration a = 2 m/s2. At this moment, a lorry that is moving at a constant speed of 60 km/h
overtakes it. Answer the following questions:
a) How long does it take for the car to reach the lorry?
b) At what distance from the traffic lights does it catch up with it?
c) What is the speed of each vehicle at this moment?
ANSWER
1.
Draw the situation when the lorry overtakes the car (t = 0) in a frame of reference
(X axis, and use the traffic lights as the origin).
at t = 0
v1 = 60 km/h
vW1
aW2 x (m)
2
a2 = 2 m/s
v2 = 0
2.
Indicate the type of motion for each one and write their equations of position and speed against time.
• Lorry (URM):
v1 = 60 km/h = 16.67 m/s
x 1 = x 01 + v 1 ? t 1 = 16.67 ? t 1
• Car (UARM):
v 2 = v 02 + a 2 ? t 2 = 2 ? t 2
1 1
x 2 = x 02 + v 02 ? t 2 + ? a ? t22 = ? 2 ? t 22 = t 22
2 2
3.
Imagine what will happen and draw the moment at which the car reaches the lorry in the frame of reference.
To begin with, the lorry has an advantage; however, the car gradually catches up with it.
v1 = 60 km/h
vW1
vW2 x (m)
aW2
a2 = 2 m/s2

7
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
4.
Write which variables are the same at this moment.
x1 = x2 and t1 = t2
5.
Solve the equations from the step above (remember that a 2nd degree equation without an independent
term can be solved more easily by factoring).
We start with x1 = x2, which is easier:
x1 = x 2 " 16.67 ? t1 = t 22 " 16.67 ? t = t 2 " t 2 - 16.67 ? t = 0 " t ? ( t - 16.67) = 0
(Since t1 = t2 we call both times t).

Answers:
• t = 0
• t - 16.67 = 0 " t = 16.67 s
We obtained two values for t. Why? Do they both make sense?
The two values found for t make sense because there are two moments when the car and the lorry
are in the same position:
• The first is at the start, when they are at the traffic lights (t = 0).
• The other is when the car catches up with the lorry (t = 16.67 s), which is the one we are interested in.
6.
Using the time above, find the position they are in. This is the distance away from the traffic lights.
We can use either the equation of x1 or x2, since x1 = x2:
x 2 = t 22 = 16.67 2 = 277.9 m
7.
Find the speed of each one at this moment.
• Lorry:
v 1 = 16.67 m/s
• Car:
v 2 = 2 ? t 2 = 2 ? 16.67 = 33.34 m/s
x (m)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 t (s)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

7
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
2 n athlete is running in a park at a speed of 10 km/h. Suddenly, she thinks she sees a coin shining under
A
a tree. She accelerates at a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2, just as a bird that was in the tree top drops
a pine cone.
At what distance from the tree did the athlete start to accelerate if the pine cone falls on her head?
(Data: height of the tree = 44 m. We won’t consider the height of the athlete).
ANSWER
• Pine cone (free fall, UARM): y (m)
1
y = y0 + v0 ? t - ? g ? t2=
2
1
= 44 - ? 9.8 ? t 2 "
2
" y = 44 - 4.9 t2
• Athlete 1 (UARM):
1
x1 = x 01 + v 01 ? t1 + ? a 1 ? t 12 =
2 44
1
= 2.78 ? t1 + ? 2 ? t 12 "
2
" x1 = 2.78 ? t1 + t21 gW v0 = 0
Since v01 = 10 km/h = 2.78 m/s.

To find the answer, we have to find out the distance
the athlete will have travelled in the time it takes
the pine cone to fall to the ground:
1.
Find the time it takes the pine cone to fall
to the ground. In other words, how long
v01 = 10 km/h
it takes before the y coordinate is 0:
y = 0 = 44 - 4.9 ? t2 " vW01
aW1
" 44 = 4.9 ? t " 2
a1 = 2 m/s2
44
"t= 4.9
=3s
(We disregard the negative answer.) x (m)
2. Now calculate the distance travelled by the athlete in this time:

x1 = 2.78 ? t 1 + t 12 = 2.78 ? 3 + 3 2
x1 = 17.4 m
At this distance from the tree, athlete 1 started to accelerate.

7
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
3 Another athlete was running behind y (m)

at a speed of 15 km/h and sees what
is happening. He looks at the bird
and sees that the bird is dropping another
pine cone. At this moment he slows down
at a constant acceleration of 1 m/s2.
What distance away from the tree was
he when he started to slow down if the
pine cone also fell on his head? 44
ANSWER
gW
Athlete 2 (UARM, slowing down):
1
x 2 = x 02 + v 02 ? t 2 + ? a 2 ? t 22 =
2
1
= 4.17 ? t 2 - ? 1 ? t 22 "
2
" x2 = 4.17 ? t2 - 0.5 ? t22
Since v02 = 15 km/h = 4.17 m/s. v02 = 15 km/h
Now we have to find the distance that athlete 2 will vW02
have travelled in the 3 s it takes the pine cone to fall aW2
to the ground:
a2 = 1 m/s2
x 2 = 4.17 ? t 2 - 0.5 ? t 22 = 4.17 ? 3 - 0.5 ? 3 2 = 8 m
At this distance from the tree, athlete 2 started
x (m)
to slow down.
4 To have some fun, they don’t warn a third y (m)

athlete who gets up from a bench and starts
to walk towards the tree at a constant speed
of 6 km/h, at the exact moment that the bird
repeats the action.
What distance away from the tree is the
bench if the pine cone also falls on his head?
ANSWER 44
Athlete 3 (URM):
x 3 = x 03 + v 3 ? t 3 = 1.39 ? t 3 gW
Since v03 = 5 km/h = 1.39 m/s.

Again, we have to find the distance that athlete 3
will have travelled in the 3 s that it takes the pine
cone to fall to the ground:
x 3 = 1.39 ? t 3 = 1.39 m/s ? 3 s = 4.17 m
Athlete 3 was this distance away from the tree v = 5 km/h
when he started to walk.
vW
x (m)

7
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
5 Fernando Alonso's car crosses the finish

line, which is located on a long straight,
for the third time. Its speed is 310 km/h.
In doing so, it overtakes Felipe Massa’s
car, which is travelling at 285 km/h.
How far away from each other are they
3 s later, assuming that they maintained
the same velocity?
ANSWER
Follow these steps:
1.
Draw the two cars in the same frame of reference and write their equations of motion using SI units.
• Car 1 (URM):
v 1 = 310 km/h = 86.11 m/s
x1 = x 01 + v1 ? t1 = 86.11 ? t1
• Car 2 (URM):
v 2 = 285 km/h = 79.17 m/s
x 2 = x 02 + v 2 ? t 2 = 79.17 ? t 2
2.
Find the position of each car after 3 s.
We have:
x 1 = 86.11 m/s ? t 1 = 86.11 m/s ? 3 s = 258.33 m
x 2 = 79.17 m/s ? t 2 = 79.17 m/s ? 3 s = 237.51 m
3. Find the distance between them.

Distance between them:
x2 - x1 = 258.33 m - 237.51 m = 20.82 m
The distance x2 - x1 depends on the time elapsed.

7
WORKSHEET 3
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
6 A girl is getting ready to go on an amusement park ride with two friends. The ride consists of an iron bar
with three seats that spin parallel to the ground, around an axis that is perpendicular to the ground.
In which of the three seats should she sit to make the ride more exciting?
ANSWER
The ride seen from above, and the trajectory of each girl would be:
vW3
vW2
vW1
R1 R1
R2 R2
R3 R3
a)
Put the radii of the girls’ trajectories in order from greatest to least.
R3 > R2 > R1
b) Which of the three will take longest to complete one full spin?
All three take the same amount of time.
What angle has each one traced when they have completed one full spin?
They all trace the same angle: 360°.
What can you say about the angular speeds, ~, of the three girls? (~ = angle traced/time taken).
Since all three swept the same angle in the same amount of time:
~1 = ~2 = ~3
c)
Using the information from sections a and b, put the linear speeds v of each girl in order from highest to lowest
(remember that v = ~ ? R).
v 3 = ~ 3 ? R 3 > v 2 = ~ 2 ? R 2 > v1 = ~1 ? R1
This makes sense, since the further away from the axis the girl is, the more metres she will have to travel in the same
time throughout the spin. This means her linear speed (m/s) would have to be greater.
d) So, where should the girl sit to have the best time? Which physical quantity is associated with this sensation
on this amusement park ride?
She should sit in the seat that is farthest away from the rotation axis since the linear speed is greater and the ride
will therefore be more exciting.

7
SOLVED PROBLEMS
MOTION
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
At 8:30 a.m., the Madrid‐Barcelona AVE train is 216 km away from Zaragoza,
travelling at a speed of 50 m/s. Determine:
a) The distance it will travel in the next 15 minutes.
b) The arrival time at Zaragoza.
Approach and answer

Although it is recommended that all quantities are a)
After 15 minutes, the train will be at the following
expressed in SI units, problems like this one can be distance away from the starting point:
solved in km and km/h, giving us numbers that s = 180 km/h ? 0.25 h = 45 km
are easier to work with.
b) We isolate t from the equation of motion to find
1 km 3600 s the time it will take the train to arrive at Zaragoza:
v = 50 m/s ? ? = 180 km/h
1000 m 1h
1h s 216 km
t = 15 min ? t = 15 min ? = 0.25 h t= = = 1.2 h = 1:12 min
v 180 km/h
60 min
The train’s motion is uniform since its velocity is constant. So, the train will arrive at Zaragoza at:
Therefore, the equation of motion will be: s = v ? t. 8:30 + 1 h 12 min = 9:42 a.m.
ACTIVITIES
1 A person gives a shout when they are standing 200 m 4 Juan is 200 m from his house, moving away from
away from a mountain. We know that the speed it at a speed of 4 km/h. If we use his house as
of sound through air is 340 m/s. the frame of reference, determine:
a) How long will it be before the echo is heard? a) His final position.
b) If they are accelerating towards the mountain b) His position after 2 minutes.
at a speed of 3 m/s when they shout, how long c)
The time it takes for him to reach 500 m.
will it be before the echo is heard?
Answer: a
) 200 m; b) He will be
Answer: a) 1.176 s; b) 1.171 s 200 + 133.33 = 333.33 m from his house;
c) 270 s = 4.5 min
2 A car is 100 m away from the traffic lights and
is driving on a straight road at 36 km/h towards 5 Determine the speed of an ant, expressed in m/s,
them. Determine: which travels the same distance in 180 min as a
a)
Its position in relation to the traffic lights person walking at 5 km/h for 6 min.
after 0.5 min. Answer: 0.046 m/s
b) The time it takes the car to arrive at the next set
of traffic lights, which is 500 m away from the first. 6 A motorist is travelling at a constant speed
Answer: a) It will be 200 m past the traffic lights; b) 60 s of 108 km/h when he passes a certain kilometre
point on a motorway. What distance away from
3 A car sets off at 10:00 a.m. at a constant speed this kilometre point is he 30 minutes later?
of 80 km/h. Answer: 54 000 m = 54 km
a)
How far away is it at 12:15 p.m.?
b) How long does the car take to travel the first 800 m?
Answer: 180 km; b) 0.01 h = 36 s

7
SOLVED PROBLEMS
MOTION
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
Jaime and Maria agree to set off on their bicycles at 9:00 a.m. from two towns, A and B, which are 120 km
away from each other. They intend to meet each other on the way. If they cycle at a speed of 25 km/h and 35 km/h
respectively, calculate:
a) At what time do the two cyclists meet?
b) At what distance from town A do they meet?
Approach and answer

We choose town A, where Jaime leaves from, as a frame In other words, xJaime = xMaria.
of reference. Jaime’s velocity is positive and Maria’s So:
velocity is negative since she is travelling in the opposite
direction. Since both move at a constant speed, the 25 ? t = 120 - 35 ? t
equation will be the one for uniform rectilinear motion: By solving the equation, we get:
x = v ? t.
t=2h
We write the equation of motion for both cyclists:
Therefore, they will meet each other at 11:00 a.m.
xJaime = 25 ? t and xMaria = 120 - 35 ? t
b) By substituting t into any of the two equations above
a)
For the two cyclists to meet, they must be in the same we can find out the position where they meet in relation
position at the same time. to town A, which is:
x = 50 km
ACTIVITIES
1 Your father leaves the house and forgets his wallet. b) If the second cyclist leaves 1 hour later than the first,
When you realise he has left it behind, he is 250 m how long will it take to catch up with him? At what
away and you go after him on your bicycle. If your distance from the starting point will they meet?
father is walking at 5 km/h and you cycle at 18 km/h, Answer: a
) The one moving at a lower speed, 15 km/h;
at what distance away from the house will you reach b) 1.5 h and 37.5 km
him? How long will it take you to reach him?
Answer: 346 m away and 69.2 s 4 A Formula 1 car crosses the starting line at 300 km/h,
and catches up with another car that is travelling
2 At a given time, a car involved in a robbery passes at 280 km/h. Assuming that they maintain a constant
a point at a speed of 90 km/h. 10 minutes later, velocity, calculate the distance between them half
a police car chasing it passes the point at a speed a minute later.
of 120 km/h. At what distance from the point will Answer: 166.7 m
it catch up? How much time will have passed since
the first car passed the point? 5 Two cars are travelling on a motorway at a speed
Answer: 60 km away and 30 min of 36 km/h and 108 km/h, respectively. If initially both
are driving in the same direction and are 1 km away
3 Two cyclists are going to start off on the same straight from each other, how much time will it take for
road at constant speeds of 15 km/h and 25 km/h. the faster car to reach the slower car, and at what
a)
Which one should leave first so that they meet each distance will this happen?
other on the road? Answer: 50 s and 1500 m

7
SOLVED PROBLEMS
MOTION
SOLVED PROBLEM 3
A motorcycle starts off from a set of traffic lights with an acceleration of 2 m/s2. Calculate the time it takes
to reach a speed of 72 km/h. If it then starts to slow down with an acceleration of 1.5 m/s2 until it stops,
calculate the distance it travelled.
Approach and answer

First, we express the speed in SI units: Using the second equation, we can calculate the distance
travelled in this first section:
72 km 1000 m 1h m
v= ? ? = 20 m/s 1
1h 1 km 3600 s s s= ? 2 m/s2 ? 102 s2 = 100 m
2
Since there is acceleration, we need to apply the
equations of uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion: If it starts to slow down at this moment, the speed will
decrease until it stops. We use the same equations except
v = v0 + a ? t
that now the acceleration will have the opposite direction
1 of the speed.
s = v0 ? t + ? a ? t 2
2
v 20 m/s
The initial speed, v0, is zero so we can isolate the time t= = = 13.3 s
a 1.5 m/s 2
from the first equation:
And the distance travelled in this second section will be:
v 20 m/s
t= = = 10 s 1
a 2 m/s 2 s = 20 m/s ? 13.3 s + ? (-1.5) m/s2 ? 13.32 s2 = 133.3 m
2
In total, it travelled:
100 + 133.3 = 233.3 m
ACTIVITIES
1 A car that is driving at a speed of 90 km/h slows down 4 A motorbike that starts from a stationary position
and in half a minute has reduced its speed to 18 km/h. reaches a speed of 72 km/h in 7 s. Calculate:
Calculate: a) The acceleration.
a) The acceleration of the car. b) The distance travelled in this time.
b) The distance it has travelled in this time. c) The speed it will reach after 15 s.
c) How long it will take to stop? Answer: a) 2.85 m/s2; b) 69.8 m; c) 42.7 m/s
2
Answer: a) -0.66 m/s ; b) 453 m; c) 37.9 s
5 A car that is travelling at 36 km/h accelerates
2 What is the maximum speed a car can go without uniformly until it reaches 72 km/h in 5 seconds.
hitting an obstacle that suddenly appears 100 m Calculate:
away from the car? We assume that the driver reacts a) The acceleration.
immediately and brakes with an acceleration
of -4 m/s2. b) The distance travelled in this time.
Answer: 28.28 m/s = 101.8 km/h ) 2 m/s2; b) 75 m

Answer: a
3 Starting from a stationary position, a Formula 1 car

6 A lorry that is travelling at a speed of 90 km/h stops
can reach a speed of 180 km/h in 10 s. Calculate 10 s after braking. Calculate:
the acceleration of the race car and the distance a) The acceleration the lorry brakes with.
it travels in this time.
b) The distance travelled in this time.
Answer: a = 5 m/s2; s = 250 m
Answer: a) -2.5 m/s2; b) 125 m

7
SOLVED PROBLEMS
MOTION
SOLVED PROBLEM 4
A stone is thrown vertically upwards at a speed of 5 m/s. Calculate:

a) The maximum height it reaches.
b) Its speed when it is halfway through its journey.
c) Its speed when it hits the ground.
Approach and answer

Since the object is thrown vertically upwards, the equations a) We apply the equation of distance travelled by the stone,
of uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion apply. and since this is the same as the maximum height
The value of gravitational acceleration is 9.8 m/s2 reached, we get:
1
and we take into account that it is a vector quantity s = v0 ? t - ? g ? t2
2
and is always directed towards the centre of the Earth. By substituting, we get: s = 1.28 m.
At maximum height, the speed of the stone will be zero. b) In order to calculate section b), we first need to know
We can calculate the time it takes to reach this point using the time taken to travel 0.64 m and then substitute
the expression: this in the equation of speed.
v = v0 + g ? t By solving the equations that are obtained, we get
Substituting g with the value of -9.8, taking into account a speed: v = 3.5 m/s.
its orientation and direction, we get: c) Disregarding air resistance, the speed at which
0 = 5 + (-9.8) ? t the stone reaches the ground will be the same
Where: t = 0.51 s. as the velocity that it was thrown at, 5 m/s.
ACTIVITIES
1 We throw a body vertically upwards at a speed 4 For a body to reach the ground at a speed
of 15 m/s from a balcony that is 15 m above street of 72 km/h, what height should it be dropped
level. Calculate the time it takes to reach the ground. from ( g = 10 m/s2).
(Take g = 10 m/s2). Answer: 20 m
Answer: 3.8 s
5 Three bodies with a mass of 3, 5 and 6 kg respectively
2 A stone is dropped and takes 15 s to reach the ground. are dropped from a height of 10 m. Which one will
Calculate the height it is dropped from. reach the ground first?
Answer: 1102.5 m a)
The 3 kg one. c) The 6 kg one.
b)
The 5 kg one. d) They will reach the ground
3 A body is thrown at an initial speed of 20 m/s at the same time.
and reaches a height of 20 m. The speed
at the highest point is: Answer: d)
a)
20 m/s. c) 10 m/s. 6 In order to measure the height of a building,
b) 40 m/s. d) 0 m/s. a body is dropped and the time it takes to reach
Answer: d) the ground is measured, the result being 3 s.
What is the height of the building? At what speed
does the body reach the ground?
( g = 10 m/s2).
Answer: h = 45 m; v = 30 m/s

7
SOLVED PROBLEMS
MOTION
SOLVED PROBLEM 5
It takes 15 s for the Ferris wheel in an amusement park to make one complete turn.
If its angular speed is constant, calculate:
a) The angular speed in radians/second.
b) The period and the frequency.
c) The angle swept in 5 s.
d) The linear speed of a passenger located 10 m away from the rotation axis.
Approach and answer

The Ferris wheel moves with uniform circular motion, c)
The angle swept in 5 s will be:
so we apply the equations for this type of motion. { = ~ ? t = 0.13 r rad/s ? 5 s = 0.67 r rad
{
2 r rad
a)
~= = = 0.13 r rad/s. d) We calculate the linear speed of a passenger using
t 15 s
the expression that relates this and the angular speed:
b) The period is the time taken to complete one turn.
v=~?R
So it will be: 15 seconds.
So:
The frequency is the opposite of the period.
So it will be: f = 1/15 = 0.06 Hz. v = 0.13 r rad/s ? 10 m = 1.3 r m/s
ACTIVITIES
1 A merry‐go‐round spins at a rate of 10 turns every c) r rad/day.

3 minutes. Calculate the angular speed (in rad/s) d) 0.5 r rad/day.
and the linear speed of a boy who is sitting in a car
that is 10 m away from the rotation axis. Answer: c) r rad/day
Answer: 0.11 r rad/s and 1.1 r m/s 5 Does uniform circular motion have acceleration?
2 A wheel goes around at a rate of 20 turns/minute. Answer: It has normal acceleration due to the change
Determine: in direction of the velocity.
a) The period. 6 The angular speed of a record player from the 1970s
b) The angular speed. is 45 rpm. Calculate:
c)
The linear speed of a point on the edge if we know a) The angular speed in rad/s.
that the diameter of the wheel is 100 cm.
b) The period and the frequency.
Answer: a) 3 s; b) 0.66 r rad/s; c) 0.33 r m/s
c)
The number of turns it will complete in 5 minutes.
3 Calculate the angular speed of the hour and minute Answer: a

) 1.5 r rad/s; b) 1.33 s and 0.75 Hz;
hand of a clock. c) 225 turns
Answer: 0.000 046 ? r rad/s = 0.46 ? 10-4 ? r rad/s 7 A bicycle is moving at 10 m/s. If we know that the
and 0.0005 ? r = 5 ? 10-4 r rad/s
wheels have a radius of 50 cm, calculate the angular
speed of the wheel.
4 It takes a satellite two days to complete one rotation
around the Earth. Its angular speed will be: Answer: 2
0 rad/s
a) 0.5 r rotations/minute.
b) r rad/s.

7
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
MOTION
Determining the reaction time
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Ruler.
To find out the reaction time.
• Pencil.
• Paper.
PROCEDURE
In road safety, reaction time is defined as the time that elapses between the driver
spotting a hazard and reacting, carrying out a manoeuvre to avoid it. A person
in good physical condition takes a minimum of 0.5 s to react.
In this time, the driver travels a distance (reaction distance), which we have
to add to the distance the car travels once the brakes are applied (braking distance).
Both distances increase with speed: the greater the speed, the greater the distance
we travel from the moment we spot the hazard until we react; and the greater
the speed, the greater the braking distance.
1.
A classmate holds a 25 cm ruler vertically from the end opposite the zero mark.
2.
Another classmate places their index finger and thumb in line with the zero mark
on the ruler without touching it.
3.
The first classmate drops the ruler without telling the other, so that they can catch it
as fast as possible.
4.
The distance that the ruler fell from the initial position is measured in centimetres.
5.
The distance that the ruler fell depends on your reaction time.
1 2s
s= ? g ? t 2; isolating the time: t =
2 g
6.
Repeat the experiment several times and calculate the average reaction time
you obtained.
Sum of reaction times
Reaction time =
No. of repetitions
QUESTIONS
1 What is the importance of reaction distance when driving on a motorway?

a) How is the reaction distance of a driver calculated?
b) What factors does the distance travelled over the reaction time depend on?
3 Why do you think we repeat the experiment? Did you obtain the same value for the distance the ruler
travelled every time you repeated the experiment?

7
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
MOTION
Experimental study of UARM
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Toy car.
• To analyse the characteristics of UARM
• Track of at least 2 m in length.
experimentally.
• Stopwatch.
• To calculate the acceleration of a mobile object.
• To represent an observation in a graph.
PROCEDURE
1.
Mark the initial and final position on the track. Write down the total length, L.
Mark successive positions on the track f , L p.

L L 3L
2. , ,
4 2 4
3.
Gently lift one side of the track so that you have the inclined plane needed to study UARM.
4. Place the car in the starting position and let it fall, measuring the time it takes to arrive at the first position marked
with a stopwatch. You can make a mark for this point to make it easier to take this measurement.
Take the measurement three times. Take the average of the three to obtain the most correct value.
5.
Repeat the step above for each of the marks.
6.
Complete the table below with the data you obtained, substituting L with the value:
Position (x) 0 L/4 L/2 3L/4 L
Time (t) 0
QUESTIONS
1 Using the law of motion, calculate the acceleration of the mobile object at the four positions
and check that it is constant (within the margin of experimental error).
Equation of motion:
1
x = x0 + v0 ? (t - t0) + ? a ? (t - t0)2
2
Initial data: x0 = 0 m, t0 = 0 s, v0 = 0 m/s.
1
With these values, we get: x = ? a ? t2
2
L
2x
Isolating acceleration: a = 2 4
t L
2
2 Calculate the speed at each moment: v = v0 + a ? t. 3L
4
3 Draw the x‑t and v‑t graphs with the data obtained.
L
4 Analyse the results obtained for acceleration according

to the possible errors that can occur while carrying out
this experiment.
5 Write a suggestion to improve the procedure.

7
ASSESSMENT
MOTION
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 When a body moves:

a) Is the displacement always the same as the distance travelled?
b) Can the displacement be zero if the time isn’t? Give an example.
2 A cyclist travelling on a bicycle with uniform rectilinear motion travels one kilometre in one minute.
a) Calculate the average velocity in m/s.
b) How long will he take to travel ten kilometres?
c) How many kilometres will he travel in one hour?
d) What shape will the distance-time graph be?
3 A cheetah accelerates from 0 to 100 km/h in 3 s, and an athlete accelerates from 0 to 60 km/h
in 5 s. Calculate:
a) The acceleration of the cheetah.
b) The acceleration of the athlete.
c) The distance travelled by the cheetah in 3 s.
d) The distance travelled by the athlete in 5 s.
4 The velocity of a student that leaves their house is shown in the graph below:
a) Indicate the type of motion in each section. v (m/s)
25
b) Calculate the acceleration in the first two
sections.
c) Can we say that the trajectory is rectilinear? 20
d) Calculate the distance travelled in the second

3
section. 15
2
4
10
0 t (s)
0 10 20 30 40

Name: Class: Date:
5 A tennis player throws a tennis ball vertically upwards at a velocity of 9.8 m/s. Calculate:
a) The time it takes to reach the maximum height.
b) The maximum height it reaches.
c) The time it takes to fall back down to the initial position.
d) The velocity at which it reaches the initial position.
6 A merry‐go‐round with a radius of 5 m completes two turns in 8 s with uniform circular motion.
a) Calculate the angular speed in rpm and in rad/s.
b) Calculate the linear speed of a horse positioned 5 m away from the centre.
c) Is there any type of acceleration?
d) If so, calculate its value.
7 In which cases do acceleration and velocity not have the same orientation?

7
ASSESSMENT
MOTION
1 a) No. For example, a body could have travelled along a path until the end and then travelled backwards along part
of the trajectory. So the displacement would only be the distance between the origin and the final position of the
body, while the distance travelled would be the whole path followed.
b) Yes, if after some time the body passes through the initial position again.
x 1000 m
2 a) v = = = 16.6w m/s = 60 km/h
t 60 s
x 10 000 m
b) t = = ! = 600 s = 10 min
t 16.6 m/s
c) x = v ? t = 60 km /h ? 1 h = 60 km
d)
An inclined straight line that starts from the origin with a slope equal to the value of the velocity.
Dv 27.7 m/s - 0
3 a) a1 = = = 9.26 m/s 2
t 3s
Dv 16.67 m/s - 0
b) a 2 = = = 3.33 m/s 2
t 5s
c) Assuming it moves with UARM:
1 1
x1 = ? a ? t 2= ? 9.26 m/s 2 ? 9 s 2 = 41.7 m
2 2
d) Assuming it moves with UARM:
1 1
x2 = ? a ?t2= ? 3.33 m/s 2 ? 25 s 2 = 41.6 m
2 2
4 a) There are four sections in the movement:

• The first, uniformly accelerated motion.
• The second, uniform motion.
• The third, uniformly accelerated motion.
• The fourth, uniformly decreasing accelerated motion.
b) First section:
10 m/s - 0
a1 = = 1 m/s2
10 s
Second section:
a2 = 0
c) We can’t say whether the trajectory is rectilinear or not.
d) It is a uniform motion, so:
x = v ? t = 10 m/s ? 10 s = 100 m
5 a) The movement is a vertical throw. At the maximum height, the final velocity is zero:
v = v0 - 9.8 m/s2 ? t = 0 " t = 1 s
1
b) y = v0 ? t - ? 9.8 m/s2 ? t2 = 9.8 m/s ? 1 s - 4.9 m/s2 ? 1 s2 = 4.9 m
2
c) The time it takes to reach the maximum height is equal to the time it takes to fall
to the initial position.
d) The velocity at which it reaches the initial position is the same as the velocity the tennis ball
is thrown at, but in a different direction.
2 turns 0.25 turns
6 a) ~ = = = 15 rpm = 1.6 rad/s
8s 1s
b) v = ~ ? r = 1.6 rad/s ? 5 m = 8 m/s
c) When the direction of the velocity vector changes, a centripetal acceleration is created.
v2 (8 m/s) 2
d) aC = = = 12.8 m/s 2
r 5m
7 In movements in which the trajectory is not rectilinear, for example, a UCM.

8
FORCES
INTRODUCTION
1.
To ensure that students understand the concept of force, 2. Dynamic force is explained using Newton’s three
we recommend starting off by analysing the dynamic laws, which establish the relationship between force
and static effects of forces. and motion.
OBJECTIVES
• Recognise the effects of forces. • Recognise frictional force in normal situations.

• Identify the forces present in everyday situations. • Understand that there are action‐reaction force pairs.
• Calculate the net force of a system of forces. • Associate movements with the causes that produce them.
• Understand the meaning of inertia.
• Understand the relationship between the force applied
to a body and its acceleration.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • How to define force.

• Unit of force in the SI.
• The dynamic and static effects of forces.
• Force: a vector quantity.
• Newton’s laws: law of inertia.
• The action‐reaction principle.
• Forces and motion: weight force, normal force, frictional force, buoyant force, tension force.
KNOW HOW TO • Identify the effects of forces on bodies.

• Associate the point where a force is applied with the origin of the vector that represents it.
• Represent forces using vectors.
• Break down forces.
• Associate the force applied to a body with its acceleration.
• Solve problems using the fundamental equation of dynamics, including frictional force.
• Find the slope of a line.
BE ABLE TO • Ask questions about certain elements of everyday life.

• Understand the importance of Newton’s laws for analysing the motion of bodies.

8
FORCES
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
Students usually think of force as a property that bodies 3. The second fundamental principle or law of dynamics
have, instead of it being the result of the interaction describes the behaviour of bodies when they are
between them. In order to understand the concept subjected to the action of a net force. To apply this law
of force, it is important for them to forget this idea. correctly, we need to consider the net force, which
We recommend analysing the effects of forces, so that is the sum of all of the different forces acting in the same
they understand that we should not talk about the force direction on a body. It is therefore essential that students
of a body, but the force exerted by one body on another. know how to calculate vectors.
2.
The law of inertia states that when there is no force 4. The third law is not easy to fully understand. The words
acting on a body, or when the net force is zero, the body ‘action’ and ‘reaction’ can lead to confusion because
will remain at rest or continue to move with URM. Simple they give the idea of a time sequence: it seems that
observation can help students understand the first part action comes before reaction, when in reality they are
of this law, but not the second; the presence of frictional simultaneous. Another interpretation could be that
force makes it difficult. We recommend analysing examples the reaction offsets the action, cancelling it out,
where there is less frictional force (a polished surface, ice, something that cannot happen, since they are applied
etc.) in order to conclude that if we could eliminate friction to different bodies.
completely, bodies would continue to move with URM.
WEBSITES Isaac Newton: The Last Magician. This 60-minute long

Newton’s Laws of Motion - NASA. This section biographical documentary film is about the extraordinary
of NASA's website is dedicated to the theory of Newton’s scientific work of the British scientist Isaac Newton
laws. It also contains a variety of activities that are classified (1642-1727), considered to be one of the greatest geniuses
according to age group. in history. His theories on gravity and his laws of force and
Keywords: Newton, laws, NASA. motion changed how nature was viewed and studied. This
wonderful BBC production was directed by Renny Bartlett
PhET Interactive Simulations – Forces and Motion: and stars Jonathan Hyde as Newton.
Basics. In this simulation, students can explore the principles
of kinematics and dynamics in different modules. APPS FOR TABLETS AND SMARTPHONES
Keywords: forces, motion, phet, simulation.
Tinybop Simple Machines (iOs). This application introduces
six basic machines: levers, pulleys, wheels and axles, screws,
inclined planes and wedges, which are all necessary to
perform small physical tasks. It also contains a manual for
simple machines, which can help students understand better
what is happening and why.
Meet Science: Force and Motion (iOs). Forces and motion
are a very important part of Physics. This application is
dedicated to reinforcing the most important concepts related
to these two aspects of physical mechanics. Using animal and
spaceship animations, this application helps students revise
all high school Physics topics in a fun and original way.

8
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES
1 We drag a box along the floor, pulling it with a rope 8 The engine of a car generates a driving force of 4500 N;
that is attached to it, keeping the rope parallel to the frictional force between the wheels and the road
the floor. Identify the forces that are acting on it, is 1300 N. If the mass of the car is 860 kg, determine:
describe them and draw them in a diagram. a)
The speed it will reach in 10 s if it starts from
a stationary position. Express it in km/h.
2 Identify the forces acting on the following bodies:
b) If at this moment the force of the engine stops,
a)
A car that is accelerating on a flat road. how long it will take the car to come to a stop.
b) An object that is hanging from the ceiling by a cable.
9 A force of 5 N is applied to a body with a mass of 700 g
3 What force is acting on a car when it brakes? that is placed on a flat table. The force is applied in the
Describe this force. same orientation as the plane. Calculate the frictional
force if:
4 Which of the sentences below is true? When a)
The body accelerates at 1.5 m/s2.
we hold a book in our hand:
b) The body is moving at a constant speed.
a)
No force is exerted since it is not moving.
b) The forces that are exerted only have the effect 10 If a train moves along the tracks at a constant speed
of deforming it. of 60 km/h, indicate which of the following statements
is true:
c)
The net force of the forces that are exerted
is zero. This is why it doesn’t move. a)
No force is acting on the train because there
is no acceleration.
d) None of the above are correct.
b) There is only one force acting on the train,
5 Two children pull two ropes attached to a box with in the same orientation as the velocity.
a force of 8 N each. If we need to exert a force c)
There are several forces acting on the train,
of 10 N to drag the box, determine whether they the net force of which is zero.
will be able to drag the box when:
d) There are several forces acting on the train,
a)
They pull the ropes in the same orientation the net force of which is responsible for the
and direction. train’s velocity.
b) They pull the ropes in perpendicular directions.
6 Draw a diagram using vectors to represent the forces

acting on a body that is sliding down an inclined plane.
Remember that there is frictional force between
the body and the plane.
7 Two forces: F1 = 6 N and F2 = 8 N, are exerted

on a body. Calculate the net force, graphically
and numerically, in the following cases:
a)
If the two forces are acting in the same orientation
and direction.
b) If the two forces are acting in the same orientation
but in opposite directions.
c)
If the two forces are acting in perpendicular directions.

8
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES
1 N
7 a)
R = 14 N. Same orientation and direction.
T F1 R
F2
Ff
W b)
R = 2 N. Orientation and direction of F2 .
T : tension of the rope: this is the force exerted R
by the rope on the box. F2 F1
F f : frictional force: the force that opposes motion,
due to contact with the floor. c)
R= 62 + 82 = 36 + 64 = 100 = 10 N
W: weight of the box: this is the force exerted
by the Earth on the box. F1 R
N : normal force: this is the force exerted by the floor a

on the box. F2
2 N
T
Applying the definition of sine:
F1 6
FM sin a = = = 0.6 " a = 37°
Ff 10
Ff The net force forms a 37° angle with F1.
8 a) We calculate the acceleration using the fundamental
W W law of dynamics:
a)
FE : the force generated by the engine.
4500 N - 1300 N
F f : frictional force. /F = m? a " a = = 3.72 m/s 2
860 kg
W: weight of the body.
Substituting into the equation of speed of a UARM:
N : normal force.
v = v0 + a ? t = 0 m/s + 3.72 m/s2 ? 10 s = 37.2 m/s
b) W: weight of the body.
v = 37.2 m/s
T : tension force of the cable.
b)
In this case, the only force involved in the motion
3 Frictional force is a force that acts in the opposite direction
is frictional force:
to motion. It is created in the contact area between the
1300 N
wheels of the car and the road. It depends on the materials a= = 1.51 m/s 2
of the bodies that are in contact and the normal force 860 kg
exerted by the ground on the car. When substituting into the equation of speed, bear in
mind that the acceleration has a negative sign because
4 a) False. c) True. it is slowing down.
b) False. d) False. 0 m/s = 37.2 m/s - 1.51 m/s2 ? t " t = 24.6 s
5 a) In this situation: R = 16 N 9 a) /F = m? a
Since R > 10 N, yes, they will be able to drag the box.
5 N - Ff = 0.7 kg ? 1.5 m/s2
b)
In this situation:
Ffriction = 3.95 N.
R= 8 2 + 8 2 = 64 + 64 = 128 = 11.3 N
b)
In this case a = 0
Since R > 10 N, yes, they will be able to drag the box.
5 N - Ff = 0
6 N
Ff = 5 N.
10 a) False.
Ff
b) False.
Wx
c) True.
Wy
W d) False.
Wx : horizontal component of the weight.

Wy : vertical component of the weight.
F f : frictional force.
N : normal force. Bear in mind when you draw N ,
that its length must be equal to that of Wy .

8
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 Based on the acting forces, explain why when 9 Determine the magnitude, orientation and direction
we move on a skateboard and then stop pushing, of a force whose rectangular components are:
it stops. Fx = 3 N and Fy = 4 N.
2 What is the difference between carrying a backpack 10 Two girls try to move a rock by pulling it with two
on your back and carrying it in your hands? ropes. One girl pulls northwards with a force of 3 N,
and the other pulls eastwards with a force of 4 N.
3 Write the basic interactions involved in the following If there was only one girl, how much force would
phenomena: she need to pull with to achieve the same effect?
a)
The Earth rotating around the Sun.
11 A dynamometer is used to:
b) Compasses pointing towards the north.
a)
Measure mass.
c)
Tides.
b) Measure volume.
d) Nuclear fission reactions.
c)
Measure weight.
4 Identify and draw the forces acting on the system d) Measure force and weight.
formed by a parachutist who falls with his parachute
open. Describe the forces, bearing in mind that the 12 A crane holds the weight of a 250 kg bundle. Calculate
parachutist is falling at a constant velocity. the tension in the cable in the following cases:
a)
If it lifts it with an acceleration of 2 m/s2.
5 A body with a mass of 100 g is dropped. Assuming that
there is no air resistance, and that when its speed b) If it lifts it at a constant speed.
reaches 20 m/s there is an opposing force that breaks c)
If it holds it stable.
its fall after 4 s, what must the value of this force be? d) If it lowers it down with an acceleration of 2 m/s2.
6 Can the trajectory of a body be curved if there (Take g = 10 m/s2 ).

is no force acting on it?
13 A lorry with a mass of 28 t that is moving along
7 According to the law of action and reaction, a flat road goes from a speed of 45 km/h
‘for every action, there is an equal and opposite to 90 km/h in 130 s. Calculate the force exerted
reaction’. So, how is it possible for objects to move? by the engine, which we assume to be constant.
14 A car with a mass of 1000 kg goes round a bend

8 The net force of two perpendicular forces is:
with a radius of 75 m at a speed of 72 km/h.
a) b)
Determine the centripetal force acting on the car.
F2 R F2 R
15 A force F is acting on a body with a mass m. If the
F1 F1
force is doubled and the mass is reduced to 1/3 of m,
how would the acceleration change?
c) R d) F2
F2
R
F1 F1

8
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES
1 When we stop pushing it, the only force acting on it is 6 No. If the trajectory is curved, there must be a centripetal
frictional force, which acts in the opposite direction to motion. force acting, producing a normal or centripetal acceleration
This causes the speed of the skateboard to decrease until (the orientation of the velocity vector changes).
it stops. 7 Because the forces applied to the bodies are different.
2 The backpack weighs the same in both cases but when Therefore, they produce different accelerations.
we carry it on our backs, the weight is spread over the 8 The correct answer is c.
two straps.
9 F = 5 N and a = 53° with the X axis.
3 a) Gravitational interaction.
10 With a force of 5 N towards the northeast.
b)
Electromagnetic interaction.
c) Gravitational interaction. 11 a) False.
d) Nuclear interaction. b) False.
4 c)
True.
d) True.
Ff
12 a)
T = m ? (a + g) = 250 kg ? (2 m/s2 + 10 m/s2) =
v = 3000 N (vector directed upwards).
b)
T = m ? g = 250 kg ? 10 m/s2 = 2500 N
(vector directed upwards).
c)
T = m ? g = 250 kg ? 10 m/s2 = 2500 N
(vector directed upwards).
d)
T = m ? (g - a) = 250 kg ? (10 m/s2 - 2 m/s2) =
W = 2000 N (vector directed downwards).
Dv
W: weight of the parachutist and the parachute. 13 F=m?a=m? =
Dt
F f : air resistance. 25 m/s - 12.5 m/s
= 28 000 kg ? = 2692.3 N.
If the speed of the fall is constant, W = Ff. Both forces have 130 s
the same orientation and magnitude, but opposite directions. m ? v2 1000 kg ? (20 m/s ) 2 !
14 Fc = = = 5333.3 N .
r 75 m
5 Weight (W) and an upward force (F ) that slows it down are
15 It increases six times.
acting on the body:
m? a = W+ F
Since it is slowing down, |F | > |W|.
m?a=F-W"F=m?a+W=
= m ? a + m ? g = m ? (a + g)
Since a = Dv /Dt:
F=m?f +gp=
Dv

Dt
= 0.1 kg ? e + 9.8 m/s 2 o " F = 1.48 N

20 m/s
4s

8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
Inertia and mass

Remember that…
We generally understand the concept of inertia as the tendency for something to continue to be the same.
For example, even though I didn't have to go to school, I woke up at eight o'clock through inertia.
We can also describe it as the resistance of a physical system or social system to change.
In Physics, there are many types of inertia. However, in the field we are studying now, motion, inertia is the resistance
of a body to change its resting state or URM (Newton’s first law of motion talks about this). Inertia helps us define
a quantity that we all know: mass. Mass is a measurement of inertia. The greater the mass, the greater the inertia,
or in other words, the greater the resistance to change. Mass is directly proportional to inertia. Inertia is not a force.
SOLVED PROBLEM
You and your younger brother are on a roller coaster. After a long straight stretch, it takes a sharp turn
to the left. What happens to you both? Is someone or something applying a force on you? Would you both
react in the same way?
ANSWER
You would lean to the right due to inertia, trying to maintain your previous state of motion.
Nothing or no one is exerting a force on you, you react in this way because it is a property of mass.
The reaction would be greater in the child with the greatest mass.
1 A 20‐year‐old man and a baby in a car seat are sitting in the back of a car.
The driver of the car sees an obstacle and brakes suddenly.
a) What happens to the passengers in the back?

b) Why? What force is acting on them?

c) Which of the two will feel this effect more?

d) Why do we get the impression then that the baby is the most defenceless against sudden braking?

e)
What would happen if once the obstacle has passed, and after maintaining the new constant speed,
the driver accelerates to his previous speed?


8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
Newton’s third law

Remember that…
Newton’s third law states that if a body exerts a force on another body, the second also exerts a force with the same
magnitude and orientation but in the opposite direction to the first. In more philosophical terms: ‘A body doesn’t act
on another; bodies interact with each other’. Let’s analyse the law more closely.
1 A boy at the edge of a swimming pool gets ready to dive in head first. Aware of Newton’s third law,
he pushes himself using his feet to exert a force on the edge so that the edge then ‘pushes back on him’,
propelling him as far as possible.
a) Draw the two forces that Newton’s third law

is concerned with in the picture on the right.
b) You have drawn two forces with the same magnitude and orientation, acting in opposite directions.
Do they cancel each other out? How would you explain how the boy is propelled forward?
2 A father with mass M1 is skating with his son with mass m1 < M1. At one point, they are face to face
with the palms of their hands touching and the father pushes his son’s hands, causing them both
to skate away from each other with the same orientation and in the opposite direction.
a) Draw the two forces that Newton’s third law is concerned with in the picture below.
b) Which of the two will skate farther?
ow is this possible if Newton’s third law states that the same amount of force acts on both of them?
H
To answer the question, think about the acceleration that each one will move with.


8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
3 Using Newton’s third law, explain the following situations:
a) A person walks from one spot to another.
What would happen if they were walking with socks on, on a recently polished floor?
b) An inflated balloon becomes untied and shoots off as the air inside escapes.
c)
A bird flaps its wings to fly.
d) A magnet held in place attracts a piece of iron towards it. If we then hold the piece
of iron and let go of the magnet, it is the piece of iron that attracts the magnet.
4 A lift with a mass m is held by a steel chain. We will call the force exerted by a chain, rope, etc.,
when it pulls an object, tension (T), as described in Newton's third law.
a) Draw the two forces that Newton’s third law is concerned with.
b) Using Newton’s second law, find the tension in the chain in the following three cases.
Assume that the forces acting in the same direction as the motion are positive and those acting
in the opposite direction are negative.
1. If the lift goes up at a constant velocity, goes down at a constant velocity or is suspended in air:
2. If it goes up with an acceleration a:
3. If it goes down with an acceleration a:
Put the tensions in the chain in order from greatest to least.

8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
Newton's second law and its application in kinematics

1 A cart with a mass of 1100 kg has come loose from a train and is travelling at 5 m/s towards a cat that is sleeping
peacefully on the track. Superman appears and tries to stop it by pulling the cart backwards with a chain
that has a resistance of 450 N. There is no friction.
a) Draw the force or forces that are acting in the direction of motion, and the acceleration vector.
Zzzzz
x (m)
b) Using Newton’s second law, calculate the maximum acceleration that Superman can slow the cart down with.
Hints:
• Assume that the forces that are acting in the same direction as the motion are positive and the forces
acting in the opposite direction to the motion are negative.
• To achieve the maximum braking acceleration, Superman has to pull with the greatest force possible
(without breaking the chain!).
Now answer the following questions using your knowledge of kinematics:
c)
How long will Superman need to pull the chain for before the cart stops?
d) What is the minimum distance that the cat needed to be from the cart when Superman started to slow it down,
for the cat not to be hit?

8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
2 A person drags a cart with a mass of 12 kg along a flat floor, pulling it with a rope that forms an angle
of a = 40° and with a force of 50 N. We know that the cart is dragged at a constant velocity and that
there is friction.
a) Draw the forces present and break down the force F that the person pulls the cord with as a sum
of a force Fx on the X axis and another, Fy on the Y axis:
b) Find the magnitudes of Fx and Fy using what you know about the sine and cosine of an angle.
c) Apply Newton’s second law to the Y axis and isolate the value of the normal force.
Hint: Don’t forget to take Fy into account.
d) Apply Newton’s second law to the X axis and isolate the value of the frictional force.
e) Using the results from sections c and d, find the coefficient of friction n.
f)
How much horizontal force would the person have to pull with for it to move at a constant velocity?
Compare it with the previous Fx and draw a conclusion.

8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
Movement on an inclined plane

Remember that…
When an object moves along an inclined plane at a certain angle a in relation to the horizontal plane,
the easiest way to solve problems relating to motion is to follow these steps:
1. We draw an X axis in the orientation the object is moving in (orientation parallel to the inclined plane)
and a Y axis in the orientation perpendicular to the X axis.
2. We draw all the forces that appear in the problem about the object (the normal force N , weight W,
frictional force Fx , and others mentioned in the problem: engines, someone pushing or pulling, etc.).
Remember that:
• The normal force N is always perpendicular to the plane that the object is placed on; in this case
the inclined plane. Therefore, it will always have the same orientation as the Y axis.
• The weight force W always acts in the direction of the centre of the Earth; therefore, it will be perpendicular
to the horizontal plane. This means that it won’t be on the X axis or the Y axis. Its magnitude is:
|W | = m ? g
• The frictional force always acts in the same orientation as the motion (X axis) but in the opposite direction.
|Ff | = n ? |N |
3. We break down the forces that are not on the X or Y axis into these axes.
(Weight: W must always be broken down).
In other words:
F = F x + Fy
4. Using trigonometry, we find the value of the components of the force that we have broken down.
This is:
Fx = F ? sin a
Fy = F ? cos a
5. We apply Newton’s second law (FNet = m ? a) to the forces on the Y axis. In many cases,
this is how we will find the value of |N | and, therefore, the value of | Ff | = n | N |.
6. We apply Newton’s second law (FNet = m ? a) to the forces on the X axis. This is how we will find
anything that has the same orientation as the motion (acceleration, a type of force, etc.).
7. If we know the acceleration, we can use it to solve problems relating to kinematics.
Now let’s take a look at these steps in an example.

8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
SOLVED PROBLEM
A motocross bike and its rider have a mass of 250 kg. He prepares for a stunt, moving up a ramp inclined
at an angle a = 40° in relation to the horizontal plane. The ramp is 50 m long and the coefficient of friction
is n = 0.5. The engine exerts a constant force of 3500 N during the ascent.
ANSWER
a) Calculate the acceleration that the bike moves up
the ramp with.
y
We follow these steps: FWengine
W
N
1. We draw an axis with the same orientation
as the motion (parallel to the inclined plane)
and a Y axis perpendicular to the X axis, and then
we draw all of the forces that are involved.
W FWf x
W
a = 40°
2. We break down the weight as a sum

of one component on the X axis " Wx
y
and one on the Y axis " Wy . FWengine
W
N
Wy
W Wx
W
W
W
FWf x
a = 40°
3. We identify the angle a in one of the new

right‐angled triangles from the drawing 1
y
above using triangle similarity. FWengine
W
N
B
2
Wy
W Wx
W
W 4
W x
5
3 a
continues "

8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
• The orientation of W and side A are parallel, and the orientation of Wx and side B are parallel " Angles 1
and 2 are equal.
• Angles 3 and 4 are both 90°.
Therefore, since the sum of the interior angles of any triangle is always the same " Angle 5 must be angle a.
4. So now we look at the right‐angled triangle of angles 2, 4 and 5 (from now on we will call angle 5 a)
and with a little trigonometry we can find the components of weight |Wx | and |Wy |:
|Wx |
• sin a = " |Wx | = | W | ? sin a = m ? g ? sin a = 250 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 ? sin 40° " |Wx | = 1574.8 N
|W |
|Wy |
• cos a = " |Wy| = |W | ? cos a = m ? g ? cos a = 250 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 ? cos 40° " |Wy| =1876.8 N
|W |
5. We apply Newton’s second law at the Y axis and find the value of the normal force:
FNet Y axis = m ? ay " N - Wy = 0 " N = Wy = 1876.8 N
(ay = 0, since there is no motion on the Y axis).
6. Now that we know the normal force, we find the value of the frictional force.
Ff = n ? N = 0.5 ? 1876.8 N = 938.4 N
7. Lastly, we apply Newton’s second law to the X axis and isolate the value of the acceleration
that it moves up the ramp with:
FNet X axis = m ? ax "
F - Wx - Ff
" F - Wx - Ff = m ? ax " ax = "
m
3500 N - 1574.8 N - 938.4 N
" ax = = 3.59 m/s2
250 kg
If he takes a run‐up and starts to ride up the ramp at an initial speed of 10 m/s:
b) What speed will the bike have 3 s later?
v = v0 + a ? t = 10 m/s + 3.95 m/s2 ? 3 s = 21.85 m/s2
c) What speed will it have when it has travelled half of the distance?
v 2 - v02 = 2 ? a ? s " v = v02 + 2 ? a ? s = 10 2 + 2 ? 3.95 ? 25 " v = 17.25 m/s
d) What force does the engine of the bike have to apply for it to ride up with a = 5 m/s ? 2
We apply Newton’s second law to the X axis again:

FNet X axis = m ? ax " F - Wx - Ff = m ? ax "
" F = Wx + Ff + m ? a = 1574.8 N + 938.4 N + 250 N ? 5 m/s2 = 3763 N

8
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
1 A man is sitting on a piece of cardboard on a mountain slope that is inclined at an angle a = 25° in relation
to the horizontal plane. There is friction.
a) Draw all of the forces present and break down the weight W as a sum of one component on the X axis " Wx
and another on the Y axis " Wy .
WP
b) Does the man slide down the slope or not? Analyse in which case he would slide down or not, based on the forces
that you have drawn above.
c)
Using the analysis above, deduce which values of the coefficient of friction n would make the man slide down
the slope and which wouldn’t. (Hint: find out where the angle a appears most using the similarity of triangles.
This way you will find out |Wx | and |Wy |).

8
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
Inertia and mass

Remember that…
We generally understand the concept of inertia as the tendency for something to continue to be the same.
For example, even though I didn't have to go to school, I woke up at eight o'clock through inertia.
We can also describe it as the resistance of a physical or social system to change.
In Physics, there are many types of inertia. However, in the field we are studying now, motion, inertia is the resistance
of a body to change its resting state or URM (Newton’s first law of motion talks about this). Inertia helps us define
a quantity that we all know: mass. Mass is a measurement of inertia. The greater the mass, the greater the inertia,
or in other words, the greater the resistance to change. Mass is directly proportional to inertia. Inertia is not a force.
SOLVED PROBLEM
You and your younger brother are on a roller coaster. After a long straight stretch, it takes a sharp turn
to the left. What happens to you both? Is someone or something applying a force on you? Would you both
react in the same way?
ANSWER
You would lean to the right due to inertia, trying to maintain your previous state of motion. Nothing or no one
is exerting a force on you, you react in this way because it is a property of mass.
The reaction would be greater in the child with the greatest mass.
1 A 20‐year‐old man and a baby in a car seat are sitting in the back of a car.
The driver of the car sees an obstacle and brakes suddenly.
ANSWER
a) What happens to the passengers in the back?
They will lean forward.
b) Why? What force is acting on them?

Because of inertia. No force is acting on them to push them forward, only inertia, which is not a force.
c) Which of the two will feel this effect more?

The 20‐year‐old man, because he has a greater mass. He will move further forward.
d) Why do we get the impression then that the baby is the most defenceless against sudden braking?
Although the baby’s inertia is less, if it wasn’t wearing a seatbelt and was thrown forward or hit by something, it wouldn’t
be able to adjust itself as well and would definitely suffer more injury. This is because its muscles are less developed.
e)
What would happen if once the obstacle has passed, and after maintaining the new constant speed,
the driver accelerates to his previous speed?
After getting used to the new state of motion, they would try to maintain it due to inertia, meaning that they would now
go backwards. No force would be pushing them backwards because inertia is not a force, and the 20‐year‐old man would
also notice it more.

8
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
Newton’s third law

Remember that…
Newton’s third law states that if a body exerts a force on another body, the second also exerts a force with the same
magnitude and orientation but in the opposite direction to the first. In more philosophical terms: ‘A body doesn’t act
on another; bodies interact with each other’. Let’s analyse the law more closely.
1 A boy at the edge of a swimming pool gets ready to dive in head first. Aware of Newton’s third law,
he pushes himself using his feet to exert a force on the edge so that the edge then ‘pushes back on him’,
propelling him as far as possible.
ANSWER
a) Draw the two forces that Newton’s third law
is concerned with in the picture on the right. FWedge " boy
FWboy " edge
b) You have drawn two forces with the same magnitude and orientation, acting in the opposite directions.
Do they cancel each other out? How would you explain how the boy is propelled forward?
They would cancel each other out if the two forces were applied to the same body, but this is not the case.
One is applied to the edge and the other to the boy. The latter is what causes the boy to be propelled forward.
2 A father with mass M1 is skating with his son with mass m1 < M1. At one point, they are face to face
with the palms of their hands touching and the father pushes his son’s hands, causing them both
to skate away from each other with the same orientation and in the opposite direction.
ANSWER
a) Draw the two forces that Newton’s third law is concerned (see p. 243) with in the picture below.
FWson " father
FWfather " son

b) Which of the two will skate farther?
The son.
ow is this possible if Newton’s third law states that the same amount of force acts on both of them?
H
To answer the question, think about the acceleration that each one will move with.
We call them both F = | F father"son | = | F son"father | and knowing that according to Newton’s second law:
F
F = m? a " a =
m
Therefore:
F F
a son = > a father =
m1 M1
m1 < M1, so because the son has a greater acceleration, he will move a greater distance than his father.

8
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
3 Using Newton’s third law, explain the following situations:
ANSWER
a) A person walks from one spot to another.
The person exerts a force with their feet that has a component with the same orientation as the motion.
They can do so because of the friction with the floor. The floor then exerts a force back on the person
according to Newton’s third law, and causes them to move forward.
What would happen if they were walking with socks on, on a recently polished floor?
There would be very little friction, so they would find it very difficult to apply the force to the floor and move forward.
b) An inflated balloon becomes untied and shoots off as the air inside escapes.
The air that rushes out of the balloon exerts a force on the air outside. The latter exerts a force back on it according
to Newton’s third law, which causes the balloon to shoot off.
c)
A bird flaps its wings to fly.
The force that the flapping wings exert on the air is exerted back by the air, causing it to rise up or remain in the air.
d) A magnet held in place attracts a piece of iron towards it. If we then hold the piece
of iron and let go of the magnet, it is the piece of iron that attracts the magnet.
The magnet exerts a force of attraction on the iron, equal to the force exerted by the iron on the magnet,
but in the opposite direction.
4 A lift with a mass m is held by a steel chain. We will call the force exerted by a chain, rope, etc.,
when it pulls an object tension (T), as described in Newton's third law.
ANSWER
a) Draw the two forces that Newton’s third law is concerned with.
TW
W = m ? gW
W
b) Using Newton’s second law, find the tension in the chain in the following three cases.
Assume that the forces acting in the same direction as the motion are positive, and those acting
in the opposite direction are negative.
1. If the lift goes up at a constant velocity, goes down at a constant velocity or is suspended in air:
W - T1 = m ? a = 0 (not moving or v = constant " a = 0) " T1 = W
2. If it goes up with an acceleration a:
T2 - W = m ? a " T2 = W + m ? a
3. If it goes down with an acceleration a:
W - T3 = m ? a " T3 = W - m ? a
Put the tensions in the chain in order from greatest to least.
T2 > T1 > T3

8
WORKSHEET 3
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
Newton's second law and its application in kinematics

1 A cart with a mass of 1100 kg has come loose from a train and is travelling at 5 m/s towards a cat that is sleeping
peacefully on the track. Superman appears and tries to stop it by pulling the cart backwards with a chain
that has a resistance of 450 N. There is no friction.
ANSWER
a) Draw the force or forces that are acting in the direction of motion, and the acceleration vector.
FW
Zzzzz
v0 = 5 m/s
x (m)
aW
b) Using Newton’s second law, calculate the maximum acceleration that Superman can slow the cart down with.
Hints:
• Assume that the forces that are acting in the same direction as the motion are positive and the forces
acting in the opposite direction to the motion are negative.
• To achieve the maximum braking acceleration, Superman has to pull with the greatest force possible
(without breaking the chain!).
F Total = m ? a " 0 - F = m ? a
Zero since there is no force acting in the direction of motion of the cart.
-F -450 N
a= = = -0.41 m/s 2
m 1100 kg
(Negative, since it is slowing down.)
Now answer the following questions using your knowledge of kinematics:
c)
How long will Superman need to pull the chain for before the cart stops?
vf - v0 vf - v0
a= "t= "
t a
(0 - 5) m/s
"t= = 12.2 s
-0.41 m/s 2
(vf = 0, since it has stopped).
d) What is the minimum distance that the cat needed to be from the cart when Superman started to slow it down,
for the cat not to be hit?
1 1
x = v0 ? t - ? a ? t 2 = 5 m/s ? 12.2 s - ? 0.41 m/s 2 ? 12.2 2 s 2 "
2 2
" x = 30.5 m

8
WORKSHEET 3
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
2 A person drags a cart with a mass of 12 kg along a flat floor, pulling it with a rope that forms an angle
of a = 40° and with a force of 50 N. We know that the cart is dragged at a constant velocity and that
there is friction.
ANSWER
a) Draw the forces present and break down the force F that the person pulls the cord with as a sum
of a force Fx on the X axis and another, Fy on the Y axis:
y FW= FWx + FWy
W
N FWy
FW
40°
x
FWx
FWf W
W
b) Find the magnitudes of Fx and Fy using what you know about the sine and cosine of an angle.
| Fy |
sin a = " | Fy | = | F | ? sin a = 50 N ? sin 40° = 32.1 N
|F |
| Fx |
cos a = " | Fx | = | F | ? cos a = 50 N ? cos 40° = 38.3 N
|F |
c) Apply Newton’s second law to the Y axis and isolate the value of the normal force.
Hint: Don’t forget to take Fy into account.

FNet Y axis = m ? ay " N + Fy - W = 0 " N = W - Fy = mg - Fy = 12 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 - 32.1 N = 85.5 N
ay = 0, since there is no motion on the Y axis.
d) Apply Newton’s second law to the X axis and isolate the value of the frictional force.
FNet X axis = m ? ax " Fx - Ff = 0 " Ff = Fx = 38.3 N
ax = 0, since the velocity is constant. This makes sense since constant velocity implies that the forces are balanced.
e) Using the results from sections c and d, find the coefficient of friction n.
Ff 38.3 N
Ff = n ? N " n = = = 0.45
N 85.5 N
f)
How much horizontal force would the person have to pull with for it to move at a constant velocity?
Compare it with the previous Fx and draw a conclusion.
FNet X axis = m ? ax " Fhoriz. - Ff = 0 " Fhoriz. = Ff = m ? N = m ? m ? g "
" Fhoriz. = 0.45 ? 12 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 = 52.9 N
It is greater than the previous |Fx | = 38.3 N because Ff is now greater than before. This is because although m
hasn’t changed, because the contact surfaces haven’t changed, the normal force is now greater (N = W = mg).
This is because now there is no Fy , so the ground notices more force and its reaction (N ) is greater.

8
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
Movement on an inclined plane

Remember that…
When an object moves along an inclined plane at a certain angle a in relation to the horizontal plane,
the easiest way to solve problems relating to motion is to follow these steps:
1. We draw an X axis in the orientation the object is moving in (orientation parallel to the inclined plane)
and a Y axis in the orientation perpendicular to the X axis.
2. We draw all the forces that appear in the problem about the object (the normal force N , weight W,
frictional force Fx , and others mentioned in the problem: engines, someone pushing or pulling, etc.).
Remember that:
• The normal force N is always perpendicular to the plane that the object is placed on; in this case
the inclined plane. Therefore, it will always have the same orientation as the Y axis.
• The weight force W always acts in the direction of the centre of the Earth; therefore, it will be perpendicular
to the horizontal plane. This means that it won’t be on the X axis or the Y axis. Its magnitude is:
|W | = m ? g
• The frictional force always acts in the same orientation as the motion (X axis) but in the opposite direction.
|Ff | = n ? |N |
3. We break down the forces that are not on the X axis or the Y axis into these axes.
(Weight: W must always be broken down).
In other words:
F = F x + Fy
4. Using trigonometry, we find the value of the components of the force that we have broken down.
This is:
Fx = F ? sin a
Fy = F ? cos a
5. We apply Newton’s second law (FNet = m ? a) to the forces on the Y axis. In many cases,
this is how we will find the value of |N | and, therefore, the value of | Ff | = n | N |.
6. We apply Newton’s second law (FNet = m ? a) to the forces on the X axis. This is how we will find
anything that has the same orientation as the motion (acceleration, a type of force, etc.).
7. If we know the acceleration, we can use it to solve problems relating to kinematics.
Now let’s take a look at these steps in an example.

8
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
SOLVED PROBLEM
A motocross bike and its rider have a mass of 250 kg. He prepares to do a stunt, moving up a ramp inclined
at an angle a = 40° in relation to the horizontal plane. The ramp is 50 m long and the coefficient of friction
is n = 0.5. The engine exerts a constant force of 3500 N during the ascent.
ANSWER
a) Calculate the acceleration that the bike moves up
the ramp with.
y
We follow these steps: FWengine
W
N
1. We draw an axis with the same orientation
as the motion (parallel to the inclined plane)
and a Y axis perpendicular to the X axis, and then
we draw all of the forces that are involved.
W FWf x
W
a = 40°
2. We break down the weight as a sum

of one component on the X axis " Wx
y
and one on the Y axis " Wy . FWengine
W
N
Wy
W Wx
W
W
W
FWf x
a = 40°
3. We identify the angle a in one of the new

right‐angled triangles from the drawing 1
y
above using triangle similarity. FWengine
W
N
B
2
Wy
W Wx
W
W 4
W x
5
3 a
continues "

8
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
• The orientation of W and side A are parallel, and the orientation of Wx and side B are parallel " Angles 1
and 2 are equal.
• Angles 3 and 4 are both 90°.
Therefore, since the sum of the interior angles of any triangle is always the same " Angle 5 must be angle a.
4. So now we look at the right‐angled triangle of angles 2, 4 and 5 (from now on we will call angle 5 a)
and with a little trigonometry we can find the components of weight |Wx | and |Wy |:
|Wx |
• sin a = " |Wx | = | W | ? sin a = m ? g ? sin a = 250 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 ? sin 40° " |Wx | = 1574.8 N
|W |
|Wy |
• cos a = " |Wy| = |W | ? cos a = m ? g ? cos a = 250 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 ? cos 40° " |Wy| =1876.8 N
|W |
5. We apply Newton’s second law at the Y axis and find the value of the normal force:
FNet Y axis = m ? ay " N - Wy = 0 " N = Wy = 1876.8 N
(ay = 0, since there is no motion on the Y axis).
6. Now that we know the normal force, we find the value of the frictional force.
Ff = n ? N = 0.5 ? 1876.8 N = 938.4 N
7. Lastly, we apply Newton’s second law to the X axis and isolate the value of the acceleration
that it moves up the ramp with:
FNet X axis = m ? ax "
F - W x - Ff
" F - W x - Ff = m ? a x " a x = "
m
3500 N - 1574.8 N - 938.4 N
" ax = = 3.59 m/s2
250 kg
If he takes a run‐up and starts to ride up the ramp at an initial speed of 10 m/s:
b) What speed will the bike have 3 s later?
v = v0 + a ? t = 10 m/s + 3.95 m/s2 ? 3 s = 21.85 m/s2
c) What speed will it have when it has travelled half of the distance?
v 2 - v02 = 2 ? a ? s " v = v02 + 2 ? a ? s = 10 2 + 2 ? 3.95 ? 25 " v = 17.25 m/s
d) What force does the engine of the bike have to apply for it to ride up with a = 5 m/s ? 2
We apply Newton’s second law to the X axis again:

FNet X axis = m ? ax " F - Wx - Ff = m ? ax "
" F = Wx + Ff + m ? a = 1574.8 N + 938.4 N + 250 N ? 5 m/s2 = 3763 N

8
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
1 A man is sitting on a piece of cardboard on a mountain slope that is inclined at an angle a = 25° in relation
to the horizontal plane. There is friction.
ANSWER
a) Draw all of the forces present and break down the weight W as a sum of one component on the X axis " Wx
and another on the Y axis " Wy .
W
N
y
FWf
Wx
W
Wy
W
WP
a
a x
b) Does the man slide down the slope or not? Analyse in which case he would slide down, or not, based on the forces
that you have drawn above.
The motion would take place on the X axis, and on this axis there are only two forces in the opposite direction,
which are Wx and Ff . Therefore, he would slide down if Wx is capable of overcoming Ff . In other words:
He would slide down if |Wx | > | Ff | and he wouldn´t slide down if |Wx | # | Ff | .
c)
Using the analysis above, deduce which values of the coefficient of friction n would make the man slide down
the slope and which wouldn’t. (Hint: find out where the angle a appears most using the similarity of triangles.
This way you will find out |Wx | and |Wy |).
|Wx |
• sin a = " |Wx | = | W | ? sin a = m ? g ? sin a
|W |
|Wy |
• cos a = " |Wy| = | W | ? cos a = m ? g ? cos a
|W |
On the other hand:
|Ff | = n ? |N | = n ? |Wy | = n ? m ? g ? cos a
Therefore:
• He would slide down if: |Wx | > | Ff | " m ? g ? sin a > n ? m ? g ? cos a "
sin a
" sin a > n ? cos a " n < = tg a = tg 25° = 0.47 " n < 0.47
cos a
• He wouldn’t slide down if: |Wx | # | Ff | " m ? g ? sin a # n ? m ? g ? cos a "

sin a
" sin a # n ? cos a " n $ = tg a = tg 25° = 0.47 " n $ 0.47
cos a
Conclusion: he would slide down if n < 0.47 and he wouldn’t slide down if n $ 0.47.

8
SOLVED PROBLEMS
FORCES
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
Two forces F1 = 6 N and F2 = 8 N are applied to a body. Calculate the net force, graphically and numerically,
in the following cases:
a) The two forces are acting in the same orientation and direction.
b) The two forces are acting in the same orientation and in the opposite direction.
c) The two forces are acting in perpendicular directions.
Approach and answer

a)
The net force of the two forces acting in the same c)
In this case, we can find the magnitude of the net
orientation and direction is another force whose magnitude
force using the expression: F = F12 + F22 .
is the sum of the two magnitudes, and whose orientation
In our problem, it would be: F = 8 2 + 6 2 = 10 N
and direction is the same as that of the component forces.
and an angle of 37° with force F2 , since
In this case, it would be: F = 8 N + 6 N = 14 N.
a = arc tg f p = 37°. Graphically it would be:
6
b) If the two forces have the same orientation but act 8
in the opposite direction, the magnitude of the net force FW
will be the difference between the two magnitudes;
FW1
the orientation would be the same as that of the two
component forces and the direction would be the same
as the greater one. FW2
In this case, it would be: F = 8 N - 6 N = 2 N,

with the same orientation and direction as F2 .
ACTIVITIES
1 The net force of two forces applied to the same 4 Calculate the value of the net force of four forces
point that form a 90° angle between each other perpendicular to each other.
has a magnitude of 25 N. If one of the forces has • F1 = 9 N north
a magnitude of 7 N, what is the magnitude
• F2 = 8 N east
of the other force?
• F3 = 6 N south
Answer: 24 N • F4 = 2 N west
Answer: 6
.7 N, northeast direction, forming a 63.4° angle.
2 The following forces are applied to a body:
F1 = 3 N in the direction of the positive X axis,
5 A horse pulls a cart with a force of 1500 N.
F2 = 3 N in the direction of the negative Y axis.
The frictional force with the path is 100 N and a man
Calculate the third force needed for the system
is helping the horse by pulling it with a force of 200 N.
to be balanced.
Calculate the net force.
Answer: F
3 = 18 N vector contained in the 2nd
Answer: 1600 N
quadrant, which will form a 45° angle with
the negative X axis.
6 Two people pull a bale of hay with a force of 200 N
in perpendicular directions. The net force exerted
3 Calculate the value of the right‐angled components
by them is:
of a force of 50 N that forms a 60° angle with the
horizontal axis. Work out the force that would have a) 400 N.
to be applied to achieve a balanced system. b) 200 N.
Answer: F
x = 50 ? cos 60° = 25 N and Fy = 50 ? sin 60° = c) 283 N.
= 43.30 N; to achieve a balanced sytem, an
equal force would have to be applied in the d) 483 N.
opposite direction. Answer: c) 283 N

8
SOLVED PROBLEMS
FORCES
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
A force of 50 N is applied to a body with a mass of 5 kg parallel to the horizontal plane it moves along.
If the coefficient of friction between the body and the plane is 0.1, calculate:
a) The acceleration the body will have acquired.
b) The speed after 5 s.
c) The distance travelled in these 5 s.
Approach and answer

a)
We calculate the frictional force as the product of the Once we know the acceleration, and using the UARM
coefficient of friction multiplied by the weight of the equations, we calculate sections b and c.
body, because its orientation is along a horizontal plane. b) v = v0 + a ? t " v = 0 + 9 m/s2 ? 5 s = 45 m/s.
FNet = F - Ff = F - n ? m ? g = 1
c)
s = v0 ? t + ? a ? t2.
= 50 N - 0.1 ? 5 kg ? 9.8 N/kg = 45.1 N 2
We apply the second law and isolate the acceleration: By substituting, we get:
1
FNet 45.1 N s = ? 9 m/s2 ? 52 s2 = 112.5 m
a= = = 9 m/s2 2
m 5 kg
ACTIVITIES
1 Determine the value of all of the forces acting on a 3 A vehicle with a mass of 100 kg goes from
body with a mass of 20 kg that moves at a constant 0 to 90 km/h in 10 s. The force that causes
speed on a flat surface. We know that the coefficient of this acceleration is:
friction between the body and the surface is 0.4. a)
9000 N. c)
2500 N.
If it is then pushed with a force of 100 N, what distance
will it travel in 2 seconds if it starts from rest? b) 4500 N. d) 100 N.
(Take g = 10 m/s2). Answer: c) 2500 N
Answer: W
= 200 N; N = 200 N; Ffriction = 80 N;
s = 2 m (disregarding the initial constant speed) 4 A mobile object with a mass of 3 kg moves in
a straight line. A force of 20 N is applied to the
2 The forces shown in the diagram below are exerted object. The frictional force between the mobile
on the block with a mass of 40 kg. In addition, object and the surface it moves along is 5 N.
the frictional force between the block and the ground The acceleration it acquires is:
is 30 N. Draw the net force and calculate: a) 5.0 m/s2. c) 6.6 m/s2.
a)
The acceleration of the block. b) 8.3 m/s2. d) 1.6 m/s2.
b) Its speed after having travelled 10 m. Answer: a) 5.0 m/s 2
300 N 5 Two weights with masses of 1 and 2 kg hang from

30 N
10 N a rope that passes through a pulley (without mass).
a)
Draw a diagram representing the acting forces.
Answer: a) 7 m/s2; b) 11.8 m/s
b) Calculate the acceleration of the set of weights.
Answer: b) 3.26 m/s2

8
SOLVED PROBLEMS
FORCES
SOLVED PROBLEM 3
A car with a mass of 1200 kg goes round a bend with a radius of 10 m at a speed of 90 km/h.
Calculate the value of the centripetal force.
Approach and answer

All bodies that follow a circular trajectory like the one where m is the mass of the body, v is the velocity and
the car follows round the bend are subjected to a force r the radius of the circumference. Applying this expression
called ‘centripetal’ force. This can be calculated using to our problem and substituting the data in SI units,
the expression: we get:
v2 25 2 m 2 /s 2
F=m? F = 1200 kg ? = 75 000 N
r 10 m
ACTIVITIES
1 A vehicle with a mass of 1000 kg goes round a bend 6 When a car is travelling with worn tyres, what effect
with a radius of 15 m at 72 km/h. The centripetal is produced?
force is: Answer: The friction between the tyres and the ground
a)
1.33 ? 106 N. c)
345 600 N. is reduced.
b) 26 666 N. d) 200 N.
7 What forces are involved when a person is walking?
Answer: b) 26 666 N
Answer: The person’s muscle force and friction between
2 Is the direction in which a body moves always the same their feet and the ground.
as the direction in which a force is applied to the body?
8 Can the net force of the forces acting on a body
Answer: No, centripetal force is one example. be zero while the body is in motion?
3 What centripetal force would need to be applied Answer: Yes, it can be moving at a constant velocity
to a body of 2 kg attached to a rope 2 m long for it according to the second law of dynamics.
to turn on a horizontal plane at a velocity of 18 km/h?
9 A crane holds a 6 tonne body in equilibrium.
Answer: 25 N
Determine:
4 The centripetal force of a car when going round a)
The force the cable needs to exert to hold it still.
a bend with a radius of 20 m at a velocity of 72 km/h b) The force it needs to exert to lift it up with
is 20 000 N. What is the mass of the car? an acceleration of 1.5 m/s2.
Answer: 1000 kg c)
The velocity it acquires if it lifts it up with the
acceleration in the previous section for 30 s.
5 A 1200 kg sailing boat is propelled by wind with
a force of 2500 N; at the same time the water d) The force it would need to make to lift it up at
exerts a frictional force of 1000 N on it. the velocity acquired.
a)
Calculate the value of the boat’s acceleration. ) 6 ? 10 4 N; b) 6.9 ? 10 4 N;
Answer: a
c) 45 m/s; d) 6 ? 10 4 N
b) Calculate its velocity (expressed in km/h) after 10 s,
if it starts from rest.
Answer: a) 1.25 m/s 2; b) 45 km/h

8
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES
Determining the coefficient of friction
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Block of wood or metal. • Protractor.
To determine the coefficient of
• Board. • Scales.
friction between two surfaces
using the inclined plane
method.
PROCEDURE
The coefficient of friction between surfaces can be calculated taking into account
that the frictional force is proportional to the normal force applied on the two
surfaces in contact.
1. Measure the mass of the block using the scales and write it in your notebook.
2. Place the block of wood or metal on a horizontal board.
3.
Gently incline the board until the block starts to move down. At this moment,
check that the frictional force is equal to the component Wx of the weight.
The component Wy of the weight is equal to the normal force: NW
N = Wy = W ? cos a
4.
Measure the angle that the board forms with the horizontal plane and write
it down.
5.
Repeat the experiment several times and calculate the average value
of the angle obtained.
sum of the angles a
Average value =
No. of repetitions
6.
We can use the tangent of the angle at which the block starts to slide down
to determine the coefficient of static friction between the surfaces: Wy
W
Ffriction Wx
Ffriction = n ? N " n = =
N Wy
n = tg a
We can repeat the experiment with different surfaces and check how
the value of n changes.
QUESTIONS
1 Why does the value of the normal force change when the inclination of the board changes?
Is it because the weight of the block of wood or metal changes according to the angle a?
2 Calculate the frictional force once you know the value of n.
3 Does the value obtained for the coefficient of friction depend on the weight of the block?
Give reasons for your answer.

8
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES
Experimental study of the coefficient of friction
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Block of wood with a hook. • Thin, resistant wire.
To determine the coefficient of
• Three or four objects. • Weight holder and weights.
friction between two surfaces
experimentally and check the • Pulley.
proportionality between the
frictional force and the normal
force of weight in a graph.
PROCEDURE
1. Weigh the block and the weight holder. Write down the results.
2. Tie one end of the wire to the hook on the block and tie the other
end to the hook on the weight holder.
3. Attach the pulley to the table and set up the equipment as shown
in the drawing.
4. Start to put weights on the plate until the block starts to slide.
Write down the value of the weights used.
5. Remove the weights from the plate; place an object on top of the block
(ideally the weight of the object and the block together should increase
by at least 25 % in relation to the block). Place the weights on the weight
holder until the block starts to slide again. Write down the weights used.
6. Repeat the previous step three times more, adding an object each time.
7. Complete the following table, expressing all of the data in newtons.
Normal force (weight of the block + objects)
Frictional force (weight of the weight holder + weights)
QUESTIONS
1 Calculate the coefficient of friction (n) for each pair of values, according to:
Frictional force
n= Normal force
(The value must be constant within the margin of experimental error).
2 Draw a graph representing the frictional force (on the vertical or ordinate axis) compared to the normal force
(on the horizontal or abscissa axis). Draw conclusions from the graph.
3 The procedure can be carried out substituting the wire and the weight holder with a dynamometer.
What advantages and disadvantages would this have?
4 If the experiment was carried out on a inclined plane instead of a horizontal plane, would this change
the value of n? Give reasons for your answer.

8
ASSESSMENT
FORCES
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 Draw and calculate the normal force acting on a body of 10 kg when it is:
a) On a flat surface.
b) On a 30° inclined plane.
c) Are there any cases where the value of the normal force is the same as the weight force?
2 A motorbike with a mass of 500 kg moves subjected to a constant force of 2000 N.

a) Calculate the bike's acceleration.
If there is a frictional force of 500 N:
b) What would the net force acting on the motorbike be?
c) What about on the acceleration?
d) Calculate the distance travelled in 5 s if the motorbike starts from a resting position.
3 A brick with a weight of 100 N is placed on a 65° inclined plane where there is no friction.
a) Draw all of the forces acting on the body.
b) Calculate the Cartesian components of the weight force.
c) Calculate the acceleration the brick moves down the plane with.
4 An ice skater skates around a circular ice rink with

a radius of 15 m at a constant velocity of 9 km/h.
a) Is there any acceleration? What is this caused by?
b) Draw the velocity and acceleration vectors.
c) Calculate the acceleration and the force acting
on the skater.

Name: Class: Date:
5 Explain whether the following statements are true or whether they contradict Newton’s laws:
a) If the net force of all of the forces acting on a body is zero, the velocity of the body will also be zero
and the body will be at rest.
b) When we apply a force to a body, there is a reaction force equal in magnitude to the force applied
but acting in the opposite direction. Since both forces cancel each other out, the body doesn’t move.
c) When we place a coin on a piece of paper, if we pull the paper away quickly, the coin doesn’t move due
to the law of inertia.
6 The force applied to a body and the accelerations acquired are shown in the table below:
Force (N) 5 10 15 20
Acceleration (m/s2) 1 2 3 4
What is the mass of the body?
7 Why is it difficult to perform experiments to check that the velocity of a body moving along a flat surface
remains constant in the absence of external forces?

8
ASSESSMENT
FORCES
1 a) On a flat surface, the normal force has the same magnitude and
the same orientation as the weight but acts in the opposite direction. NW
NW
W = N = m ? g = 10 kg ? 9.8 N/kg = 98 N
b) On an inclined plane, the normal force has the same orientation
and the same magnitude as the weight projected onto the Y axis Wy
W
(W ? cos a) but acts in the opposite direction.
W = m ? gW
W
Wy = N = W ? cos a = m ? g ? cos a = 84.9 N
c) It is only the same when the surface is flat.
2 a) Applying Newton’s fundamental law of dynamics:
F 2000 N
F = m ? a " a = = = 4 m/s 2
m 500 kg
b) The net force is the difference between the force exerted by the motorbike’s engine
and the force that opposes its motion, the frictional force.
FNet = Fengine - Ffriction = 2000 N - 500 N = 1500 N
c) In this case, the acceleration is less, due to the frictional force:
FNet 1500 N
FNet = m ? a " a = = = 3 m/s 2
m 500 kg
d) The motion produced is UARM, therefore:
1 1
x = v0 ? t + ? a ? t 2 = ? 3 m/s 2 ? 25 s 2 = 37.5 m
2 2
3 a) Forces acting on the body: see the diagram on the right.
b) • X axis: Wx = W ? sin a = 100 N ? sin 65° = 90.6 N.
• Y axis: Wy = W ? cos a = 100 N ? cos 65° = 42.3 N. NW
We check that W = Wx2+ Wy2 = 100 N .
Wy
W
c) Since the frictional force between the brick and the inclined plane is zero,
the only force acting on the axis of motion is the component Wx = m ? a. Wx
W
W
W
To find out its value, we need to calculate the mass of the brick:
W 100 N
W=m?g"m= = = 10.2 kg
g 9.8 m/s 2 a = 65°
With this data, we can now calculate the acceleration that it moves down with:
Wx 90.6 N
Wx = m ? a " a = "a= = 8.88 m/s 2
m 10.2 kg
4 a) There is acceleration due to the change in orientation
of the velocity, the centripetal or normal acceleration,
directed towards the centre of the curve in the orientation
of the radius.
aWC
b) The velocity vector is tangent to the trajectory in the direction R
of the motion. (See the drawing on the right). vW
v2 (2.5 m/s) 2
c) aN = = = 0.625 m/s 2
R 15 m
FC = m ? aN = 50 kg ? 0.625 m/s2 = 31.25 N
5 a) False. If the net force of all of the forces acting on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero.
This means that the body can be at rest or moving at a constant velocity.
b) False. The force of action and the force of reaction don’t cancel each other out because they act on different bodies.
If the body doesn’t move, it will be because of the frictional force.
c) True. According to the law of inertia, the coin will tend to stay still. If the frictional force between the coin
and the paper is small enough, we can assume that no force is being applied to the coin and, therefore,
the coin will stay still.

8
ASSESSMENT
FORCES
6 We find the mass by dividing the force applied by the acceleration acquired, taking any of the pairs of values
from the table as the data:
F 5N
m= = = 5 kg
a 1 m/s 2
7 Because frictional forces are always present in our surroundings. In the case of a body moving along
a flat surface, we can’t carry out an experiment in which the body moves in the absence of external forces,
because there is always going to be frictional force with the surface. To check this, we would have to carry
out the experiment on a surface without friction.

NOTES

9
GRAVITATIONAL FORCES
INTRODUCTION
1. We start the unit with a brief review of the history 3. This law defines weight as a gravitational force and
of astronomy. We then take a look at some of the social determines its relationship with the mass of an object.
and technological challenges that scientists face in their
work in this field.
2. The law of universal gravitation explains the movement
of celestial bodies in the universe and the behaviour
of bodies close to the Earth’s surface.
OBJECTIVES
• Know how ideas about the universe developed • Understand that bodies in free fall and orbital motion are
throughout history. two manifestations of the law of universal gravitation.
• Identify weight as a gravitational force. • Identify practical uses of artificial satellites and the
• Distinguish between weight and mass. problems caused by the space debris they create.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • The history of astronomy and its evolution from the first theories to current theories about the universe.
• Kepler’s laws.
• The law of universal gravitation.
• Characteristics of gravitational force.
• Mass and weight.
• Motion and the law of gravity.
• The motion of planets and satellites.
• Artificial satellites and their uses.
• Space debris.
KNOW HOW TO • Analyse and compare the geocentric and heliocentric models of the universe.
• Solve problems relating to the motion of celestial bodies.
• Understand the relationship between the distance, velocity and orbital period of a satellite.
• Carry out experiments that demonstrate centripetal force.
BE ABLE TO • Appreciate how science has contributed to improving our quality of life.
• Understand the relationship between society, technology and scientific progress.
• Value and respect the opinions of others.

9
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
We will begin the unit with an overview of the history 3.
The law of universal gravitation was established by Isaac
of astronomy. This will help us understand the challenges Newton and described in his series of books Mathematical
that scientists face, both when making observations, and Principles of Natural Philosophy, published at the end
when presenting their ideas. It will also allow us to analyse of the 17th century.
how the society and technology of different periods 4.
Working with the mathematical expression of this law
influenced scientific progress. helps students to understand the concept of weight
2.
It is a well‐known fact that bodies ‘fall’ towards the Earth as a gravitational force and distinguish it from the concept
if we drop them, and this is because the Earth attracts of mass, which is a common source of confusion. It also
them. It is also well known that the planets move around teaches them how to calculate the value of g on the Moon
the Sun, and the Moon rotates around the Earth. However, and on the planets of the solar system. Students will learn
it is less well known that these phenomena have the same how to calculate their own weight on these celestial
cause: gravitational force. bodies, reinforcing the idea that the same mass (theirs)
has a different weight depending on where it is.
WEBSITES YouTube: How We Figured Out That Earth Goes

Weight or Mass? – Math is Fun. This website uses Around the Sun. This SciShow Video explains the history
graphics to explain the differences between mass and weight of theories about the universe and how our knowledge
in a fun and stimulating way. It also explains the common regarding these concepts has evolved. It also talks about
mistakes people make when referring to these two concepts the scientists who established different theories over
in everyday life. the course of history.
Keywords: mass vs weight, math, fun. YouTube: Kepler’s Laws in a Nutshell. This short video
Weightlessness in Orbit - The Physics Classroom. uses graphics to explain Kepler's laws in a way that is easy
Astronauts who travel into space experience a sensation to understand. It is designed for anyone, but is particularly
of weightlessness. Anybody can experience the same suitable for secondary school students.
sensation if they remain momentarily suspended in the air
on an amusement park ride. Not only are the sensations
the same (for astronauts and passengers on roller coasters,
for example), but the cause of these sensations of
weightlessness is also the same. This Physics Classroom
lesson explains what it is that causes weightlessness.
Keywords: free fall, orbital movement, physics classroom.
Stuff in Space. People are starting to realise that space
is not as empty as it seems. With active satellites, inactive
satellites, spy satellites, fragments from rockets and other
space debris, the Earth is surrounded by a large amount
of objects that orbit around it. James Yoder, an 18-year-old
Robotics student, has gathered information about space
clutter to create this fascinating simulation.
Keywords: stuff, space.

9
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
1 What name is given to the cosmological model 10 Calculate the acceleration of gravity on the Earth’s
devised by Ptolemy? What did he propose? surface (at sea level) and at the top of Mount
Kilimanjaro (5830 m in height).
2 Which of the scientists below proposed the following (Data: RE = 6.37 ? 106 m; ME = 5.98 ? 1024 kg;
law? ‘The planets revolve around the Sun G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2.)
in elliptical orbits. The Sun is one of the focal points
of the ellipse.’ 11 A body with a mass of 450 g weighs
a)
Newton. c)
Einstein. 0.72 N on the Moon. Calculate:
b) Kepler. d) Galileo. a)
The acceleration of gravity on the Moon.
b) The speed at which a body that falls freely from a height
3 The theory of universal gravitation was developed of 20 m hits the surface of the Moon.
by Newton in the:
a)
17th century. c) 20th century. 12 Choose the correct answer:
b) 16th century. d) 19th century. a)
Two bodies with the same mass fall with the same
acceleration wherever they are.
4 Answer the following questions: b) The acceleration of gravity depends on the height
a)
Why do we say that gravitational force and latitude of the point where it is measured.
is an action‐at‐a‐distance force? c)
The acceleration of gravity depends on the mass
b) Explain how the gravitational force between of the body that falls.
two bodies with the same mass would change d) The acceleration of gravity is a scalar quantity.
if the distance between them doubled.
13 A body has a mass of 60 kg on the Earth’s surface.
5 The force of gravitational attraction between Calculate:
two planets is:
a)
The weight of a body on the Earth’s surface
a)
Directly proportional to the distance between them. (g = 9.8 m/s2).
b) Directly proportional to their masses. b) The mass and weight of a body on the surface of
c)
Inversely proportional to the distance between them. a planet where gravity is a quarter of what it is on Earth.
d) Inversely proportional to their masses.
14 Complete the following table, expressing
the differences between mass and weight.
6 Write the law of universal gravitation and its
mathematical equation. Then, explain what each
Mass Weight
term means.
Definition
7 Explain why when we let go of a body it falls
Unit (SI)
to the ground. What type of motion does it acquire?
Is it a specific
8 Calculate the force of attraction between two bodies characteristic
of 20 and 50 kg, if they are at a distance of 200 cm of a body?
from each other.
(G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2.) What instrument
is it measured with?
9 The force of attraction between two masses of 3 kg Is it a scalar or vector
each at a distance of 3 m from each other is: quantity?
a)
6.67 ? 10-11 N.
b) 20.01 ? 10-11 N. 15 On the Earth’s surface, where g = 9.8 m/s2,
c)
2.22 ? 10-11 N. the weight of a 200 g body is:
d) 4.44 ? 10-11 N. a)
196 kg. c) 1960 N.
b) 1.96 N. d) 19.6 kg.

9
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
WM 0.72 N
1 The geocentric model. Ptolemy proposed that the Earth 11 a) WM = m ? g M " g M = = = 1.6 m/s 2
m 0.45 kg
was in the centre of the universe, and that the Sun and
all the other planets revolved in circular orbits around it. 1 2?h
b) h = gM ? t 2 " t =
2 The correct answer is b). 2 gM
2?h
3 The correct answer is a). v = gM? t = gM ? = 2 ? gM ? h =
gM
4 a) It is an action‐at‐a‐distance force because it appears
= 2 ? 1.6 m/s 2 ? 20 m
without any physical contact between the bodies
interacting. v = 8 m/s
b) The force is reduced to a quarter. 12 The correct answer is b).

5 The correct answer is b). 13 a) W = m ? g = 60 kg ? 9.8 m/s 2 = 588 N
6 ‘The force of attraction between two bodies is directly b) m = 60 kg;
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely g 9.8 m/s 2
W = m ? gl = m ? = 60 kg ? = 147 N
proportional to the square of the distance between them.’ 4 4
The mathematical equation of this law is: 14
m1 ? m 2 Mass Weight
F=G?
r2 Definition Force of
Where:
Quantity attraction
• F: force of attraction. of matter exerted by
• G: universal gravitational constant. the Earth
• m 1 and m 2: masses of the bodies. Unit (SI) Kilogram Newton
• r : distance between them. Is it a specific

7 When we let go of a body the weight force exerted characteristic Yes No
by the Earth is acting on this body. This force produces of a body?
an acceleration (F = m ? a). Therefore, it acquires
What instrument is
uniformly accelerated motion. Scales Dynamometer
it measured with?
m1 ? m 2 20 kg ? 50 kg
8 F = G? = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m 2 /kg ? = Is it a scalar or
r2 (2 m) 2 Scalar Vector
= 1.67 ? 10-8 N vector quantity?
9 The correct answer is a). 15 The correct answer is b).

MT 5.98 ? 10 24 kg
10 g sea = G ? = 6 .67 ? 10-11
N ? m 2
/kg 2
? =
2
rsea (6.37 ? 10 6 m ) 2
= 9.83 m/s 2
MT
g Kil. = G ? =
rKil2 .
5.98 ? 10 24 kg
= 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m 2 /kg 2 ? =
(6.37 ? 10 6 + 5830 m) 2
= 9.81m/s 2

9
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 What are the most important contributions to science 7 Explain why bodies fall with less acceleration on
made by Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton? the Moon than on Earth. Explain what the acceleration
that bodies fall with on Jupiter would be like.
2 Kepler’s laws describe:
a)
The movement of bodies when they fall.
8 Calculate the weight of a boy with a mass of 60 kg
who is at a height where gravity is 9.7 N/kg.
b) The motion of planets. What would the value of gravity be in a place where
c) The phases of the Moon. the boy weighs 640 N?
d) The heliocentric model.
9 An astronaut weighs 112 N on the Moon. If we know
that on the Moon, bodies fall with an acceleration
3 Which is greater, the force with which the Earth
of 1.6 m/s2, calculate the weight of the astronaut
attracts the Moon or the force with which the Moon
on the Earth, where bodies fall with an acceleration
attracts the Earth? Choose the correct answer:
of 9.8 m/s2. Would they have the same mass
a)
The force with which the Earth attracts the Moon on the Moon as they do on Earth?
since the Earth has a greater mass.
b) The force with which the Moon attracts the Earth 10 If we know that the gravity on the Moon is six times
since the Moon has a smaller radius. lower than on Earth, the weight of a body on the
Moon will be:
c)
They are both the same.
a)
Three times less.
d) It depends on which phase the Moon is in since
its mass changes. b) Three times more.
c)
Six times less.
4 Which of the following quantities does not affect
d) Six times more.
the gravitational pull between a planet and one
of its satellites?
11 We throw a stone vertically upwards from a clifftop
a)
The mass of the planet. that is 40 m above sea level at a speed of 20 m/s.
b) The mass of the satellite. Calculate:
c)
The mass of the Sun. a)
The maximum height it will reach (above sea level).
d) The distance between the planet and the satellite. b) The time it will take to reach the water.
c)
The speed it hits the water at.
5 Calculate how far apart two bodies with a mass
(Take g = 10 m/s2.)
of 350 g each would have to be placed, so that
the gravitational force is: F = 1.4 ? 10-8 N.
12 A body is thrown vertically downwards from a height
(G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2.)
of 100 m at an initial speed of 10 m/s. Calculate:
6 Two bodies with the same mass attract each other a)
The time it takes to fall.
with a force of 2.1 ? 10-6 N when they are 50 cm apart. b) Its speed when it reaches the ground.
Calculate:
(Take g = 10 m/s2.)
a)
The mass of the bodies.
b) The force they attract each other with if they
are 2 m apart.
(G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2.)

9
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
1 Galileo: heliocentric theory. 1

11 a) g ? t2
h = h0 + v0 ? t -
2
Newton: law of universal gravitation.
v0 - v 20 m/s
2 The correct answer is b). v = v0 - g ? t " t = = =2s
g 10 m/s 2
3 The correct answer is c). Therefore:
4 The correct answer is c). 1
hmax. = h 0 + v 0 ? t - g ?t 2=
2
5 2.4 cm.
1
m2 F ? r2 = 40 m + 20 m/s ? 2 s -? 10 m/s 2 ? 2 2 s 2 =
6 F = G? 2 " m =
a) = 2
r G = 40 m + 40 m - 20 m = 60 m
-8 2
2.1 ? 10 ? 0.5
= = 8.87 kg b) t = tup + tdown
6.67 ? 10-11
m2 8.87 2 We calculate tdown:
b) F = G ? 2
= 6.67 ? 10-11 ? = 1.3 ? 10-9 N 1
r2 22 hmax. = 2
g ? tdown "
2
M
7 g=G? ; ME >> MM. 2 hmax. 2 ? 60
R2 " t down = = = 12 =
Therefore: g 10
gE >> gM = 3.46 s
Therefore:
The mass of Jupiter is much greater than the Earth’s.
So g on Jupiter will be much greater than on Earth. t = 2 s + 3.46 s = 5.46 s
8 W = m ? g = 60 kg ? 9.7 N/kg = 582 N; c) v = v0 - g ? tdown =
Wl 640 N ! = 20 m/s - 10 m/s2 ? 5.46 s = -34.6 m/s
g= = = 10.6 m/s2.
m 60 kg 1
12 h = h0 + v0 ? t -
a) g ? t2
2
WM 112 N
9 W=m?g= ?g= ? 9.8 m/s 2 = 686 N. Substituting the values:
gM 1.6 m/s 2
The mass will be the same on the Moon and on the Earth 0 = 100 - 10 ? t - 5 ? t2 " t = 3.58 s
(m = 70 kg). b) v = v0 + g ? t = -10 m/s - 10 m/s2 ? 3.58 s =
10 The correct answer is c). = -45.8 m/s

9
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
Centripetal force
Remember that…
In any type of motion, when the velocity changes, a new physical quantity called acceleration appears.
This tells us how fast this velocity changes. However, as we already know, velocity is a vector quantity
and a change in any of its characteristics (magnitude, orientation and direction) will produce a change
in velocity and, therefore, acceleration.
In the case of a body with mass m moving in a circular motion (the trajectory is a circumference with radius r),
since the velocity is always at a tangent to the trajectory, the orientation of the velocity changes continuously.
This means that there will always be some acceleration, which causes this change in the orientation of the velocity.
This type of acceleration, which is also a vector quantity, is called normal or centripetal acceleration: aC.
The characteristics of a C are:
*
• Orientation: the line that joins the body with the centre of the circumference.
• Direction: towards the centre of the circumference.
aC "
v2
• Magnitude | a C | = .
r
v = speed of the body; r = radius of the circumference.

According to Newton’s second law, this acceleration will be caused by a force, called the
normal or centripetal force F C, with FC = m ? aC.
So:
*
aC "
v2 .
• Magnitude | F C | = m ? | a C | = m ?
r
vW
aWC
FWC r
r
aWC FWC
vW r
FWC vW
aWC
If this F C disappeared for any reason, the orientation of the velocity vector would no longer change and there
would be no circular motion. Therefore, the body would continue to move in the orientation that the velocity
had at that moment (at a tangent to the trajectory). This is known as ‘going off on a tangent.’

9
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
1 raw the velocity, centripetal acceleration and centripetal force vectors of a car going around a circular
D
track when it is in the positions shown in the diagram below. Then, indicate the trajectory the car would
follow if its tyres lost traction with the ground in these positions.
Let’s look at some examples:
Car going around a curve

The centripetal force in this case is caused by the friction between the tyres and the ground. Therefore:
• In this case: | F C | = | F F | = n ? | N | = n ? | P | = n ? m ? g
• Also, the following expression is always satisfied:
v2
|FC |= m ?
r
Associating the expressions:
v2
n? m? g = m = " v = n? g ?r
r
This is the maximum speed at which the car can go around the curve with radius r without exceeding
the n = coefficient of friction between the tyres and the ground. We can see that:
• The greater the value of n, the faster it can go around the curve. (This is why manufacturers
of car tyres are continuously trying to improve them.)
• The greater the value of g, the faster it can go around the curve.
• The greater the radius r, the faster it can go around the curve.
2 Answer the questions:

a) If the same curve were on the Moon, would the car go around it more slowly or more quickly?
b) Which curve can the car go around at a greater speed, a sharp curve or a gentler one?
c)
What is the maximum speed at which a lorry could go around a curve with a radius of 10 m,
if the maximum coefficient of friction between the tyres and the concrete is n = 0.8?

9
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
3 What is the radius of a curve I go around at 95 km/h, which is the maximum speed possible using
tyres with n = 0.9?
A satellite orbiting around the Earth

The centripetal force in this case is caused by the force of attraction between the two masses, which Newton
explains in his law of universal gravitation:
m In this case:
M?m
W
Fg = W
FC |FC |= | Fg |= G ?
r2
v
W
• G = universal gravitational constant = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2.
M
• M = mass of the Earth = 6 ? 1024 kg.
• m = mass of the satellite.
Earth • r = radius of the orbit, distance between the centre of the Earth
and the centre of the Moon = 3.84 ? 108 m.
Also, the following expression is always satisfied:
v2
|FC |= m ?
r
We balance the expressions:
M?m v2 G?M
G? = m$ "v=
r 2
r r
This is the speed of the satellite in orbit.
We can observe that if we want to put a satellite into an orbit with radius r, we must do so at the speed
that is given by this expression. If we don’t, it will not move in a circular motion.
4 What speed does the Meteosat satellite move at if its orbit has a radius of r = 2 ? 107 m?

9
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
Gravitational field. Dependence on height

Remember that…
In later years, you will learn that the area under the graph of a function is important in Physics.
We use a tool called the definite integral to calculate this area. But we don’t need to use it if the area
below is already known.
SOLVED PROBLEM
At what height above Earth was an astronaut if, when he returned, his weight tripled (with no change in mass)?
Data: RE = 6.37 ? 106 m.
ANSWER
According to the question, weight is the gravitational force,
1
so the following is satisfied in the drawing:
FWg1 1
| Fg |1 = | Fg |2 " 3 ? | Fg |1 = | Fg |2.
h1
3
1
Think about where the 3 or the goes; it’s easy to get confused!
3
2 Since | Fg | = m ? g , and the mass m doesn’t change, the weight
FWg2 triples because g triples. In other words:
RE
3 ? | Fg |1 = | Fg |2 " 3 ? m ? | g |1 = m ? | g |2 " 3 ? | g |1 = | g |2
Substituting the expression | g |:
M M 3 1 (RE ) 2 1
3? G ? = G? " = " =
(RE +h 1) 2 (RE ) 2 (RE + h 1) 2 (RE) 2 (RE + h 1) 2 3
G and M are eliminated. By reordering the expression, we find the root of both members, cross-multiply and group together.
(RE ) 2 1 RE 1
= " = " 3 RE = RE + h 1 " 3 RE - RE = h 1
(RE + h 1) 2 3 RE + h 1 3
We take out the common factor and substitute RE.
( 3 - 1) ? RE = h 1 " h 1 = ( 3 - 1) ? 6.37 ? 106 m = 4.66 ? 106 m high
1 se the same steps to solve the following problem: at what height above Earth would a person's weight
U
be reduced by half? Data: RE = 6.37 ? 106 m.
FWg1

9
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
Name: Class: Date:
Comparing quantities
SOLVED PROBLEM
Calculate the value of gravity on the surface of Mercury (gM). We know that gravity on the Earth’s surface
is gE = 9.8 m/s2, that the Earth’s mass is 45 times greater than Mercury’s and that its radius is three times greater.
ANSWER
Follow these steps:
1. Write the information we know mathematically:
gE = 9.8 m/s2
ME = 45 MM; RE = 3 RM;
2. Write the expressions for the quantities we are going to compare, in this case gE and gM:
ME MM
gE = G ? ; gM = G ? 2
R E2 RM
3. Divide both expressions, which is the best way to compare them, to find out how many times one is greater
than the other.
ME 45 ? M M 45 ? MM
G? G? G? 2 2
gE 2
RE (3 ? RM) 2
3 ? RM 45
= = = = =5"
gM MM MM MM 9
G? 2 G? 2 G? 2
RM RM RM
gE 9.8 m/s 2
" gM = = = 1.96 m/s 2
5 5
(Do the operation, simplify and substitute gE. Substitute ME = 45 ? MM and RE = 3 ? RM.)
1 ollowing the steps above, solve the following problem: calculate the value of gravity on the surface
F
of the Moon (gM), if we know that gravity on the Earth’s surface is gE = 9.8 m/s2, the radius of the Moon
is 0.27 times that of the Earth’s and the mass of the Moon is 1.24 % that of the Earth’s.
1. Write the information we know mathematically.
2. Write the expressions for the quantities we are going to compare, in this case gE and gM.
3. Divide both expressions, substitute the data, do the operation and simplify.

9
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
Name: Class: Date:
What trajectory will it have?

SOLVED PROBLEM
Using what you have learnt in Physics about kinematics and dynamics, explain and draw the trajectory
of the following bodies and the type of motion they have in the following situations.
a) A car that is going around a curve and skids due to sand on the road surface.
vW
R
b) A body that falls through an imaginary hole made somewhere in Spain, goes down to the centre of the Earth
and continues until it comes out in New Zealand (our antipodes).
FWg
FWg
FWg
FWg
c)
A mass that moves through space at a constant velocity and suddenly enters a gravitational field
perpendicular to it.
m vW gW
gW gW
gW gW
FWg
gW gW
gW gW
gW
d) A body subjected to the following three constant forces.
FW2
FW1
FW2 + FW3
FW3
FW1 + FW2 + FW3

9
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
Name: Class: Date:
Remember that…
If a body moves in a circular motion, the orientation of its velocity, which is always at a tangent to the trajectory,
changes continuously. This change is due to a type of acceleration called centripetal acceleration which,
according to Newton’s second law, is caused by a force called centripetal force.
When a circular motion involves one mass orbiting around another, for example, a satellite orbiting Earth,
this centripetal force is the gravitational force. Therefore, we can calculate the magnitude of the velocity
of the satellite in its orbit:
M?m v2
In this case: | FC | = | Fg | = G ? . Also, the following expression is always satisfied: | FC | = m ? .
r2 r
M?m v2 "v= G?M "v
We balance the expressions: G ? = m ? Satellite in orbit .
r2 r r
1 If we use a rocket to launch a satellite to a height h above the Earth’s surface and we launch
it at a speed vLaunch parallel to the ground, indicate and draw what the trajectory of the satellite
would be in the following cases:
G?M
1. If vLaunch <
r
G?M
2. If vLaunch =
r
G?M
3. What trajectory do you think it will have if vLaunch > ?
r

9
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
Centripetal force
Remember that…
In any type of motion, when the velocity changes, a new physical quantity called acceleration appears.
This tells us how fast this velocity changes. However, as we already know, velocity is a vector quantity
and a change in any of its characteristics (magnitude, orientation and direction) will produce a change
in velocity and, therefore, acceleration.
In the case of a body with mass m moving in a circular motion (the trajectory is a circumference with radius r),
since the velocity is always tangent to the trajectory, the orientation of the velocity changes continuously.
This means that there will always be some acceleration, which causes this change in the orientation of the velocity.
This type of acceleration, which is also a vector quantity, is called normal or centripetal acceleration: aC.
The characteristics of a C are:
*
aC "
v2
• Magnitude | a C | = .
r

According to Newton’s second law, this acceleration will be caused by a force, called the
normal or centripetal force F C, with FC = m ? aC.
So:
*
aC "
v2 .
• Magnitude | F C | = m ? | a C | = m ?
r
vW
aWC
FWC r
r
aWC FWC
vW r
FWC vW
aWC
If this F C disappeared for any reason, the orientation of the velocity vector would no longer change and there
would be no circular motion. Therefore, the body would continue to move in the orientation that the velocity
had at that moment (at a tangent to the trajectory). This is known as ‘going off on a tangent.’

9
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
1 raw the velocity, centripetal acceleration and centripetal force vectors of a car going around a circular
D
track when it is in the positions shown in the diagram below. Then, indicate the trajectory the car would
follow if its tyres lost traction with the ground in these positions.
ANSWER
vW Trajectory: straight line
aWC
vW
aWC
W
FWC
aWC
vW
v2
As we have seen, this centripetal force that causes the circular motion always has the value | F C | = m ? ,
r
but what produces this centripetal force changes according to what type of circular motion it is.
Let’s look at some examples:
Car going around a curve

The centripetal force in this case is caused by the friction between the tyres and the ground. Therefore:
• In this case: | F C | = | F F | = n ? | N | = n ? | P | = n ? m ? g
• Also, the following expression is always satisfied:
v2
|FC |= m ?
r
Associating the expressions:
v2
n? m? g = m = " v = n? g ?r
r
This is the maximum speed at which the car can go around the curve with radius r without exceeding
the n = coefficient of friction between the tyres and the ground. We can see that:
• The greater the value of n, the faster it can go around the curve. (This is why manufacturers
of car tyres are continuously trying to improve them.)
• The greater the value of g, the faster it can go around the curve.
• The greater the radius r, the faster it can go around the curve.
2 Answer the questions:
ANSWER
a) If the same curve were on the Moon, would the car go around it more slowly or more quickly?
More slowly since there is less gravity, and therefore less friction.
b) Which curve can the car go around at a greater speed, a sharp curve or a gentler one?
A gentler one since the radius r is greater. Maintaining the proportion between v 2 and r, the centripetal force is the same.
c)
What is the maximum speed at which a lorry could go around a curve with a radius of 10 m,
if the maximum coefficient of friction between the tyres and the concrete is n = 0.8?
v= n ? g ? r = 0.8 ? 9.8 m/s 2 ? 10 m = 8.85 m/s = 31.9 km/h

9
WORKSHEET 1
Name: Class: Date:
3 What is the radius of a curve I go around at 95 km/h, which is the maximum speed possible using
tyres with n = 0.9?
ANSWER
v2 26.4 2 m 2 /s 2
v = 95 km/h = 26.4 m/s " v = n? g ?r " r = = = 79 m
n? g 0.9 ? 9.8 m/s 2
A satellite orbiting around the Earth

The centripetal force in this case is caused by the force of attraction between the two masses, which Newton
explains in his law of universal gravitation:
m In this case:
M?m
W
Fg = W
FC |FC |= | Fg |= G ?
r2
v
W
• G = universal gravitational constant = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2.
M
• M = mass of the Earth = 6 ? 1024 kg.
• m = mass of the satellite.
Earth • r = radius of the orbit, distance between the centre of the Earth
and the centre of the Moon = 3.84 ? 108 m.
Also, the following expression is always satisfied:
v2
|FC |= m ?
r
We balance the expressions:
M?m v2 G?M
G? = m$ "v=
r 2
r r
This is the speed of the satellite in orbit.
We can observe that if we want to put a satellite into an orbit with radius r, we must do so at the speed
that is given by this expression. If we don’t, it will not move in a circular motion.
4 What speed does the Meteosat satellite move at if its orbit has a radius of r = 2 ? 107 m?
ANSWER
The speed is:
G?M 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m 2 /kg 2 ? 6 ? 10 24 kg

v= = = 4473 m/s
r 2 ? 10 7 m
Satellites with a higher orbit move more slowly than those that orbit closer to the Earth’s surface.

9
WORKSHEET 2
Name: Class: Date:
Gravitational field. Dependence on height

Remember that...
In later years, you will learn that the area under the graph of a function is important in Physics.
We use a tool called the definite integral to calculate this area. But we don’t need to use it if the area
below is already known.
SOLVED PROBLEM
At what height above Earth was an astronaut if, when he returned, his weight tripled (with no change in mass)?
Data: RE = 6.37 ? 106 m.
ANSWER
According to the question, weight is the gravitational force,
1
so the following is satisfied in the drawing:
FWg1 1
| Fg |1 = | Fg |2 " 3 ? | Fg |1 = | Fg |2
h1
3
1
Think about where the 3 or the goes; it’s easy to get confused!
3
2 Since | Fg | = m ? g , and the mass m doesn’t change, the weight
FWg2 triples because g triples. In other words:
RE
3 ? | Fg |1 = | Fg |2 " 3 ? m ? | g |1 = m ? | g |2 " 3 ? | g |1 = | g |2
Substituting the expression | g |:
M M 3 1 (RE ) 2 1
3? G ? = G? " = " =
(RE +h 1) 2 (RE ) 2 (RE + h 1) 2 (RE) 2 (RE + h 1) 2 3
G and M are eliminated. By reordering the expression, we find the root of both members, cross-multiply and group together.
(RE ) 2 1 RE 1
= " = " 3 RE = RE + h 1 " 3 RE - RE = h 1
(RE + h 1) 2 3 RE + h 1 3
We take out the common factor and substitute RE.
( 3 - 1) ? RE = h 1 " h 1 = ( 3 - 1) ? 6.37 ? 106 m = 4.66 ? 106 m high
1 se the same steps to solve the following problem: At what height above Earth would a person's weight be reduced
U
by half? Data: RE = 6.37 ? 106 m.
2
ANSWER
FWg2 1 1 1
? | Fg |1 = | Fg |2 " ? m ? | g |1 = m ? | g |2 " ? | g |1 = | g |2
2 2 2
h2
Substituting the expression for | g |:
1 M M
?G? = G? "
1 2 ( RE + 0) 2 ( RE + h 2) 2
FWg1 1 1 ( RE + h 2) 2
RE " = " =2"
2 ? ( RE ) 2 ( RE + h 2) 2 ( RE ) 2
( RE + h 2) 2 RE + h 2
" = 2 " = 2 " 2 RE - RE = h2 "
( RE ) 2 RE
" ( 2 - 1) ? RE = h2 " h 2 = ( 2 - 1) ? 6.37 ? 10 6 m = 2.64 ? 10 6 m high

9
WORKSHEET 3
Name: Class: Date:
Comparing quantities
SOLVED PROBLEM
Calculate the value of gravity on the surface of Mercury (gM). We know that gravity on the Earth’s surface
is gE = 9.8 m/s2, that the Earth’s mass is 45 times greater than Mercury’s and that its radius is three times greater.
ANSWER
We follow these steps:
1. Write the information we know mathematically:
gE = 9.8 m/s2
ME = 45 MM; RE = 3 RM;
2. Write the expressions for the quantities we are going to compare, in this case gE and gM:
ME MM
gE = G ? ; gM = G ? 2
R E2 RM
3. Divide both expressions, which is the best way to compare them, to find out how many times one is greater
than the other.
ME 45 ? M M 45 ? MM
G? G? G? 2 2
gE 2
RE (3 ? RM) 2
3 ? RM 45
= = = = =5"
gM MM MM MM 9
G? 2 G? 2 G? 2
RM RM RM
gE 9.8 m/s 2
" gM = = = 1.96 m/s 2
5 5
(Do the operation, simplify and substitute gE. Substitute ME = 45 ? MM and RE = 3 ? RM.)
1 ollowing the steps above, solve the following problem: calculate the value of gravity on the surface
F
of the Moon (gM), if we know that gravity on the Earth’s surface is gE = 9.8 m/s2, the radius of the Moon
is 0.27 times that of the Earth’s and the mass of the Moon is 1.24 % that of the Earth’s.
ANSWER
1. Write the information we know mathematically.
1.24
RM = 0.27 ? RE ; MM = ? ME = 0.0124 ? ME ; gE = 9.8 m/s 2
100
2. Write the expressions for the quantities we are going to compare, in this case gE and gM.
ME MM
gE = G ? 2
; gM = G ? 2
RE RM
3. Divide both expressions, substitute the data, do the operation and simplify.
ME ME ME
G? G? 2 G? 2
gE RE2 RE RE 1 0.27 2
= = = = = = 5.9 "
gM MM 0.0124 ? ME 0.0124 ? M E 0.0124 0.0124
G? 2 G? G ?
RM (0.27 ? RE ) 2 0.27 2 ? R 2E 0.27 2
gE 9.8 m/s 2
" gM = = = 1.66 m/s 2
5.9 5.9

9
WORKSHEET 4
Name: Class: Date:
What trajectory will it have?

SOLVED PROBLEM
Using what you have learnt in Physics about kinematics and dynamics, explain and draw the trajectory
of the following bodies and the type of motion they have in the following situations.
ANSWER
a) A car that is going around a curve and skids due to sand on the road surface.
When the car skids, there is no longer any centripetal force caused
by the friction between the tyres and the road surface. Therefore,
the orientation of the velocity stops changing. This is why the car would
follow a rectilinear trajectory in a direction that is at a tangent to the
vW trajectory that the velocity had at the moment the car started to skid.
R In other words, the car will ‘go off on a tangent’.
b) A body that falls through an imaginary hole made somewhere in Spain, goes down to the centre of the Earth
and continues until it comes out in New Zealand (our antipodes).
First, the force of gravity will cause the body to accelerate (any variation
FWg that takes place when it enters the Earth will not affect this). Gravity will later
cause it to slow down after passing the centre, so the body will reach New
FWg Zealand and will fall again (‘go up!’). The trajectory will be rectilinear and
FWg the type of motion there and back will be similar to that of a yo‐yo or a body
attached to a spring that you stretch and let go. In later years, you will learn
FWg about this type of motion, which is called simple harmonic motion.
c)
A mass that moves through space at a constant velocity and suddenly enters a gravitational field
perpendicular to it.
It will have a URM in the orientation that the velocity had, and a UARM
m vW gW in the orientation perpendicular to the velocity. This is because, since
there is a force (gravitation in this case), there will be acceleration.
gW gW
gW gW This is called composition of movements and it results in a parabolic
FWg
gW gW trajectory similar to the one that water flowing from a fireman’s hose
gW gW would follow.
gW
d) A body subjected to the following three constant forces.
FW2 It would move in a UARM in a rectilinear trajectory in the orientation

of the resultant force and with an acceleration that we can calculate using
FW1
Newton’s second law:
FW2 + FW3 DF
a=
m
FW3
FW1 + FW2 + FW3

9
WORKSHEET 4
Name: Class: Date:
Remember that…
If a body moves in a circular motion, the orientation of its velocity, which is always at a tangent to the trajectory,
changes continuously. This change is due to a type of acceleration called centripetal acceleration which,
according to Newton’s second law, is caused by a force called centripetal force.
When a circular motion involves one mass orbiting around another, for example, a satellite orbiting Earth,
this centripetal force is the gravitational force. Therefore, we can calculate the magnitude of the velocity
of the satellite in its orbit:
M?m v2
In this case: | FC | = | Fg | = G ? . Also, the following expression is always satisfied: | FC | = m ? .
r2 r
M?m v2 "v= G?M "v
We balance the expressions: G ? = m ? Satellite in orbit .
r2 r r
1 If we use a rocket to launch a satellite to a height h above the Earth’s surface and we launch
it at a speed vLaunch parallel to the ground, indicate and draw what the trajectory of the satellite
would be in the following cases:
ANSWER
1. vW G?M
Parabolic If vLaunch <
r
trajectory
There will not be enough speed to complete the orbit.
Dibujo 5 It will move in a URM parallel to the ground and a UARM
in a perpendicular direction, due to the | Fg |.
Therefore, there will be a composition of movements
which causes a parabolic trajectory.
2.
G?M
If vW vLaunch =
vW r
We would be launching it at exactly the speed it needs to
Circumference keep moving in a circular orbit. Therefore, its trajectory will
be a circumference.
Wv
vW
3.
vW G?M
What trajectory do you think it will have if vLaunch > ?
r
vW The trajectory will be an ellipse. The greater the vLaunch, the more
oblate the ellipse will be.
Ellipse
vW
vW
Hyperbola
G?M
If vLaunch was much greater than , the satellite would
r
not return to the original point and it would have what is called
a hyperbolic trajectory.

9
SOLVED PROBLEMS
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
Calculate the force exerted by the Earth on a 230 g apple. What is the force exerted by the apple on the Earth?
Why does the apple fall and the Earth not move?
Data: G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2; ME = 5.9 ? 1024 kg; RE = 6.4 ? 106 m.
Approach and answer

To solve problems like this, we apply the law According to the third law of dynamics, the amount
of universal gravitation. of force exerted by the apple on the Earth would
M?m be the same, but it would act in the opposite direction
F = G?
r2 to the force we calculated.
Substituting the corresponding values, we get: The fact that we see the apple fall but don’t notice the
2 24 Earth moving is due to the big difference in their masses.
N ? m 5.9 ? 10 kg ? 0.23 kg
F = 6.67 ? 10-11 ? If we were to calculate the acceleration with which the
kg 2 (6.4 ? 106) 2 m 2
Earth moved (a = F/m), we would get a similar result.
Therefore: F = 2.2 N.
ACTIVITIES
1 A satellite with a mass of 600 kg rotates around 5 Based on the mathematical equation of the law of
the Earth in a circular orbit at a height of 8 · 104 m. universal gravitation, explain the physical meaning of the
Calculate the gravitational force that keeps it in orbit. constant G, using its units in the International System.
Data: G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2; Answer: G
represents the force with which two masses
ME = 6 ? 1024 kg; RE = 6.4 ? 106 m. of 1 kg, separated by a distance of 1 m, attract
Answer: 5718.4 N each other.
6 Based on the following data:

2 We have two bodies with the same mass, separated
by a distance of one metre. If we double the distance m1 F21 F12 m2
between them, the force of attraction will be:
a)
Double. c) Half. r = 15 m
b) A quarter. d) Triple.
Answer: b) Complete the following table:
Mass a1 a2
3 Calculate the gravitational force between a car F12 (N) F21 (N)
(g) (m/s) (m/s)
with a mass of 1500 kg and a lorry with a mass
of 15 000 kg, which are 100 m apart. Body 1 200
Answer: 1.5 ? 10 -7
N Body 2 1500
4 a)
What do we mean when we say that the force Answer:
Mass (g) F12 (N) F21 (N)
of gravitational attraction is universal?
b) Which quantities does the force of gravitational Body 1 200 8.9 ? 10-14 —
attraction depend on?
Body 2 1500 — 8.9 ? 10-14
c)
Why don’t cars on the motorway feel
the gravitational attraction of other cars
a1 (m/s) a2 (m/s)
that are near to them?
Body 1 44.5 ? 10-14 —
Body 2 — 5.9 ? 10-14

9
SOLVED PROBLEMS
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
The weight of a body on the Earth’s surface is 833 N. Answer the questions:
a) What will its mass be?
b) Will this be the same when the body is on Jupiter?
c) If the weight of the body on Jupiter is 2125 N, what will the value of g be on Jupiter?
Approach and answer

a)
Using the expression: c)
We isolate g:
W=m?g W
g=
m
we deduce the mass of the body on the Earth’s
surface: ubstituting the values of mass and weight
S
W 833 N of the body on Jupiter, we get:
m= = = 85 kg 2125 N
g 9.8 N/kg g=
85 kg
b) The mass of the body doesn’t change, so it will
be the same on Jupiter, unlike weight, which changes Therefore:
according to the force of gravity at our location. g = 25 N/kg = 25 m/s2
ACTIVITIES
1 Which of the following measuring devices does not 3 Calculate the weight of a person with a mass
give the same reading on the Earth and on the Moon? of 90 kg:
a)
Scales. a)
When they are at sea level.
b) Measuring tape. b) When they are flying in a plane at a height
c)
Stopwatch. of 5800 m.
d) Dynamometer. Data: g0 = 9.8 m/s2; RE = 6.4 ? 106 m.
Answer: d) Answer: a) 882 N; b) 880 N
2 Explain whether the following statements are true (T)

4 Assuming that the mass of a body is 45 kg,
or false (F): do the necessary calculations to complete
the following table:
a)
A body weighs more at the poles than it does
at the equator. Radius g Weight of
Mass (g)
(km) (m/s2) the body (N)
b) A body weighs more at the equator than it does
at a latitude of 45°. Earth 5.98 ?1024 6370
c)
The weight of a body doesn’t change from one
Mercury 3.86 ?1023 2439
place to another.
Sun 1.99 ?1030
696 000 12 330
d) A body weighs less at the poles than it does
at the equator.
Data: G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2.
e)
The weight of a body changes from one pole
Answer:
to another. Radius g Weight of
Mass (g)
(km) (m/s2) the body (N)
Answer: a) T; b) F; c) F; d) F; e) F
Earth 5.98 ?1024 6370 9.8 442
Mercury 3.86 ?1023 2439 4.33 195
Sun 1.99 ?1030 696 000 274 12 330

9
SOLVED PROBLEMS
SOLVED PROBLEM 3
Find the acceleration of gravity on the Moon based on the following data:
• MM = 7.35 ? 1022 kg
• RM = 1750 km
• G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2
How much would a person with a mass of 56 kg weigh on the Moon?
Approach and answer

Using the expression for g: Substituting the data from the problem, we have:
M N ? m2 7.35 ? 10 22 kg
g = G? 2 g = 6.67 ? 10-11 ? "
R kg 2 (1.75 ? 106) 2 m 2
we calculate the first part of the problem. " g = 1.6 m/s2
The expression for g can be used to calculate its value We find the weight on the Moon using the expression:
anywhere on Earth and on any other celestial body. WM = m ? gM = 56 kg ? 1.6 m/s2 = 89.6 N
ACTIVITIES
1 A 45 kg body is on the Earth’s surface and weighs Answer:

441.45 N. If the Earth’s radius is 6.37 ? 106 m, g (N/kg) RE (m)
calculate: Poles 9.832 6.358 ? 106
a)
The acceleration of gravity on the Earth’s surface.
Equator 9.78 6.375 ? 106
b) The mass of the Earth.
Data: G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2. 4 Gravitational intensity on the Moon is:
2 24
Answer: a) 9.81 m/s ; b) 5.96 ? 10 kg a)
9.8 N/kg
b) 7.6 N/kg
2 Which of the following is the unit for gravitational
intensity in the International System: c) 1.6 N/kg
a) N/g. d) 10 N/kg
b) N/kg. Answer: c)
c) N/s.
5 Until the 17th century, the only way we could observe
d) N. the universe was with the naked eye. Who was the first
Answer: b) scientist to change these methods and how did this
contribute to our knowledge of the universe?
3 Complete the following table: Answer: It was Galileo Galilei who started to use the
telescope. Thanks to the telescope, millions
g (N/kg) RT (m) of dim stars became visible for the first time.
Scientists could study much more distant areas
Poles 9.832 in space. Galileo's discoveries helped to replace
Equator 6.375 ? 106 the geocentric theory.
Data: ME = 5.98 ? 1024 kg; 6 Why would it be easier to beat the Olympic long jump
G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2 record in a city with a high altitude than it would in
a city with a low altitude?
Answer: Because the value of g will be lower.

9
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
Centripetal force
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Carbon paper. • Ball and a hook with a known mass.
• To measure angular speed.
• White paper. • Stopwatch.
• To measure the restoring
• Pin. • Ruler
force of a spring.
• Spring. • Board of wood.
• To measure the restoring
constant of a spring.
PROCEDURE
The force that keeps the Moon in orbit around the Earth is the same as the force experienced by a planet
rotating around the Sun, or any other object subjected to a force directed towards a fixed centre.
They are called central forces.
1
To understand this better, we will do a simulation of the orbit Carbon paper Stopwatch
of a satellite. We will use a ball to represent the satellite, a nail
to represent the planet, and a spring to represent the force
that keeps them together. Nail
1. Place the white paper under the carbon paper so that when Spring
the ball starts to slide, it makes a mark on the white paper.
Ball with
White
2.
Place the carbon paper and white paper on top of a board a hook
paper
of wood, and put the pin in the centre. Attach the spring (steel)
to the pin and attach the ball to the spring.
3.
Holding the stopwatch in one hand, push the ball so that 2
Stopwatch
it rotates around the pin in a trajectory that is as circular
as possible. Start the stopwatch, and count the number
of rotations the ball makes.
fter a few rotations, write down the time to calculate
A
the period and the angular speed. Ball moving
total time 2r around the pin
T= ;~=
number of rotations T
4. Remove the white paper. You will be able to see a tracing of the ball’s trajectory. Measure the distance from the centre
to different points on the trajectory and calculate the average radius, r.
Now we can find the value of the centripetal force using the expression:
Fc = m ? ~2 ? r
QUESTIONS
1 Explain the similarities and differences between the elastic force in this experiment and the gravitational
force that exists between a planet and its satellite.
2 We can now calculate the spring constant. Measure the resting length of the spring. By subtracting this length
from the average radius of the trajectory we get the deformation of the spring and using Hooke’s law,
F = k · Dx, we can find the spring constant.

9
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
Experimental study of free fall motion
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Stroboscopic photograph of an object’s fall
• To identify free fall motion as a UARM. (the data from the grid at real scale and the time
• To draw a y‑t and a v‑t graph from interval between each pair of points should
experimental data. be shown in the photograph).
• Ruler.
PROCEDURE
The gravitational force exerted by the Earth is responsible for the free fall motion
of bodies.
1. Mark the origin of the coordinate system on the photograph and, using the ruler, t=0
measure the distances of the other points from the origin. t 1 = 0.03 s
2.
Use the real scale of the grid to convert the distances in the section above y 1 = 5 mm
to real distances.
3.
Taking into account the time intervals between the points shown
in the photograph, complete the following table:
y (mm) t 2 = 0.08 s
y 2 = 28 mm
t (s)
4. Draw the y‑t graph.
t 3 = 0.1 s
QUESTIONS y 3 = 51 mm
1 Answer:
a) Which type of curve do you get?
b) Which type of motion do you associate this with? t 4 = 0.12 s
y 4 = 75 mm
2 Calculate the acceleration according to the expression (for each pair
of y, t values) obtained when we isolate acceleration in the law of motion
for UARM (taking into account the initial position and initial speed are zero):
2y
a= 2 t 5 = 0.14 s
t
y 5 = 98 mm
Can the acceleration obtained be considered constant and equal to g within
a margin of experimental error?
3 Calculate the speeds at each moment (take the true value of acceleration
to be the average of the values obtained in section 2).
Draw the v‑t graph.

9
ASSESSMENT
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 Indicate what happens to the force of gravitational attraction between two bodies when:
a) The distance between the bodies doubles.
b) The mass of one of the two bodies is reduced by half.
c) The mass of one is doubled and the distance between them is doubled.
2 Two astronauts with a mass of 100 kg are in a situation of zero gravity (g = 0), separated by a distance
of 10 m. Calculate:
a) The weight of each of them.
b) The force of attraction between them.
c) Will they end up coming together as a result of this force?
3 The Moon is a satellite located at a distance of 384 000 m from the Earth.
a) How does it remain in orbit around the Earth and not veer off?
b) Calculate the force of attraction between both bodies.
Data: G = 6.67 ? 10-11 N ? m2/kg2; ME = 6.0 ? 1024 kg; MM = 7.2 ? 1022 kg; dEarth‑Moon = 3.84 ? 108 m.
4 A student weighs 550 N on Earth and 621 N on another unknown planet.

a) What will the mass of the student be?
b) Calculate the acceleration of gravity on the surface of the planet.
c) Study the table and answer: which is the unknown planet?
Planet Gravity (m/s2)
Mercury 3.70
Venus 8.85
Earth 9.81
Moon 1.62
Mars 3.72
Jupiter 26.39
Saturn 11.67
Uranus 11.43
Table showing the acceleration of gravity
Neptune 11.07
of the planets of the solar system and the Moon.
5 The mass of the Moon is 7.2 ? 1022 kg and its radius is 1.74 ? 106 m. Calculate the maximum height a ball
will reach when it is thrown vertically upwards at an initial velocity of 10 m/s from the surface of:
a) The Moon. b) The Earth.
2
Data: gEarth = 9.8 m/s .

Name: Class: Date:
6 Artificial communication satellites that transmit telephone conversations and TV programmes

all over the world follow a special orbit called a geostationary orbit, located at around 36 000 km above
the Earth’s surface.
Data: Mass of the Earth = 6 ? 1024 kg; radius of the Earth = 6370 km.
a) When using a telescope, we always observe a satellite in the same position, does it mean that it is stationary?
b) Calculate its rotational speed.
c) What is the rotational period of the satellite?
d) How is the electrical equipment inside satellites powered?
7 Match each type of satellite to its corresponding characteristic and explain which ones usually move
in a geostationary orbit.
A. Take atmospheric measurements.
1. Telecommunications.
B. Don’t have the ability to take off or land.
2. Weather forecast.
C. Study the universe from outer space where there
3. Earth observatory.
is no interference from the Earth’s atmosphere.
4. Localisation.
D. Transmit information from one point of the Earth to another.
5. Astronomy satellites.
E. Usually have low orbits.
6. Space stations.
F. Allow us to find out the position of receivers on Earth.

9
ASSESSMENT
1 a) The force of gravitational attraction is divided into four, since it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
b) The force of gravitational attraction is reduced by half, since the force is directly proportional to the product of the masses.
c) When the distance is doubled, the value of the force is reduced to a quarter, but since the mass is doubled, the overall effect
is that the force is reduced to half.
2 a) Since there is no gravity, the weight of both will be zero: W = m ? g = 100 kg ? 0 = 0.
M?m N ? m 2 100 kg ? 100 kg
b) F = G ? 2
= 6.67 ? 10-11 ? = 6.67 ? 10-9 N
R kg 2 100 m 2
c) In theory, when there is a force of attraction between two bodies, they will end up coming together. Since the value of this force is so small,
it is considered as practically negligible. Therefore, it doesn’t have any effect on the bodies and they won’t move closer together.
3 a) According to the law of universal gravitation, there is a force of attraction between the Earth and the Moon, which acts
as the centripetal force. This causes the Moon to rotate around the Earth in a circular orbit.
b) Applying Newton’s law of universal gravitation, we get:
M?m N ? m 2 7.2 ? 10 22 kg ? 6.0 ? 10 24 kg
F = G? 2
= 6.67 ? 10-11 ? = 2.0 ? 10 20 N
R kg 2 (3.84 ? 10 8 m) 2
4 a) We can use their weight on Earth to work out their mass.
W 550 N
m= = = 56.1 kg
g 9.8 m/s 2
b) Since the mass of the student remains constant on any planet, the value of acceleration of gravity will be:
weight 621 N
g= = = 11.07 m/s 2
mass 56.1 kg
c) The unknown planet is Neptune.
5 a) First we have to determine the Moon’s gravity. We can calculate this by associating the equations:
W = m? g
M ? m 4 "
M
g Moon = G ? 2 = 6.67 ? 10-11
R
N ? m2
?
7.2 ? 10 22 kg
= 1.59 m/s 2
F = G? 2
kg 2
(1.74 ? 10 6 m) 2
R
We can calculate the maximum height using the equation v2 – v20 = 2 ? gMoon ? h. The acceleration will have a negative sign,
since it is directed towards the centre of the planet, as opposed to the body which is moving away from the surface.
At the maximum height, the final velocity is zero.
By isolating, we get: h = 31.4 m.
b) On Earth, the value of gravity is greater, so it will reach a lower height:
v2 – v20 = 2 ? gEarth ? h " h = 5.1 m
6 a) In this orbit, it moves with the same angular speed as Earth, so we get the impression that it is not moving in the sky.
The advantage of this is that the transmitters and receivers on Earth don’t have to move to track the satellite.
b) The force of gravitational attraction is the force responsible for normal acceleration directed towards the Earth; therefore,
applying Newton’s second law (R = RE + h):
M?m
F = G? and F = m ? aN
R2
Associating both equations, remembering that aN = v2/R and by substituting we get:
M?m m?v2 M 6 ? 10 24
G? = "v = G? = 6.67 ? 10-11 ? = 3073 m/s
R 2
R R 6.37 ? 10 6 + 36 ? 10 6
c) The angular speed is expressed as: ~ = 2r/T. Taking into account that: v = ~ ? R, the period will be:
2r ? R 42.37 ? 10 6 m
T= = 2?r? = 86 631 s - 24 hours
v 3073 m/s
d) It is usually powered through solar panels, which convert the light from the Sun into electricity. Satellites that are located far
away from the Sun and don’t receive enough sunlight to generate electricity are fitted with small nuclear reactors.
7 1D, 2A, 3E, 4F, 5C, 6B. Telecommunications satellites and weather forecast satellites usually follow a stationary orbit. In these orbits,
the satellites are always located above the same geographical area, so they can transmit radio and TV signals and carry out studies
of the atmosphere.

10
FORCES IN FLUIDS
INTRODUCTION
1.
Studying the effect of one force on different surfaces will 3.
Some students may find it hard to grasp the idea that
help students to understand the concept of pressure. air exerts pressure on us. It is therefore a good idea
2. Pascal’s principle and Archimedes’ principle can to analyse how pressure varies in different situations,
be used to explain some of the phenomena we to help explain it.
observe in everyday life.
OBJECTIVES
• Distinguish between pressure and force. • Explain the apparent loss of weight experienced by objects
• Recognise the different ways that one force affects when they are submerged in liquids.
different surfaces. • Understand why some objects float.
• Recognise the presence of atmospheric pressure • Know how to interpret experiments related to Archimedes’
and know how to measure it. principle.
• Understand Pascal’s principle and how it is used. • Know which magnitudes influence the buoyant force
of an object when it is submerged in a fluid.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • The concept of pressure.

• Hydrostatic pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure.
• Pressure and height.
• The propagation of pressure in fluids.
• Pascal’s principle.
• Archimedes’ principle.
• Buoyant force in a fluid and buoyancy.
• Atmospheric physics.
KNOW HOW TO • Associate the pressure inside fluids with density and depth.
• Understand why objects float.
• Solve problems by applying Pascal’s principle and Archimedes’ principle.
• Change units of pressure.
• Measure the density of a liquid through communicating vessels.
• Test Archimedes’ principle in the laboratory.
BE ABLE TO • Appreciate the importance of hydrostatics in our daily lives.

• Analyse what causes the phenomena that occur around us on a daily basis.

10
FORCES IN FLUIDS
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1. Talking about the importance of the contact surface 3. Furthermore, an object that is immersed in a liquid
when a force is exerted on a solid will help students is subject to the weight of the liquid above it. This weight
to distinguish between force and pressure. When we want distributed over the surface of the object causes what
to increase pressure, we make the surface area smaller is known as hydrostatic pressure.
(needles, drawing pins, sharp knives, etc.). On the other 4. The value of this pressure depends on the depth
hand, when we want to decrease pressure, we increase of the object and the density of the liquid. It may seem
the surface area (skis, four‐wheel drive vehicles, etc.). paradoxical that the hydrostatic pressure does not depend
2. Students will all know that our bodies seem to weigh on the amount of fluid that is above the object.
less in water than out of it; they can experience this when 5. It is a good idea to introduce the concept of atmospheric
they go swimming. Archimedes’ principle explains this pressure through a series of simple experiments
by introducing the concept of the buoyant force present so students can see it for themselves in action. These
when an object is submerged in a fluid. experiments should be analysed using the difference
T his force acts in the opposite direction to weight, in pressure between two points as the cause of the
making the object appear to weigh less. Comparing observed effects.
these two forces (weight and buoyancy) helps
us to explain the conditions of buoyancy.
WEBSITES YouTube: Forces and Pressure. This video tutorial

Atmospheric and Hydrostatic Pressure – USC Dornsife. briefly summarises the most important ideas on the subject
This section of the University of Southern California website of forces and pressure. It also explains the difference between
describes some of the most important experiments that have these two magnitudes, which are often confused.
been carried out on pressure, including Magdeburg’s spheres
and Torricelli's experiment. This site is also very interesting
because it shows how the study of pressure and
iLearnPhysics (iOS). This application helps students
the apparatus used have evolved throughout history.
understand Physics quickly and easily with tutorials
Keywords: USC, hydrostatic vs. atmospheric, pressure.
on the basic concepts, a calculator for formulas
PhET Interactive Simulations – Under Pressure. and some exams/tests.
This simulator enables us to explore pressure under
The application includes a comprehensive list of formulas
and above water. It allows students to observe how pressure
used in all areas of Physics, each with an intelligent formula
changes when the fluid, gravity, shape of containers
calculator that can solve any variable in the formula.
and/or volume change. They can do activities to describe
how air and water pressure change depending on the
depth, to define which variables affect pressure and predict
the pressure in various situations.
Keywords: phet, pressure, simulation.
PhET Interactive Simulations – Buoyancy. This simulator
presents various situations in which the students can put
Archimedes’ principle into practice and predict the buoyancy
of various objects in different mediums. When do objects
float and when do they sink?
The arrows on the blocks show us the applied forces,
and the properties of the blocks and the fluid used can
be adjusted to observe the results.
Keywords: phet, buoyancy, simulation.

10
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
1 A boy is standing in the snow. In which of these cases 8 A hydraulic press has two pistons with a surface area
does he exert more pressure? of 12 and 600 cm2, respectively. We want to lift a car
a)
Wearing skis. with a mass of 1400 kg. Where will the car have
to be placed? What force will have to be exerted?
b) Wearing boots. Name the physical principle that is applied.
c)
Wearing snowshoes.
d) Wearing boots and carrying a backpack.
9 An ice cube with a volume of 40 cm3 floats in a glass
of water. The submerged part is 36 cm3. When the ice
melts, how much will the water level in the glass
2 Answer the questions, using the persepective
rise by?
of pressure.
a)
40 cm3. c)
4 cm3.
a)
Why is it easier to cut with a knife when it is sharp?
b) 36 cm3. d) Nothing.
b) Why doesn’t a tractor sink in the mud like a car?
10 A solid has a weight in air of 85 N. However, when

3 Explain how the pressure acting on a surface varies
it is placed in water it weighs 55 N. Calculate:
when:
(Data: g = 9.8 m/s2; dwater = 1000 kg/m3.)
a)
The surface is doubled.
a)
Its mass.
b) The force is halved.
b) Its volume.
4 An object with a mass of 30 kg is placed on a surface c)
Its density (in g/cm3).
with an area of 0.3 m2. Calculate:
a)
The force exerted, expressed in newtons. 11 We hang an object on a dynamometer and it reads
5 N. When we submerge the object in water,
b) The pressure, expressed in pascals.
the dynamometer reads 4.3 N. What is the density
of the object?
5 A skier with a mass of 55 kg is standing on snow‐
covered ground. Calculate the pressure if: (Data: g = 9.8 m/s2; dwater = 1000 kg/m3.)
a)
The skier is wearing boots, which have a total surface a)
7142.9 kg/m3.
area of 525 cm2. b) 3500 kg/m3.
b) The skier is standing on skis that measure c)
6142.9 kg/m3.
170×18 cm each.
d) 1236.2 kg/m3.
c)
In which case do you think the skier will sink less
into the snow? Why? 12 Will a block of ice sink or float in seawater?
Explain your answer.
6 Calculate the pressure a submarine will be subjected
(Data: g = 9.8 m/s2; dwater = 1000 kg/m3.)
to when it is submerged to a depth of 300 m
in the sea.
13 Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm. The air
(Data: dseawater = 1.02 g/cm3; g = 9.8 m/s2). density is 1.29 kg/m3. Assuming that the density does
not vary with height, calculate the atmospheric
7 A diver is submerged to a depth of 50 m in the sea. pressure at an altitude of 1500 m. Express the result
If the density of the seawater is 1.03 g/cm3, in atm and N/m2.
the pressure the diver is subjected to is:
(Data: 1 atm = 1.013 ? 105 Pa; g = 9.8 m/s2.)
a)
504 700 Pa. c)
50 400 Pa.
b) 504 Pa. d) 150 000 Pa.

10
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
F
1 p= , so the pressure will be greater for d: 9 The correct answer is c).
A
The boy will exert more pressure with boots and a backpack, 10 a)
W = m ? g " m = 8.5 kg.
as the force (weight) is greater and the surface area b) E = W - Wapparent " dwater ? g ? V = W - Wapparent "
is smaller. W - W apparent 85 N - 55 N
2 a) Because the surface on which the force is applied
"V = = =
d water ? g 1000 kg/m 3 ? 9.8 m/s 2
is smaller and, consequently, the pressure will be greater. = 3 ? 10-3 m3
b)
Because its wheels are wider, so the pressure exerted m
is lower. c)
d= "
V
3 a) The pressure is reduced by half. W/g 85 N/9.8 m/s 2
"d= = = 2891 kg/m 3 =
b)
The pressure is reduced by half. V 3 ? 10-3 m 3
= 2.839 g/cm 3 .
4 a)
F = m ? g = 30 kg ? 9.8 N/kg = 294 N.
11 E = W - Wapparent " dwater ? g ? V = W - Wapparent "
F 294 N
b) p = = = 980 Pa. W - W apparent
A 0.3 m 2 "V=
d water ? g
F m? g 55 kg ? 9.8 N/kg ! Therefore:
5 a)
p= = = = 10 266.6 Pa .
A A 0.0525 m 2
W
m g W
F m? g 55 kg ? 9.8 N/kg d= = = ? d water =
b) p = = = = 880.7 Pa. V W - W apparent W - W apparent
A A 0.612 m 2
d water ? g
c)
The skier will sink less on the skis, as less pressure
5N
is being exerted. = = 1000 kg/m 3 = 7142.9 kg/m 3
5 N - 4.3 N
6 p = d ? g ? h = 1020 kg/m3 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 300 m = 3 ? 106 Pa.

The correct answer is a).
7 p = d ? g ? h = 1030 kg/m3 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 50 m = 504 700 Pa.
12 As dseawater > dice, its weight will be less than its buoyancy
The correct answer is a).
and the ice will float (like icebergs).
8 The car will have to be placed on the large piston.
p=
13 patm - d ? g ? h =
F1 F2 A = 1.013 ? 105 Pa - 1.29 kg/m3 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 1500 m =
= " F1 = F2 ? 1 =
A1 A2 A2 = 82 337 N/m2 = 0.81 atm.
12 cm 2
= 1400 kg ? 9.8 N/kg ? = 274.4 N
600 cm 2
Pascal's principle: ‘The pressure exerted at a given point
of a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally
in all directions throughout the fluid.’

10
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 If the pressure acting on a surface of 1 cm2 is 1000 Pa, 8 A glass contains water to a height of 10 cm.
the force exerted is: Some oil is added, which floats on top of the water
forming a layer of 3 cm. Calculate the pressure
a)
1000 N. c)
0.1 N.
at the bottom of the vessel from the two liquids.
b) 10 N. d) 100 N.
(Data: dwater = 1000 kg/m3; doil = 850 kg/m3;
g = 9.8 m/s2).
2 Select the correct answer. It is easier to hammer
a nail into a piece of wood by the tip and not the
9 Explain how hydraulic brakes on a car work.
head because:
Which physical principle are they based on?
a)
The force exerted is greater.
b) The pressure is greater. 10 The small piston of a hydraulic press has a section
of 10 cm2. If a force of 50 N is exerted on it, what
c)
The pressure is lower.
size should the platform section of the other piston
d) The surface area is greater. be to allow it to raise a vehicle of 1 t?
(g = 9.8 m/s2.)
3 Can a small force produce a large amount of pressure?
And can a large force produce a small amount
11 Crocodiles eat stones in order to control how high they
of pressure? Explain your answer using the concept
float, keeping the majority of their bodies submerged,
of pressure.
and therefore camouflaged. What physical principle
do they use?
4 A force of 400 N acts on a surface area of 20 cm2.
The pressure exerted is:
12 A ball with a volume of 150 cm3 and a mass of 250 g
a)
20 N/m . 2
c)
2000 N/m . 2
is submerged in a pool containing a liquid with
b) 2 ? 10 N/m .
6 2
d) 2 N/m2. a density of 1.1 g/cm3.
Determine:
5 Calculate the pressure exerted on the ground by
a)
The buoyant force it experiences.
a person who weighs 85 kg in the following situations:
b) The force that would have to be applied to keep
a)
When they are sitting on a chair, if the base of each
it in equilibrium.
chair leg is a square with 30 mm sides.
c)
If the ball had a volume of 300 cm3, would it sink?
b) When they are standing up, if the soles of their shoes
form a surface area of 550 cm2.
13 An object weighs 1200 N in the air and 800 N when
(g = 9.8 m/s2). it is submerged in water. Calculate its density using
SI units.
6 A girl weighing 60 kg is standing up in high‐heeled
(dwater = 1 g/cm3; g = 9.8 m/s2.)
shoes, each with 2 mm2 surface area. She exerts
a pressure of:
14 Can an object with a higher density than water float
a)
150 Pa. in water?
b) 15 Pa.
15 How can we find out the height of a mountain using
c)
1.47 ? 108 Pa.
a barometer?
d) 1.5 ? 10-6 Pa.
7 A diver is submerged at a depth of 20 m. In which

of the following cases will the diver be subjected
to greater pressure?
a)
When he is in a freshwater lake.
(d = 1000 kg/m3).
b) When he is in the sea. (d = 1030 kg/m3).

10
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
F1 F F
1 The correct answer is c). 10 = " A= ? A1 =
A1 A F1
1000 kg ? 9.8 N/kg
3 Pressure is directly proportional to the force applied = ? 10 cm 2 = 1960 cm 2 .
50 N
and inversely proportional to the surface area; so the smaller
the force applied, the smaller the surface area it acts on 11 Archimedes’ principle.
should be for the pressure to be greater. Similarly, a large 12 a) FB = dliq ? g ? V =
amount of force applied on a very large surface area will = 1100 kg/m3 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 1.5 ? 10-4 m3 =
generate lots of areas of low pressure. = 1.62 N.
F 400 N b)
F = W - FB = m ? g - FB =
4 p = = = 200 000 N/m 2 = 2 ? 10 6 N/m 2.
A 0.002 m 2 = 0.25 kg ? 9.8 N/kg -1.62 N =
The correct answer is b). = 0.83 N (upwards).
5 a) The total surface area of the 4 chair legs is: c) The ball would float, as W < FB.
A = 4 ? (30 mm)2 = 3600 mm2 = 3.6 ? 10-3 m2 W

d=
13 ? d water =
F m? g 85 kg ? 9.8 m/s 2 W - W apparent
p=
= = = 2.3 ? 105 N/m2.
A A 3.6 ? 10-3 m 2 1200 N
= ? 1000 kg/m 3 = 3000 kg/m3.
F m? g 85 kg ? 9.8 m/s 2 1200 N - 800 N
b)
p= = = = 1.5 ? 104 N/m2.
A A 0.055 m 2 14 es, for an object to float in water, or in any fluid,
Y
the buoyant force must be greater than the weight
6 F W m? g
p= = = = of the object itself.
A A A
60 kg ? 9.8 m/s 2 The buoyant force will depend on the weight of the fluid
= = 1.47 ? 10 8 Pa displaced by the object. In other words, it depends
4 ? 10-6 m 2
on the volume it displaces and thus the submerged volume
The correct answer is c).
of the object. So, the higher the volume of the object,
7 T he pressure inside a fluid is expressed by: p = d ? g ? h, the greater the buoyant force experienced.
where p is the pressure at any point of the fluid, d is the
Therefore, an object with a higher density than water will
density of the liquid, g is the acceleration of gravity
float, provided that the volume of water displaced weighs
and h is the depth. At the same depth, a diver is subjected
more than the object, which is the case for boats,
to increased pressure in the medium where the density
for example.
is greater: in the sea.
15 y measuring the atmospheric pressure at the top
B
8 p = dwater ? g ? hwater + doil ? g ? hoil =
of the mountain, knowing the atmospheric pressure
= 1000 kg/m3 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 0.1 m + at sea level is 1 atm:
+ 850 kg/m3 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 0.03 m = 1230 N/m2. Dp = dair ? g ? h
9 H
ydraulic brakes are based on Pascal’s principle. When
the driver pushes down on the pedal, pressure is applied
on the liquid, and is transmitted to the brake pads.
A small amount of force on the pedal is amplified
and is able to stop the car.

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
How do aeroplanes stay up in the air?

Remember that...
Bernoulli’s principle
It may seem surprising that a machine like an aeroplane weighing several tonnes is able to stay up in the air.
Let's take a look at how this is possible. There are basically four forces that act on an aeroplane in flight:
W
FL
W
T W
FF
W
W
• Thrust: T . This is exerted by the plane’s engine or engines through propellers, jet propulsion, etc. It makes
the plane move forward, which is in the same orientation but opposite direction to the frictional force exerted by the air.
If it exceeds this, the plane will accelerate, while if it is the same, it will fly at a constant velocity (Newton’s second law).
• Frictional force: Ff . This is the drag caused by the air due to friction with its particles. It depends on the shape
and material of the aeroplane and the air density. It can be reduced by building more aerodynamic aeroplanes.
• Weight: W. This is the gravitational force with which the Earth attracts the plane. It pulls the plane downwards towards
the Earth and has a value of | W | = m ? g.
• Lift force: FL . This is the force that keeps the aeroplane in the air. If the objective is to maintain a constant
height above the ground, the lift force must be equal to the weight. This effect occurs mainly on the wings and tail,
rather than on the fuselage (where the passengers, pilot and cargo are). We will look at this force in more detail below.
In order to understand the amazing lift force, FL , we need to know about Bernoulli’s principle.
Let's take a look.
Imagine two sections of identical pipes: water flows through one of them and is still in the other:
Flowing water
In which of the pipes do you think the water particles exert more pressure on the walls of the pipe?
Logic dictates that if there is exactly the same amount of water in the two sections of identical pipes, and therefore the same
number of molecules, the pressure exerted must be the same.

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
But surprisingly, this is not the case! Rather, as stated by Bernoulli’s principle, flowing water particles exert less pressure
than water that is not moving. This principle generally applies to any fluid (liquids and gases).
The design of aeroplane wings is based on Bernoulli’s observations.
Let’s look at a cross section:
air
When a plane is flying, the air that hits the wings is divided into two paths: one part goes above the wing and the other goes
below it. If we look at the shape of the wings of an aeroplane, we can see that they are curved at the top and flat below.
This means that, theoretically, the air particles have to reunite once they have passed around the wing, meaning that the air
flowing over the top has to travel farther than the air that flows under the wing. Therefore, the air particles have to move
faster above the wing than below.
As a result, and according to Bernoulli’s principle, the air will exert less pressure at the top of the wings than on the bottom.
This difference in pressure is what causes lift force, FL , which holds the aeroplane in the air without falling.
There are certain cases that require further study, since Bernoulli's principle cannot always explain lift force.
For example, planes that can fly upside down, such as some military aircraft, or those that do stunts in the air, in which
the top and bottom of the wings are symmetrical and have the same curvature.
1 If we hung two apples very closely together from the ceiling and blew in the space between them, what do you
think would happen? Do the experiment and explain what happens.

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
Mariotte’s Bottle
Remember that...
If we take a container, fill it with a liquid and make a hole in the side,
we know that the water will escape through the hole, forming a parabola.
The greater the amount of liquid above the hole, the greater the distance
the liquid pouring out of the hole will reach (only the height of the liquid
affects this, not the total volume of the liquid in the container).
This occurs because the greater the hydrostatic pressure on the hole,
the faster the water will flow out of the hole. This is represented h
by the following expression:
Parabola
p = d ? g ? h,
*
p = hydrostatic pressure
d = density of the liquid
where
g = gravity
h = liquid height above
As time passes and the liquid flows out, the height of the liquid decreases, reducing the hydrostatic pressure on the hole.
Therefore, the speed of the liquid and the distance it reaches gradually decreases:
h3 < h2 < h1
➡ ➡
h1 h2
Wv1 p3 < p2 < p1
p1 p2 Wv2 h3 p3 Wv3
v3 < v 2 < v 1
Distance 1 Distance 2 Distance 3
We can calculate the speed of the flow of liquid at any moment, because according to Torricelli’s law, it would
flow at the same speed as an object in free fall from height h when dropped from a resting position.
1 We make a hole in a container full of water. Answer:

a)
Using your knowledge about kinematics, how fast would a drop of water come out if there was a 70 cm column
of water above the hole?
b) If we made two more holes, one above and one below the first, would the water jets that come out of these two new holes
reach a greater or lesser distance than the jet from the initial hole? Would these two new holes affect the distance reached
by the water jet from the first hole?

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
Suppose that now we want the distance of the liquid pouring out of the hole to be constant; in other words,
we don't want it to decrease.
Could we do this without using any energy, or any type of motorised mechanism, etc.?
The answer is yes, using the invention designed by French physicist, Edme Mariotte (1620‐1684).
Mariotte’s Bottle Air

This invention consists of filling a container like the one previously
described with liquid. It is then hermetically sealed and a hollow
tube, such as a straw, is inserted. It is then sealed completely,
so air can only enter the container through the tube.
The liquid flows through the hole at a constant speed, which
does not decrease as the container empties. This is because
when the air enters the tube, the atmospheric pressure h
of the air that comes into contact with the water, makes h1
v = const.
the hydrostatic pressure of the hole the same as a column
of liquid with a height of h1, which does not change as long
as we don’t move the tube. Without the tube, the hydrostatic
pressure would correspond to height h, which varies
according to the water level.
Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure on the hole is constant, with a value of p = d? g ? h1, and the speed of the jet of liquid
also remains constant.

a)
As the level of the liquid falls and h goes down, will there be a point in time where the speed of the jet of liquid no longer
remains constant? When?
b) As the level of the liquid falls, what can we do to make the speed of the jet of liquid increase but remain constant?
What about if we want the velocity to be lower, but remain constant?
c) Invent a way that Mariotte's bottle could be used.

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
How much does air weigh?

Remember that...
We may ask ourselves how much air weighs, as, given what we know about atmospheric pressure, we assume it weighs
something. The question of whether air weighs anything troubled scientists for centuries.
Should we assume that something we can’t even see weighs something? Do you think that if you fill an empty container
with air it will weigh more, even if the air floats?
The answer no longer seems so clear. Let’s look at one of Galileo’s experiments:
Galileo Galilei (1564‐1642) took a 5 L container and he extracted the air using a vacuum pump. Then, he placed the container
on some balance scales and put a weight on the other side to balance them. Next, he opened the container to let the air in again.
What do you think happened? Did the scales lose their balance? The answer is yes! He had to add more weight to balance
the scales again. The air weighed something!
Air
5L 5L
So, we know that air weighs something. Before asking how much, we can say that it weighs much more than we think,
as we will see below. In order to talk about its weight, we must consider several factors:
• The weight of air in a container depends on the pressure inside it. For example, the pressure of a diver's compressed air,
contained in a 15 L steel cylinder, is 200 times greater than atmospheric pressure. Air at atmospheric pressure would occupy
3000 L (3 m3). The air inside the cylinder weighs 4 kg.
• As we go higher in altitude, the air becomes less dense and weighs less.
• Hot air weighs less than cold air.
• Dry air weighs less than damp air.
Taking this into account, we can establish that under normal conditions and at sea level, the air contained in a cube
with 1 m sides weighs about 1.3 kg; in other words, its density is 1.3 kg/m3.
1 We weigh a deflated ball, and then fill it with air and weigh it again. When will it weigh more?
Do the experiment and see. Why does the ball bounce higher when it is inflated?
Is it lighter?
2 Approximately how heavy is the air in your classroom, if it is 10 m × 6 m × 3 m in size?

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
3 How much does a cloud weigh? Data: it is a typical summer cloud made up of 5 % humid air and 95 % dry air.
Its dimensions are: 1 km long, 800 m wide and 500 m thick, and we know that the densities of the dry air
and humid air at this point are 0.8 kg/m 3 and 1.1 kg/m 3, respectively.
Remember that...
Due to the enormous volume of air around us, the weight of the air above our heads is vast and, therefore, is the force
per surface area unit (atmospheric pressure). However, we are used to it so we don’t notice it. So there are many ways to check
the existence of air, its weight and atmospheric pressure, for example:
• If you walk down to a beach from a higher altitude, you may feel more tired and dizzy until your body gets used to it,
because of the increase in the air above you, and therefore the atmospheric pressure.
• If you drink all the juice from a small carton with a straw and you continue sucking the air from inside it, you will notice
how the carton shrinks due to the external atmospheric pressure, which is no longer compensated for by the interior
pressure.
4 Suck out the air from an empty packet of crisps. What do you notice? Why is this?
5 What do you think would happen if you removed all the air from your classroom?
6 Take a small, thin strip of wood, and place half on the table and half off the table, as shown in the image below.
Cover the part of the wooden strip that is on the table with sheets of newspaper, making sure that there is no air
underneath them (you could use screwed up balls of paper to weigh down the edges if part of the paper is not
entirely flat). You are going to hit the part of the wood that is protruding from the table with a strong and quick hit
with your fist. Before you do, what do you think will happen? Hit the wood, observe what happens and explain why.

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
Pascal’s barrel
Remember that...
In 1653, the French physicist Pascal performed one of the most simple, yet surprising, scientific experiments that has ever
been carried out. He wanted to demonstrate the already known fact that the pressure at any point in a fluid is transmitted
to all points in the rest of the fluid with the same intensity.
To do this:
1. He filled a large barrel with water. The barrel was made out of very strong strips of wood (called staves) that were
securely attached to one another.
2. Then, he introduced a long, narrow, hollow tube through the lid of the barrel.
3. Next, he climbed up a stepladder and started to pour water down the tube.
4. When the water had risen a few metres up the tube, the barrel burst, with all the water coming out.
How could the barrel burst after adding such little weight with such little water?
The answer is not in the weight, but in the pressure and the principle of the transmission of a fluid, which we mentioned above.
Note that the hydrostatic pressure exerted on the water particles in the barrel in contact with the tube is:
p = d ? g ? h,
*
where
g = gravity
h = height of liquid inside the tube
This pressure is transmitted equally to all of the other particles of water in the barrel. The key is that the pressure is directly
proportional to the height of the column of the liquid, h, regardless of the amount of liquid there is; so by increasing h,
the pressure also increases, which in turn is transmitted to all points and the barrel bursts.

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
1 Answer:
a)
If Pascal had used a tube that was twice as wide, would the liquid have had to be higher or lower for the barrel to burst?
b) What about if the tube was twice as narrow?
c)
What is the minimum amount of water needed for the barrel to burst?
d) If Pascal had done the experiment on the Moon, would the liquid have to be higher or lower for the barrel to burst?
e)
If Pascal had poured a banana milkshake (d = 2 g/cm3) down the tube, would the level of the liquid have to be higher
or lower for the barrel to burst?
f)
If Pascal had done the experiment with the barrel on its side, would the liquid have to be higher or lower for the barrel
to burst?
g)
If we added a second tube identical to the first, parallel and connected to the barrel, then started pouring water
in just one of them, what would happen?
h) What about if we poured water down both tubes?
i)
What about if the second tube was five times wider than the first?

10
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 5
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
Archimedes' principle of flotation

Remember that...
Archimedes found the answer to the following problem over 2000 years ago.
If we have two identical cups with the same amount of water inside and weigh them, the scales will give us the same result.
What would happen if we put our hand inside the cup without touching the edges?
Would the weight change?
It’s not very easy to guess the answer. Either our hand would float in the water or we could keep it tense so that our arm
supported its weight, and the reading on the scales wouldn't change.
The answer is yes, the weight shown on the scale will increase.
1 Review what you know about Archimedes’ principle and calculate exactly how much the weight shown on the scales
would increase by when you put your hand in the cup. Suppose we know that the cup is cylindrical, with a radius
of 5 cm, and when you put your hand in, the water level would rise half a centimetre and have a density of d = 1g/cm 3.
2 Explain how the weight shown on the scales would change if the two cups were filled to the brim and when you
put your hand in, some water spills over.

10
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
How do aeroplanes stay up in the air?

Remember that...
Bernoulli’s principle
It may seem surprising that a machine like an aeroplane weighing several tonnes is able to stay up in the air.
Let's take a look at how this is possible. There are basically four forces that act on an aeroplane in flight:
W
FL
W
T W
FR
W
W
• Thrust: T . This is exerted by the plane’s engine or engines through propellers, jet propulsion, etc. It makes
the plane move forward, which is in the same orientation but opposite direction to the frictional force exerted by the air.
If it exceeds this, the plane will accelerate, while if it is the same, it will fly at a constant velocity (Newton’s second law).
• Frictional force: Ff . This is the drag caused by the air due to friction with its particles. It depends on the shape
and material of the aeroplane and the air density. It can be reduced by building more aerodynamic aeroplanes.
• Weight: W. This is the gravitational force with which the Earth attracts the plane. It pulls the plane downwards towards
the Earth and has a value of | W | = m ? g.
• Lift force: FL . This is the force that keeps the aeroplane in the air. If the objective is to maintain a constant
height above the ground, the lift force must be equal to the weight. This effect occurs mainly on the wings and tail,
rather than on the fuselage (where the passengers, pilot and cargo are). We will look at this force in more detail below.
In order to understand the amazing lift force, FL , we need to know about Bernoulli’s principle.
Let's take a look.
Imagine two sections of identical pipes; water flows through one of them and is still in the other:
Flowing water
In which of the pipes do you think the water particles exert more pressure on the walls of the pipe?
Logic dictates that if there is exactly the same amount of water in the two sections of identical pipes, and therefore the same
number of molecules, the pressure exerted must be the same.

10
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
But surprisingly, this is not the case! Rather, as stated by Bernoulli’s principle, flowing water particles exert less pressure
than water that is not moving. This principle generally applies to any fluid (liquids and gases).
The design of aeroplane wings is based on Bernoulli’s observations.
Let’s look at a cross section:
air
When a plane is flying, the air that hits the wings is divided into two paths: one part goes above the wing and the other goes
below it. If we look at the shape of the wings of an aeroplane, we can see that they are curved at the top and flat below.
This means that, theoretically, the air particles have to reunite once they have passed around the wing, meaning that the air
flowing over the top has to travel farther than the air that flows under the wing. Therefore, the air particles have to move
faster above the wing than below.
As a result, and according to Bernoulli’s principle, the air will exert less pressure at the top of the wings than at the bottom.
This difference in pressure is what causes lift force, FL , which holds the aeroplane in the air without falling.
There are certain cases that require further study, since Bernoulli's principle cannot always explain lift force.
For example, planes that can fly upside down, such as some military aircraft, or those that do stunts in the air, in which
the top and bottom of the wings are symmetrical and have the same curvature.
1 If we hung two apples very closely together from the ceiling and blew in the space between them, what do you
think would happen? Do the experiment and explain what happens.
ANSWER
You may have thought that the apples would separate, but they actually come together. When the air between them moves,
the pressure exerted is reduced due to Bernoulli's principle. The pressure from the sides increases, pushing them together.

10
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
Mariotte’s Bottle
Remember that...
If we take a container, fill it with a liquid and make a hole in the side,
we know that the water will escape through the hole, forming a parabola.
The greater the amount of liquid above the hole, the greater the distance
the liquid pouring out of the hole will reach (only the height of the liquid
affects this, not the total volume of the liquid in the container).
This occurs because the greater the hydrostatic pressure on the hole,
the faster the water will flow out of the hole. This is represented h
by the following expression:
Parabola
p = d ? g ? h,
*
where
g = gravity
h = liquid height above
As time passes and the liquid flows out, the height of the liquid decreases, reducing the hydrostatic pressure on the hole.
Therefore, the speed of the liquid and the distance it reaches gradually decreases:
h3 < h2 < h1
➡ ➡
h1 h2
Wv1 p3 < p2 < p1
p1 p2 Wv2 h3 p3 W v3
v3 < v 2 < v 1
Distance 1 Distance 2 Distance 3
We can calculate the speed of the flow of liquid at any moment, because according to Torricelli’s law, it would
flow at the same speed as an object in free fall from height h when dropped from a resting position.
ANSWER
a)
Using your knowledge about kinematics, how fast would a drop of water come out if there was a 70 cm column
of water above the hole?
We could write:
v 2 - v 02 = 2 ? g ? h " v = 2 ? g ? h = 2 ? 9 .8 m/s2 ? 0 .7 m = 3 .7 m/s
(v0 = 0.)
b) If we made two more holes, one above and one below the first, would the water jets that come out of these two new holes
reach a greater or lesser distance than the jet from the initial hole?
Water flowing out of the hole above the original hole would reach a lesser distance than the one below.
This is due to the height of the column of liquid above them.
Would these two new holes affect the distance reached by the water jet from the first hole?
The water coming out at each height h of liquid would reach the same distance, regardless of whether the new holes are there.
However, what does happen is that this height h decreases much faster than before and therefore, the distance reached
by the jets also decreases faster.

10
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
Suppose that now we want the distance of the liquid pouring out of the hole to be constant; in other words,
we don't want it to decrease.
Could we do this without using any energy, or any type of motorised mechanism, etc.?
The answer is yes, using the invention designed by French physicist, Edme Mariotte (1620‐1684).
Mariotte’s Bottle Air

This invention consists of filling a container like the one previously
described with liquid. It is then hermetically sealed and a hollow
tube, such as a straw, is inserted. It is then sealed completely,
so air can only enter the container through the tube.
The liquid flows through the hole at a constant speed, which
does not decrease as the container empties. This is because
when the air enters the tube, the atmospheric pressure h
of the air that comes into contact with the water, makes h1
v = const.
the hydrostatic pressure of the hole the same as a column
of liquid with a height h1, which does not change as long
as we don’t move the tube. Without the tube, the hydrostatic
pressure would correspond to height h, which varies
according to the water level.
Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure on the hole is constant, with a value of p = d? g ? h1, and the speed of the jet of liquid
also remains constant.
ANSWER
a)
As the level of the liquid falls and h goes down, will there be a point in time where the speed of the jet of liquid no longer
remains constant? When?
When h < h1. From this moment, the distance of the jet decreases at the same rate as h.
b) As the level of the liquid falls, what can we do to make the speed of the jet of liquid increase but remain constant?
What about if we want the velocity to be lower, but remain constant?
As we have seen before, given that the speed is v = 2 ? g ? h1, if we want v to be higher we must increase h1;
in other words, raise the tube. If we want the v to be lower, we must decrease the h1; in other words, lower the tube.
c) Invent a way that Mariotte's bottle could be used.

Example: if we go away for a few days during a hot summer and we need to keep the soil of a large plant watered,
we can irrigate it constantly by filling a container with water, making a hole and inserting the tube as low as possible,
so that the water pours out very slowly, but constantly.

10
WORKSHEET 3
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
How much does air weigh?

Remember that...
We may ask ourselves how much air weighs, as, given what we know about atmospheric pressure, we assume it weighs
something. The question of whether air weighs anything troubled scientists for centuries.
Should we assume that something we can’t even see weighs something? Do you think that if you fill an empty container
with air it will weigh more, even if the air floats?
The answer no longer seems so clear. Let’s look at one of Galileo’s experiments:
Galileo Galilei (1564‐1642) took a 5 L container and he extracted the air using a vacuum pump. Then, he placed the container
on some balance scales and put a weight on the other side to balance them. Next, he opened the container to let the air in again.
What do you think happened? Did the scales lose their balance? The answer is yes! He had to add more weight to balance
the scales again. The air weighed something!
Air
5L 5L
So, we know that air weighs something. Before asking how much, we can say that it weighs much more than we think,
as we will see below. In order to talk about its weight, we must consider several factors:
• The weight of air in a container depends on the pressure inside it. For example, the pressure of a diver's compressed air,
contained in a 15 L steel cylinder, is 200 times greater than atmospheric pressure. Air at atmospheric pressure would occupy
3000 L (3 m3). The air inside the cylinder weighs 4 kg.
• As we go higher in altitude, the air becomes less dense and weighs less.
• Hot air weighs less than cold air.
• Dry air weighs less than damp air.
Taking this into account, we can establish that under normal conditions and at sea level, the air contained in a cube
with 1 m sides weighs about 1.3 kg; in other words, its density is 1.3 kg/m3.
1 We weigh a deflated ball, and then fill it with air and weigh it again. When will it weigh more?
Do the experiment and see. Why does the ball bounce higher when it is inflated?
Is it lighter?
ANSWER
It weighs more when it is inflated. It bounces higher because of its increased elasticity.
2 Approximately how heavy is the air in your classroom if it is 10 m × 6 m × 3 m in size?
ANSWER
V = l1 ? l2 ? l3 = 10 m ? 6 m ? 3 m = 180 m3
m kg
d= " m = d ? V = 1.3 ? 180 m 3 = 234 kg More than what you thought, for sure!
V m3

10
WORKSHEET 3
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
3 How much does a cloud weigh? Data: it is a typical summer cloud made up of 5 % humid air and 95 % dry air.
Its dimensions are: 1 km long, 800 m wide and 500 m thick, and we know that the densities of the dry air
and humid air at this point are 0.8 kg/m 3 and 1.1 kg/m 3, respectively.
ANSWER
V = l1 ? l2 ? l3 = 1000 m ? 800 m ? 500 m = 4 ? 108 m3. Total volume of the cloud.
kg
95 % of 4 ? 10 8 m 3 = 3.8 ? 10 8 m 3 " m = d ? V = 0.8 ? 3.8 ? 10 8 m 3 = 3.04 ? 10 8 kg of dry air
m3
kg
5 % of 4 ? 10 8 m 3 = 2 ? 10 7 m 3 " m = d ? V = 1.1 ? 2 ? 10 7 m 3 = 2.2 ? 10 7 kg of humid air
m3
Total mass = 3.04 ? 108 kg + 2.2 ? 107 kg = 3.26 ? 108 kg = 326 000 tonnes " It weighs a lot!
Remember that...
Due to the enormous volume of air around us, the weight of the air above our heads is vast and so, therefore, is the force
per surface area unit (atmospheric pressure). However, we are used to it so we don’t notice it. There are many ways to check
the existence of air, its weight and atmospheric pressure, for example:
• If you walk down to a beach from a higher altitude, you may feel more tired and dizzy until your body gets used to it,
because of the increase in the air above you, and therefore the atmospheric pressure.
• If you drink all the juice from a small carton with a straw and you continue sucking the air from inside it, you will notice
how the carton shrinks due to the external atmospheric pressure, which is no longer compensated for by the interior
pressure.
4 Suck out the air from an empty packet of crisps. What do you notice? Why is this?
ANSWER
The bag wrinkles up due to external atmospheric pressure.
5 What do you think would happen if you removed all the air from your classroom?
ANSWER
The external atmospheric pressure that isn’t compensated by the pressure inside would make the classroom compress
into a very small volume.
6 Take a small, thin strip of wood, and place half on the table and half off the table, as shown in the image below.
Cover the part of the wooden strip that is on the table with sheets of newspaper, making sure that there is no air
underneath them (you could use screwed up balls of paper to weigh down the edges if part of the paper is not
entirely flat). You are going to hit the part of the wood that is protruding from the table with a strong and quick hit
with your fist. Before you do, what do you think will happen? Hit the wood, observe what happens and explain why.
ANSWER
WF Although we would imagine that the sheets of newspaper would
go flying, what actually happens is that the wooden strip breaks.
The existing atmospheric pressure on the sheets of newspaper, with
nothing to compensate below them, is equivalent to a huge amount
of weight on that surface, making the wooden strip break when it is hit.

10
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
Pascal’s barrel
Remember that...
In 1653, the French physicist Pascal performed one of the most simple, yet surprising, scientific experiments that has ever
been carried out. He wanted to demonstrate the already known fact that the pressure at any point in a fluid is transmitted
to all points in the rest of the fluid with the same intensity.
To do this:
1. He filled a large barrel with water. The barrel was made out of very strong strips of wood (called staves) that were
securely attached to one another.
2. Then, he introduced a long, narrow, hollow tube through the lid of the barrel.
3. Next, he climbed up a stepladder and started to pour water down the tube.
4. When the water had risen a few metres up the tube, the barrel burst, with all the water coming out.
How could the barrel burst after adding such little weight with such little water?
The answer is not in the weight, but in the pressure and the principle of the transmission of a fluid, which we mentioned above.
Note that the hydrostatic pressure exerted on the water particles in the barrel in contact with the tube is:
p = d ? g ? h,
*
where
g = gravity
h = height of liquid inside the tube
This pressure is transmitted equally to all of the other particles of water in the barrel. The key is that the pressure is directly
proportional to the height of the column of the liquid, h, regardless of the amount of liquid there is; so by increasing h,
the pressure also increases, which in turn is transmitted to all points and the barrel bursts.

10
WORKSHEET 4
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
1 Answer:
ANSWER
a)
If Pascal had used a tube that was twice as wide, would the liquid have had to be higher or lower for the barrel to burst?
There would have been no change. The pressure only depends on the h and not on the amount of liquid, which comes
in this case from the width of the tube.
b) What about if the tube was twice as narrow?

There would be no change, for the same reason as above.
c)
What is the minimum amount of water needed for the barrel to burst?
There is no minimum amount, because we can always reduce it using a narrower tube. The pressure only depends on the h.
d) If Pascal had done the experiment on the Moon, would the liquid have to be higher or lower for the barrel to burst?
Since there is less gravity on the Moon, the liquid would have to higher to achieve the necessary pressure for the barrel
to burst, as:
p=d?g?h
e) 3
If Pascal had poured a banana milkshake (d = 2 g/cm ) down the tube, would the level of the liquid have to be higher
or lower for the barrel to burst?
Milkshake has a higher density, so to achieve the necessary pressure for the barrel to burst, it would need a height h
of less, as:
p=d?g?h
f)
If Pascal had done the experiment with the barrel on its side, would the liquid have to be higher or lower for the barrel
to burst?
It would have to be at the same height h as before, as the pressure exerted by the liquid in the tube on the new particles
in the barrel would be transmitted to all points of the liquid equally and the barrel would burst like before.
g)
If we added a second tube identical to the first, parallel and connected to the barrel, then started pouring water
in just one of them, what would happen?
The water would start to climb the other tube until it was at the same level (same height) as the first.
Observe: you have just constructed some communicating vessels, the fluids in the tubes and the barrel are connected.
h) What about if we poured water down both tubes?

The water in both tubes would reach the same level, because we have communicating vessels.
i)
What about if the second tube was five times wider than the first?
The liquids of the tubes would reach the same level; in communicating vessels, the shape of the containers
and the volume, etc. do not matter.

10
WORKSHEET 5
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
Archimedes' principle of flotation

Remember that...
Archimedes found the answer to the following problem over 2000 years ago.
If we have two identical cups with the same amount of water inside and weigh them, the scales will give us the same result.
What would happen if we put our hand inside the cup without touching the edges?
Would the weight change?
It’s not very easy to guess the answer. Either our hand would float in the water or we could keep it tense so that our arm
supported its weight, and the reading on the scales wouldn't change.
The answer is yes, the weight shown on the scale will increase.
1 Review what you know about Archimedes’ principle and calculate exactly how much the weight shown on the scales
would increase by when you put your hand in the cup. Suppose we know that the cup is cylindrical, with a radius
of 5 cm, and when you put your hand in, the water level would rise half a centimetre and have a density of d = 1g/cm 3.
ANSWER
The weight would increase by exactly the amount of displaced liquid.
First we find the volume of the displaced liquid:
Vcylinder = A base ? h = r ? R 2 ? h = r ? (5 cm) 2 ? 0.5 cm = 39.3 cm 3
And then...
m
As d = " m = d ? V = 1 g/ cm3 ? 39 cm3 = 39 g "
V
" W = m ? g = 0.039 kg ? 9.8 N/kg = 0.382 N

2 Explain how the weight shown on the scales would change if the two cups were filled to the brim and when you
put your hand in, some water spills over.
ANSWER
They would weigh the same, as the weight of the hand is the same as the displaced liquid.

10
SOLVED PROBLEMS
FORCES IN FLUIDS
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
The pistons of a hydraulic press have a circular section with radii of 4 and 20 cm, respectively.
a) Calculate the force attained by the larger piston when a force of 30 N is exerted on the small piston.
b) If you wanted to lift a box with a 90 kg mass, would the force obtained be sufficient?
c) If it isn't sufficient, how would you modify the machine to make this possible, using the same amount
of force?
Approach and answer

a)
In problems like this, Pascal's principle has to be applied: c)
To make the resultant force on the large piston F2 greater
the pressures will be equal in both pistons, and therefore able to lift the box, we have to change the
F1 F2 size of the large piston. Thus, by exerting the same force
therefore: = . on the small piston, the resultant force on the large piston
A1 A2
will be greater.
The two sections would be:
Applying Pascal's principle again, we get:
A1 = r ? R12 = r ? (0.04 m)2 = 5 ? 10-3 m2
F1 F2
A2 = r ? R 22 = r ? (0.2 m)2 = 0.1257 m2 =
A1 A2
Substituting the data in the expression, We calculate the new A2 that would enable us to lift
30 N F2 30 N 882 N
we would get: = . the box: = ; therefore:
5 ? 10-3 m 2 0.1257 m 2 5 ? 10-3 m 2 A2
By isolating, we get:
A2 = 0.147 m2 = r ? R 22
F2 = 754 N
The radius of the large piston would be:
b)
We asked ourselves whether this force will be enough
to lift a box weighing 90 kg. The weight of this box would A2 0.147 m 2
R2 = = = 0.216 m = 21.6 cm
be 90 kg ? 9.8 N / kg N = 882, therefore it would not r r
be enough.
ACTIVITIES
1 By exerting a force F1 of 100 N on the small 3 The surface area of the small piston of a hydraulic
piston of a hydraulic press, a mass of 1000 kg press is 4 cm2, and the surface area of the large
can be raised on the large piston. If both pistons one is 2 dm2. Calculate:
are circular, what is the relationship between a)
The force that the large piston will receive when
their radii? a mass of 5 kg is placed on the small piston.
Answer: R2 = 10 ? R1 b) The pressure on the larger piston.
2 In a hydraulic press, the section of the large piston Answer: F = 2450 N; P = 122 500 Pa
is 3 dm2, and that of the smaller one is 0.5 dm2.
What is the maximum weight that can be raised
4 A hydraulic press has pistons with a surface area
when a 100 kg load is placed on the small piston? of a = 6 cm2 and A = 600 cm 2. A 10 kg object
is placed on the small piston. Calculate the weight
a)
60 N. c) 1500 N. that has to be placed on the large piston so that
b) 6000 N. d) 166 N. the two pistons are at the same height.
Answer: b) Answer: 9800 N

10
SOLVED PROBLEMS
FORCES IN FLUIDS
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
A stone with a mass of 2.5 kg has an apparent weight of 20 N when submerged in water. Calculate:
a) The buoyant force it experiences.
b) The volume of the stone. (dwater = 1000 kg/m3).
c) The density of the stone.
Approach and answer

a)
We can calculate the buoyant force by finding Because the stone is fully submerged, the volume
the difference between the weight of the stone of the stone will be the same as the volume of the water
in the air and its apparent weight in water. displaced. So, we can calculate V by isolating it from
Win the air = 2.5 kg ? 9.8 N/kg = 24.5 N the expression above:
Win water = 20 N FB 4.5 N
V= = =
dwater ? g 1000 kg/m3 ? 9.8 N/kg
FB = Win air - Win water = 4.5 N
= 4.6 ? 10-4 m3
b) The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the displaced
c)
We can calculate the density of the stone using
water, which we can express mathematically as
the expression:
FB = dwater ? Vwater ? g.
m stone 2.5 kg
d stone = = = 5434 kg/m3
Vstone 4.6 ? 10-4 m 3
ACTIVITIES
1 An aluminium cube with 4 cm sides hangs from 4 A steel ball with a mass of 200 g is submerged
a dynamometer and is submerged in water. in a container of water. The weight of the ball in the
What weight will the dynamometer show? water is 1.71 N. What is the density of the steel?
(dAl = 2700 kg/m3; dwater = 1000 kg/m3.) a)
7840 kg/m3. c)
8840 kg/m3.
a)
1.06 N. c)
1.69 N. b) 6840 kg/m3. d) 9840 kg/m3.
b) 10 662 N. d) 0.94 N. Answer: a)
Answer: a) 1.06 N
5 A hollow metal sphere with a diameter of 5 cm floats
2 An object has a mass m and a density of 2.75 g/cm . 3 in water, with half of its volume submerged.
We drop it into some water (d = 1 g/cm3). a)
Calculate its weight (dwater = 1000 kg/m3; g = 10 m/s2).
a)
Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the b) If it was submerged in alcohol that has a density
object and write the value of the resultant force. of 800 kg/m3, would it sink more or less?
b) In which direction will it move? What type Answer: a
) 0.32 N; b) It would sink a bit more,
of movement is it? Vs = 4 ? 10-5 m3
c) State the physical principle involved in the
phenomenon.
6 A piece of mineral weighs 0.27 N in the air and 0.23 N
when it is submerged in water. Calculate its density.
3 A wooden cube block with 8 cm sides is submerged Will it float in water? (dwater = 1000 kg/m3.)
in water. Calculate: Answer: 6750 kg/m3; it won’t float
a)
The buoyant force exerted on it.
7 If we know that the density of silver is 10 500 kg/m3,
b) When equilibrium is reached, the volume calculate the amount of silver contained in a ring that,
of the block that will be submerged. when submerged in water, experiences an apparent
(dwood = 700 kg/m3; dwater = 1000 kg/m3; g = 10 m/s2.) loss of mass of 2 g. (dwater = 1000 kg/m3.)
Answer: a) 5.12 N; b) 358.4 cm3 Answer: 21 g

10
SOLVED PROBLEMS
FORCES IN FLUIDS
SOLVED PROBLEM 3
Torricelli’s experiment made it possible to measure atmospheric pressure. If we did the experiment with water
instead of mercury, how high would the water in the tube reach?
Data: dmercury = 13 600 kg/m3; dwater = 1000 kg/m3.
Approach and answer

In Torricelli's experiment, the height of the mercury If we had used water instead of mercury, only the height
in the tube was 76 cm. First, we calculate the value of the fluid in the tube would have changed, due to the
of atmospheric pressure using this data. difference in the density of the two fluids.
The pressure exerted by the fluid can be expressed as: So, if p = 101 292.8 Pa, d = 1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.8 m/s2,
p=d?g?h by isolating h from the expression of the pressure, we get:
Therefore, in Torricelli’s experiment: F 1N

p= = = 2 ? 10 6 Pa = 19.7 atm
A 5 ? 10-7 m 2
p = 13 600 kg/m3 ? 9.8 N/kg ? 0.76 m = 101 292.8 Pa
This would be the height that the fluid in the tube would
have reached if water had been used.
ACTIVITIES
1 We measure the pressure in a certain location with 4 In Torricelli’s barometer, the atmospheric pressure
a barometer, resulting in 74 cm of mercury. Calculate: at sea level is equivalent to a height of 760 mm Hg.
a)
The pressure in that location, measured How high would the level be if an alcohol barometer
in atmospheres and pascals. was used?
b) The force exerted on a person’s body, assuming (dmercury = 13 600 kg/m3; dalcohol = 792 kg/m3.)
they have a surface area of 1.5 m2. a)
600 mm. c)
13.05 m.
Answer: a) p = 0.97 atm = 98 261 Pa; b) 147 391.5 N b) 0.54 m. d) 79.2 cm.
Answer: c)
2 Devices designed to measure atmospheric pressure
are called: 5 How high would you have to climb for the atmospheric
a)
Manometers. pressure to drop by 2 mm Hg?
b) Dynamometers. (dair = 1.3 kg/m3).
c)
Barometers. a)
2 km. c)
1200 m.
d) Aerometers. b) 21 m. d) 21 km.
Answer: c) Answer: b)
3 Explain why balloons filled with helium gas rise 6 A balloon with a volume of 500 m3 is filled with helium
up in the air. gas with a density 0.18 kg/m3. What is the maximum
(dair = 1.3 kg/m3; dhelium = 0.18 kg/m3). load the balloon can carry and still be able to rise?
Answer: Because their weight is less than the buoyant (dair = 1.3 kg/m3.)
force exerted on them. Answer: Up to 560 kg

10
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Pascal's principle
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Two syringes. • Oil or vaseline.
To check Pascal’s principle.
• Small plastic tube.
PROCEDURE
Pascal’s principle can be demonstrated using two laboratory syringes

and a plastic tube.
1. Pull out the plunger of the first syringe.
2. Press the other one down completely.
3. Join them together with a plastic tube that fits well around the bottom part
of the syringes.
4. Press the plunger of the first syringe until it is halfway down. Look carefully
at what happens and then answer:
What happens in the other syringe?
Pressure is exerted on the air in the tube. This pressure is then evenly
transmitted to the second syringe and pushes the plunger up.
5. Keep pressing down on the plunger until it reaches the bottom.
Now, the second plunger will have risen all the way up.
6. If we repeat the experiment starting with the second syringe, we will see
that the same effect is produced.
To reduce the frictional force of the plunger, we can put a little bit of oil
or vaseline on it.
QUESTIONS
1 Briefly describe Pascal's principle.
2 Would the result of the experiment be different if we put water in the syringe instead of air?
Why?
3 What does the oil or vaseline used in this experiment do?
4 In a similar experiment, imagine we used different‐sized syringes (different thicknesses). Using diagrams to help you,
describe how the experiment is carried out and what results are obtained.
5 Design another experiment that demonstrates Pascal’s principle.
6 Do the experiment and write a report, including the equipment needed and the procedure you followed.

10
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Observing some of the effects of atmospheric pressure
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Erlenmeyer flask. • Tongs.
• To check the existence of atmospheric
• Bunsen burner. • Empty soft drink can.
pressure.
• Crystalliser. • Boiled egg.
• To explain some simple experiments that
demonstrate atmospheric pressure. • Ring and wire gauze. • Water.
• Support stand.
PROCEDURE
Carry out two simple experiments involving atmospheric pressure.

1. A boiled egg enters an Erlenmeyer flask, on its own.
• Place the ring on a support stand at the appropriate height so you
can put the Bunsen burner underneath and place the wire gauze
on top.
• Pour some water in a Erlenmeyer flask (the mouth should be wide
enough to hold a boiled egg without it falling into the flask).
• Place the Erlenmeyer flask on the wire gauze and put the peeled
boiled egg in the mouth of the flask.
• Light the Bunsen burner.
• Keep it over the flame until just after the water starts to boil
(the egg will 'bounce' without falling).
• Turn off the heat and wait.
• Watch what happens.
2. A soft drink can implodes.
• Pour some water in an empty soft drink can and place it on top
of the wire gauze.
• Light the burner and keep the can over the flame, until you see
steam coming out.
• Pour some cold water into the crystalliser.
• Using the tongs, quickly place the can upside down into
the crystalliser.
• Watch what happens.
QUESTIONS
1 Describe what happens to the boiled egg at the end of experiment 1 and what happens to the soft drink can
at the end of experiment 2.
2 Why does the egg deform and fall into the Erlenmeyer flask?
3 What makes the drink can implode?
4 There is a way to get the egg out of the Erlenmeyer flask without breaking it. Can you think of how it could be done?
(Hint: you have to make the pressure inside the Erlenmeyer flask greater than the external pressure.)

10
ASSESSMENT
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 The tip of a needle with a 0.5 mm2 surface area is pushed with
a force of 10 N through some fabric to sew on a button.
a) Why do the sharp points of needles have a very small surface area?
b) Determine the pressure exerted by the needle on the fabric.
Express it in pascals and atmospheres (1 atm = 101 325 Pa).
2 A metal cube with a mass of 7300 kg and a surface area

of 1 m2 is placed on the ground. Calculate:
a) The weight of the metal cube.
b) The pressure it exerts on the ground.
c) The density of the metal.
d) Check the data and say what type of metal it could be.
Metal Density (kg/m3)
Iron 7860
Gold 19 300
Silver 10 500
Lead 11 340
Aluminium 2700
Copper 8920
Chrome 7200
Tin 7300
3 A submarine dives to a depth of 100 m under the sea,

where the density of the seawater is 1030 kg/m3.
a) Calculate the pressure exerted on the submarine.
b) What force will have to be exerted by a crew member
to open a hatch door with a surface area of 0.5 m2?
c) What is the equivalent in kilograms of the lifting force
that has to be applied?
4 The large piston of a hydraulic press has a surface area of 1 m2, and the small piston, 0.1 m2.
We want to lift a mass of 1000 kg.
Calculate:
a) Where should we put the mass?
b) How much force do we need to apply?
c) What pressure will be exerted on the small piston? What about on the large one?

Name: Class: Date:
5 An object weighs 100 N in the air and 75 N when it is submerged in water.

Calculate the following:
a) The buoyant force it experiences.
b) Its volume.
c) Its density.
6 A hot air balloon contains a volume of 2000 m3 of helium and is carrying passengers in its basket with a total
mass of 300 kg.
a) What is the total weight of the balloon?
b) Calculate the buoyant force exerted on the balloon.
c) Will the balloon be able to stay in the air?
Data: average density of air = 1.3kg / m3; density of helium = 0.2 kg/m3.

a) When the height remains the same, why does the atmospheric pressure increase when the air temperature decreases?
b) How do changes in atmospheric pressure affect the weather?

10
ASSESSMENT
FORCES IN FLUIDS
1 a) So that the pressure exerted is large, even if the force applied is small.
b)
The surface area of the tip of the needle is expressed in SI, as 5 ? 10-7 m2, therefore:
F 1N
p= = = 2 ? 10 6 Pa = 19.7 atm
A 5 ? 10-7 m 2
2 a)
W = m ? g = 7300 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 = 71 540 N
b)
The contact surface area of the cube is 1 m2. Therefore:
F 71 540 N
p= = = 71 540 Pa
A 1 m2
c)
The volume of the block is 1 m3. Therefore:
m 7300 kg
d= = = 7300 kg/m 3
V 1 m3
d)
The metal's density corresponds to that of tin.
3 a) The hydrostatic pressure will be:
p = dliquid? g ? h = 1030 kg/m3 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 100 m = 1 009 400 Pa = 9.96 atm
b) F = p ? A = 1 009 400 Pa ? 0.5 m 2 = 504 700 N
W 504 700 N
c) F = W = m ? g " m = = = 51500 kg
g 9.8 m/s 2
FW2
4 a) Applying a force to the surface area of the large piston generates pressure
that is evenly transmitted to all points of the fluid. As a result, the same amount FW1 p1 = p2
of pressure is exerted on the small piston (Pascal’s principle).
So the force should be applied to the small piston to multiply its effect
on the large piston, where we should place the mass that we want to lift.
F1 F2 A1 A2
A 0.1 m 2
p1 = p2 "
b) = ; F = F2 ? 1 = 1000 N ? = 100 N
A1 A2 1 A2 1 m2
We wil need to apply a force of 100 N.
c)
The pressure is the same on both pistons:
F1 F2 100 N
p1 = p2 = = = = 100 Pa
A1 A2 1m 2
5 a) The buoyant force can be obtained by finding the difference between its weight
in the air and its weight when submerged in water (apparent weight):
FB = W – Wapparent = 100 N – 75 N = 25 N
b)
The buoyant force is the same as the weight of the displaced liquid: FB = V ? dliquid ? g.
The volume of the body is the same as the volume of the displaced liquid:
FB 25 N
Vliquid = Vobject = = = 0.002 551 m 3 = 2551 cm 3
d? g 1000 kg/m 3 ? 9.8 m/s 2
c)
The density of the body is the relationship between its mass and the volume occupied by it.
First we have to calculate the mass of the body based on its weight:
W 100 N
W= m? g"m= = = 10.2 kg "
g 9.8 m/s 2
m 10.2 kg
"d= = = 4002 kg/m 3
V 0.002 55 m 3
6 a) The total weight of the balloon includes the basket with the passengers, and the weight of the balloon
with the helium inside:
WTotal = Wbasket + Wballoon
Wbasket = m ? g = 300 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 = 2940 N; Wballoon = mhelium ? g
We don’t know the mass, but we do know the volume and density:

m
d= " mhelium = dhelium ? Vballoon = 0.2 kg/m3 ? 2000 m3 = 400 kg "
V
" Wballoon = 400 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 = 3920 N " WTotal = 2940 N + 3920 N = 6860 N
b)
The buoyant force of the balloon depends on its volume and the density of the displaced fluid, in this case the air.
FB = Vballoon ? dair ? g = 2000 m3 ? 1.3 kg/m3 ? 9.8 m/s2 = 25 480 N
c)
To keep the balloon in the air, the upward buoyant force exerted vertically upwards must be greater than the weight, which acts
vertically and downwards. As the buoyant force (25 480 N) is greater than the total weight of the balloon (6860 N), the balloon
will rise in the air.
7 a) Because as the temperature decreases, the volume of air decreases, causing the density to increase. Therefore, the atmospheric
pressure (which is expressed by p = d ? h ? g) also increases.
b)
Changes in atmospheric pressure cause air masses to move. This in turn gives rise to fronts, which cause different types
of weather phenomena.

NOTES

11
WORK AND ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
1. Work is often associated with effort. We recommend 2. Knowing about different types of energy and how some
highlighting how the concept of work is defined in Physics, types of energy transform into others is very important
relating it to force and displacement, and the mechanical when it comes to analysing their qualities. It also allows
transfer of energy. We introduce the concept of power us to explain the law of conservation of energy.
by looking at the time it takes to do work.
OBJECTIVES
• Identify how energy transformations explain some • Define mechanical energy and recognise the forms
everyday phenomena. in which it presents itself.
• Describe how energy is transferred mechanically • Explain the conservation of mechanical energy in simple
and thermally. situations.
• Distinguish between what we understand as work • Understand the concept of power and efficiency.
in our daily lives, and its definition in Physics.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • The concept of energy.

• Mechanical work and units.
• Work done by frictional force.
• Types of energy.
• Mechanical energy.
• Kinetic energy and potential energy.
• The law of conservation of mechanical energy.
• Mechanical power and units.
• Maximum power.
• Efficiency.
KNOW HOW TO • Identify kinetic energy and potential energy in different situations.
• Recognise work as a form of energy exchange.
• Solve problems related to work, power and conservation of mechanical energy.
• Test the law of conservation of energy in a laboratory experiment.
BE ABLE TO • Appreciate the role of energy in everyday activities.

• Be aware of the importance of energy saving.
• Understand the need to find solutions for treating and storing nuclear
waste from electric power stations.

11
WORK AND ENERGY
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1.
Defining energy is not a simple task, because it is quite despite a force being applied, such as pushing against
an abstract concept. It is a commonly used term and a wall or holding an object still at a certain height above
students are familiar with it, but not with its definition. the ground.
Studying the different types of energy that some bodies 3. Mechanical energy manifests itself in two forms: kinetic
have, and the possible transformations from some forms energy and potential energy. Its total amount remains
of energy into others is important when we analyse its constant or is conserved in systems where no other type
qualities (it can be transformed, transferred, conserved, of energy is involved. It is important to show students
degraded). It also helps to present the concept as the examples in which one type of energy is transformed
ability that a body has to produce changes, either in into another and the sum remains constant.
itself or in other bodies.
4. The concept of power is important when talking about
2. In everyday language, we often associate work with effort. energy transformations, especially when describing
We recommend highlighting that work, as a scientific different types of machine. There are many examples
concept, implies the application of a force and that there that can be used to highlight the importance of the time
is displacement in the direction of this force. If any of these spent doing work. Analysing them will help students
quantities is zero, there is no work. We also recommend to differentiate between the concepts of power and work
analysing everyday situations in which no work is done, more easily.
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that energy comes in, from subatomic electrons and protons, David MacKay looks at the basic mathematics that show
to portable batteries, massive nuclear power stations and worrying limitations on our sustainable energy options,
wind turbines. This site will help students understand different but explains why we should pursue them anyway.
forms of energy, and learn about where and how they fit into
the broader scope of electricity production and distribution
around the country. This will help them to think about the
JouleBug (iOs, Android). Living a sustainable lifestyle can
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players all about energy, sustainability and environmental
management.
Keywords: energy, simulation, game.

11
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
1 Bodies can exchange energy in two ways, mechanically 8 Two cyclists with equal masses participate in a
and thermally. mountain race. It takes them 30 and 31 minutes
a) In which of these is work done during the exchange? respectively to ascend a mountain pass.
Which of the two did more work? Which has
b) Until what moment will two bodies exchange energy more power? Explain your answers.
in the form of heat?
9 Which quantities do the following units measure?
2 In hydroelectric power stations, stored water
is released from a certain height. This water flows a) Kilowatt hour.
through a turbine, causing the blades to turn. b) Joule.
a) What type of energy does the stored water have? c) Watt.
b) What type of energy does it have when it moves d) Calorie.
the turbine blades?
10 In the following cases, specify whether there
3 Explain the energy transformations that occur is potential energy, kinetic energy or both:
in the following situations: a)
A man standing up and looking out of a window.
a) A stone falls, hits the ground and stops. b) A person running through the street.
b) A bulb lights up. c)
A bow and arrow held taut, ready to shoot.
4 When a person carries a sack up some stairs to the d) An arrow that has been shot and is in flight.
second floor of a building, the chemical energy stored
11 A body moves along an inclined plane under
in their muscles is transformed into:
the influence of its own weight force. If frictional
a)
Thermal energy. force is present:
b) Potential energy. a) Why is mechanical energy not conserved
c) Kinetic energy. in this motion?
d) Electrical energy. b) What is the degraded energy transformed into?
c) Is the total energy of the system conserved?
5 A plane is moving along the runway, about to take off.
It lifts up off the ground and reaches a certain speed. 12 A worker pushes a 500 kg cart 10 m along
The energy transformation that has occurred is: a horizontal track with a horizontal force of 200 N.
" Kinetic energy.
a) Potential energy There is no friction. Calculate:
b) Chemical energy " Kinetic energy. a)
The work done.
c) Chemical energy " Potential energy + kinetic b) The kinetic energy the cart has acquired.
energy. c)
The cart’s speed at the end of its journey.
d) Thermal energy " Kinetic energy.
13 A lift car has a mass of 400 kg and carries 4 people,
Choose the correct answer.
each with a mass of 75 kg. If it goes up to a height
6 When a 10 kg body is held for 30 s, what work is done? of 25 m in 2.5 minutes, calculate:
Explain your answer. a) The work done by the lift.
b) The average power developed, expressed
7 In which of the following situations is a force doing in kilowatts and horsepower.
work?
a)
A man on a metro platform holding a bag.
b) A miner pushing a cart.
c) A book placed on a table.
d) A lamp hanging from the ceiling.

11
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
1 a) Work is done when bodies exchange energy mecanically. 9 a) Work ‐ energy.

b) Bodies will exchange energy in the form of heat until b) Work ‐ energy.
they reach the same temperature, or thermal equilibrium. c) Power.
2 a) The water has potential energy, because it is stored d) Thermal energy.
at a certain height. 10 a) Potential energy.
b) When it reaches the turbine, the water has kinetic
b) Potential and kinetic energy.
energy because it is in motion.
c) Potential elastic energy.
3 a) The potential energy stored by the stone is transformed
d) Kinetic and potential energy.
into kinetic energy while it falls, and when it hits
the ground it is transformed into heat. 11 a) Mechanical energy is not conserved because part of this
energy is used to overcome the work done by friction.
b)
The electrical energy is transformed into light energy
and heat. b) The energy that is degraded is transformed into heat.
c) Yes, the total energy of the system is conserved.
This is one of the main characteristics of energy.
5 The correct answer is c).
12 a) W = F ? s = 200 N ? 10 m = 2 ? 103 J.
6 No work is done since there is no displacement.
b) In this case: EK = W = 2 ? 103 J.
7 Work is only done in b). 1
c) E K = m ? v 2 "
8 The two cyclists do the same work, since both have 2
to overcome the same force throughout the same journey: 2 ? EC 2 ? 2 ? 10 3 J
"v= = = 2.82 m/s.
W=F?s m 500 kg
However, the cyclist that takes less time will develop more 13 a) W = mE ? g ? h = (400 kg + 4 ? 75 kg) 9.8 m/s2 ? 25 m =
power, as it is inversely proportional to the time taken. = 171 500 J.
W 171500 J
b) P = = = 1.14 kW;
t 2.5 ? 60 s
P = 1.55 HP.

11
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 Describe the energy transformations that occur 8 The graph below shows the changes in the kinetic
when a car is moving: and potential energy of a body with a mass of 2 kg
a)
In the battery. throughout its motion. Answer the following
questions:
b) In the engine.
Energy (J)
c) In the tyres.
120
2 Describe the energy transformations that occur 100

in the following processes:
80
a) Gas burning in a boiler.
60
b) Photosynthesis in a plant.
40
c)
A car braking until it stops on a flat road.
20
3 We have to load a 50‐litre barrel onto a lorry.
0
Which of the following options will require 0 1 2 3 4 5
more work? Height (m)
a) If we lift it up directly.
a) Which type of motion is represented?
b) If we push it up a ramp.
b) What is the initial speed?
4 To remove a tyre from a car, we use a wrench c) What height does is rise to?
that consists of a long‐armed lever. Why?
d) What are the maximum and minimum values
a) Less force is required.
of kinetic and potential energy?
b) Less energy is required.
e)
What happens at the point where the two lines
intersect?
5 Determine the characteristics of the work done
by the force F in the following cases: f)
How would you explain the energy changes
that appear in the graph? (g = 10 m/s2).
a)
The force F has the same orientation and direction
as the displacement s.
9 Analyse the following statement and explain whether
b) The force F has the same orientation but opposite it is true or false: ‘When a car travels on a horizontal
direction to the displacement s. road at a constant velocity, according to Newton’s
c)
The force F is perpendicular to the displacement s. second law, the resultant force acting on it is zero.
Therefore, the car’s engine doesn’t do any work.
d) The force F forms a 30° angle with the
In other words, it doesn’t consume petrol.’
displacement s.
10 A car has a mass of 1500 kg. Calculate the power

6 A boy on a roller coaster descends from a point A
located at a height of 50 m at a speed of 5 m/s. its engine needs to produce in order to accelerate
Later, he passes through another point B located from a speed of 36 km/h to 108 km/h in 20 s.
at a height of 20 m. What speed will he be travelling Express the answer in kilowatts and in horsepower.
at when he passes through point B?
11 A 20 kg body is resting on a horizontal surface.
7 An object falls freely from a height of 20 m. Calculate:
What will its speed be when it reaches a) The work done when lifting it 5 m.
the ground?
b) The potential energy gained.
a) 20 m/s.
c)
The work needed to drag it 5 m along the ground
b) 0 m/s. at a constant velocity if the coefficient of friction
c)
15 m/s. is 0.25.
d) We can’t tell unless we know the mass of the body. d) The kinetic energy acquired (g = 10 m/s2).

11
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
1 a) Chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy. 7 The correct answer is a).
b)
The chemical energy from the combustion of petrol 1
m ? g ? h = m ? v 2 " v = 20 m/s.
is transformed into heat and mechanical energy. 2
c)
Mechanical energy is transformed into heat due 8 a) A vertical throwing motion.
to the friction between the tyres and the road.
b) v0 = 10 m/s.
2 a) The chemical energy stored in the gas is transformed c) h = 5 m.
into heat.
d)
EK max. = 100 J; EK min. = 0; EP max. = 100 J;
b)
Light energy from the Sun is transformed into EP min. = 0 J.
chemical energy.
e)
EK = EP = 50 J.
c) Mechanical energy is transformed into heat.
f)
The law of conservation of energy is satisfied:
3 The work done is the same in both cases. as the body goes up, the kinetic energy is transformed
4 a) The energy used is the same, but less force is required. into potential energy.
5 a)
W = F ? s; W > 0; W = max. 9 The statement is false. Even though the resultant force
is zero, the engine is exerting a force equal to the frictional
b) W = -F ? s; W < 0; W = min.
force; therefore, it is doing work and consumes petrol.
c) W = 0.
W
10 W = DEK " P = = 30 kW; P = 40.8 HP.
d) W = F ? s ? cos 30°. t
6 EK + EP = constant " 11 a) W = m ? g ? h = 20 kg ? 10 m/s2 ? 5 m = 1000 J
1 b) EP = m ? g ? h = 20 kg ? 10 m/s2 ? 5 m = 1000 J
" m ? g ? h 1 + m ? v 12 =
2
c)
W = FF ? d = n ? m ? g ? d =
1
= m ? g ? h 2 + m ? v 22 " = 0.25 ? 20 kg ? 10 m/s2 ? 5 m = 250 J
2
1 2 1 d) EK = W = 250 J.
2
" g ? h1 + v 1 = g ? h 2 + ? v 2 "
2 2
" v2 = 2 ? g ? ( h1 - h 2) + v 12 =
= 2 ? 9.8 m /s ? (50 m - 20 m ) + (5 m /s ) 2
" v2 = 24.76 m/s

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
The law of conservation of mechanical energy

Remember that…
When gravity is the only force acting on a body that changes its position and its velocity, the mechanical energy of the body
remains constant. In other words, it has the same value during the whole process.
This is called the law of conservation of mechanical energy. Remember that mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic
and potential energy:
EM = EK + EP
SOLVED PROBLEM
A person drops their glasses while looking down onto the street from the rooftop of a building that is 30 m high.
ANSWER
a) At what speed will the glasses reach the ground?
Using what you know about kinematics, we can easily solve this problem. In Physics, we can also solve problems
from the point of view of energy.
In this problem, since only gravitational force is acting (it causes the glasses to accelerate), the law of conservation
of mechanical energy is satisfied. The mechanical energy is constant during the fall, so the amount of potential
energy that the glasses lose when falling is gained in kinetic energy, the sum of both remaining constant.
1. Since the mechanical energy is constant during the fall, we have to make it equal at two points:
where we have data for (at the top, position A) and where we want to find out something about
(at the bottom, position B):
A
EM = constant " EM A = EM B " EK A + EP A = EK B + EP B "
1 1
" mv A2 + mgh A = mvB2 + mgh B
2 2
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out. Notice that the kinetic energy will be cancelled out
when the speed is zero, and the potential energy, when the height is zero:
In this case vA = 0, since ‘the glasses fall’ and hB = 0. Therefore, the two terms are cancelled out.
1 1 1
mv A2 + mgh A = mvB2 + mghB " mgh A = mvB2
2 2 2
3. Divide it by m and get rid of the mass. As we already know (thanks to Galileo), mass does not affect
the speed at which they will reach the ground:
1 1
m gh A = m vB2 " gh A = vB2
2 2
4. Isolate what we want to find out (vB) and substitute the data:
v B2 = 2 gh A " vB = 2 gh A = 2 ? 9.8 m/s 2 ? 30 m = 24.25 m/s
continues "

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
b) What speed will the glasses have when they are 10 m above the ground?
To solve problems relating to h or v, we follow the four steps we saw on the previous page:
1. ince the mechanical energy is constant during the fall,

S
we have to make it equal at two points: where we have data
A for (position A or position B, since we already know that
hB = 0 and vB = 24.25 m/s) and where we want to find out
something about (new position C):
EM = constant " EM A = EM C " EK A + EP A = EK C + EP C "
C 1 1
hC = 10 m " mvA2 + mgh A = mvC2 + mghC
2 2
B
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out: in this case only vA = 0 is cancelled out.
1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvC2 + mghC " mgh A = mvC2 + mghC
2 2 2
3. Divide it by m and get rid of the mass:
1 2
gh A = vC + ghC
2
4. Isolate what we want to find out (vC) and substitute the data:
1 2
vC = gh A - ghC " vC2 = 2 g ? (h A - hC) "
2
" vC = 2 g ? (h A - hC) = 2 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? (30 - 10) m = 19.8 m/s

c) At what height above the ground were the glasses when they had a speed of 10 m/s?
Again, we apply the steps above:
1. ince the mechanical energy is constant during the fall, we make

S
it equal at two points: where we have data for (position A, B or C.
A We want to use A or B since one of the terms is cancelled out)
and where we want to find out about (new position D):
D
EM = constant " EM A = EM D " EK A + EP A = EK D + EP D "
1 1
C " mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mghD
2 2
B
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out: in this case, again, it’s only vA = 0 that is cancelled out.
Therefore:
1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D " mgh A = mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D
2 2 2

1 2
gh A = v D + gh D
2
4. Isolate what we want to find out (hD) and substitute the data:
1 2 1
gh A - vD 9.8 m/s2 ? 30 m - ? 10 2 m2 /s2
1 2 2
gh D = gh A - vD2 " hD = = = 24.9 m
2 g 9.8 m/s2

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
1 Use the steps followed in the example to solve the following problem: a tourist, A, drops a camera from the first floor
of the Eiffel Tower, at a height of 95 m above the ground:
a)
State the law of conservation of mechanical energy and explain what happens to the kinetic, potential and mechanical
energy while the camera falls. Draw a diagram of the problem with the data and complete it as you work through
the following steps.
A vA = 0
D vD = 25 m/s
C
hC = 40 m
B vB = 43.2 m/s
b) What will the camera's speed be when it reaches the ground? Follow these steps:
1. Make the mechanical energy equal at the two positions that we are interested in, draw them
in section a) and write the data that we know on the diagram.
2. If any term is cancelled out, remove it.
3. Divide it by m.
4. Isolate what we want to find out and substitute the data.

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
c) What will the camera's speed be when it is 40 m above the ground?

1. Make the mechanical energy equal at the two positions you are interested in, draw them in section a)
and write the data we know on the diagram.

vA = 0. Therefore:
3. Divide it by m.
d) At what height above the ground will the camera be when its speed is 25 m/s?
1. Make the mechanical energy equal at the two positions we are interested in, draw them in section a)
3. Divide it by m.
e)
Does the camera have the same amount of potential energy as kinetic energy halfway down to the ground?
Explain, without doing any calculations.
What about if the tourist had thrown the camera downwards at an initial speed? Explain your answer
without doing any numerical calculations.

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
SOLVED PROBLEM
A firework shoots upwards at a speed of 100 m/s. Using the law of conservation of energy, calculate:
ANSWER
a) What is the maximum height it will reach?
In this problem, since gravitational force is the only force present (slowing down the rocket), the law of conservation
of mechanical energy is satisfied. The mechanical energy remains constant during the launch upwards, so the amount
of kinetic energy that the rocket loses as it goes up is gained in potential energy, the sum of both remaining constant.
1.
vB = 0
vA = 100 m/s
Since the mechanical energy remains constant during the launch upwards, we make it equal at two points:
the one that we have data for (at the bottom, position A) and the one that we want to find out something
about (at the top, position B):
1 1
" mvA2 + mgh A = mvB2 + mgh B
2 2
In this case hA = 0 and vB = 0 (since when it stops is when it has reached the maximum height. If it didn’t stop,
it would continue to go upwards).
Therefore, two terms are cancelled out.
hA = 0; vB = 0.
1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvB2 + mgh B "
2 2
1
" mvA = mgh B
2
2
3. Divide it by m and get rid of the mass. As we already know (thanks to Galileo), its mass has no effect
on the maximum height:
1 1
m vA2 = m gh B " vA2 = gh B
2 2
4. Isolate what we want to find out (hB) and substitute the data:
v A2 100 2 m 2 /s 2
hB = = = 510.2 m
2g 2 ? 9.8 m/s 2
This is the maximum height (we have assumed that the rocket is only propelled at the beginning of its journey,
which is not exactly true).
b) What will the rocket's speed be when it is 150 m above the ground?
To solve any problem relating to h or v, we follow the four steps we learned previously.
continues "

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
1. ince the mechanical energy remains constant during the launch
S
upwards, we make it equal at two points: where we have data
vW
for (position A or position B, since we already know that
hB = 510.2 m and vB = 0 m/s), and where we want to find out
C about (new position C):
hC = 150 m
1 1
vA = 100 m/s " mvA2 + mgh A = mvC2 + mgh C
2 2
A
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out. In this case, only hA = 0 is cancelled out. Therefore:
1 1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvC2 + mgh C " mvA2 = mvC2 + mgh C
2 2 2 2

1 2 1
vA = vC2 + gh C
2 2
vC = vA2 - gh C " vC2 = 2 ? f vA2 - gh C p "

1 2 1 1
2 2 2
" vC = vA2 - 2 gh C = 1002 m2/s2 - 2 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 150 m = 84 m/s

c) At what height above the ground was the rocket when its speed was 50 m/s?
Again we apply the steps above:
1. Since the mechanical energy is constant during the launch
vC = 50 m/s upwards, we make it equal at two points: where we have data
C for (position A, B or C. We want to use A or B since one of the terms
is cancelled out) and where we want to find out something about
(new position D):
vA = 100 m/s
1 1
" mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D
A
2 2
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out: in this case, again, it’s only hA = 0 that is cancelled out.
Therefore:
1 1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D " m v 2A = m vD2 + m gh D
2 2 2 2
1 2 1
vA = vD2 + gh D
2 2
1 1
? (vA2 - vD2) ? (1002 - 502 ) m2 /s2
1 1 2 2
gh D = vA2 - vD2 " D
h = = = 382.7 m
2 2 g 9.8 m/s2

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
2 Follow the steps in the example to solve the following problem: a circus acrobat jumps on a trampoline,
propelling himself upwards at a speed of 15 m/s.
a)
energy of the acrobat as he jumps up. Draw a diagram of the problem with the data and complete it as you work through
the following sections.
b) What maximum height above the trampoline does the acrobat reach?
Follow these steps:
1. Make the mechanical energy equal at the two positions that you are interested in, draw them in section a)
and write the data that you know on the diagram.
3. Divide it by m.
4. Isolate what you want to find out and substitute the data.

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
c) What will the acrobat's speed be when he is 8 m above the trampoline?

and write the data you know on the diagram.
3. Divide it by m.
d) At what height above the trampoline will the acrobat be when his speed is 5 m/s?

hA = 0. Therefore:
3. Divide it by m.
e) At what position will the potential energy of the acrobat be greater than the kinetic energy he has when propelling
himself upwards? Explain your answer without doing any numerical calculations.

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
The law of conservation of energy

Remember that…
When a system evolves, its total energy remains constant. In other words, it is conserved. When there are other forces,
such as frictional force or external forces acting in addition to gravitational force, the mechanical energy no longer remains
constant. In the law of conservation of energy, we have to consider energy gains and losses resulting from these new forces.
This is an intuitive representation of the law of conservation of energy:
(Initial energy) + (Energy gained) - (Energy lost) = Final energy
In the expression above, we include the energies that go through a change. Those that remain constant are not included,
because since the initial energy and the final energy are the same, they can be simplified.
• What causes the system to gain energy?
The work done by the external forces that act in the same direction as the motion.
• What causes the system to lose energy?
The work done by the external forces that oppose motion. For example, frictional force.
Remember that work is a form of energy related to forces.
SOLVED PROBLEM
We throw an object along a horizontal table at a speed of 8 m/s. The coefficient of friction between the body
and the table is n = 0.7. Answer the following questions:
ANSWER
a) How far will it travel until it stops?
We could solve this problem using what we know about dynamics, but being a problem related to Physics,
it can also be solved from the point of view of energy:
We draw the initial situation (position A) and the final situation (position B):
W
N W
N
A B
vWA
vB = 0
DxW
FF
hA = hB W
P PW
continues "

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
In this case:
• Initial energy:
EM A = EK A + EP A
• Final energy:
EM B = EK B + EP B = EP B (EK B = 0, since vB = 0)
• Energy gained " 0. There are no external forces.
• Energy lost " WFrictional f.
Therefore, the law of conservation of energy is:
In other words:
EK A + EP A - WFrictional f. = EP B
In the equation above, EP A and EP B are superfluous, because the height doesn’t change, and so the potential
energy doesn’t change. Therefore, we get:
EK A - WFrictional f. = 0 " EK A = WFrictional f.
We can read the resulting equation as:
The amount of kinetic energy that the body initially had was completely consumed by the work done
by the frictional force, since both amounts of energy are the same.
Now we calculate the value of EK A and WFrictional f.:
1
• E K A = mvA2
2
• WFrictional f. = FF ? Dx ? cos 180° = n ? m ? g ? Dx ? (-1)
Since:
FF = n ? N = n ? W = n ? m ? g and cos 180° = -1
(Newton’s second law " N = W).
We take the WFrictional f. as an absolute value, since we have already taken its minus sign into account when
subtracting the energy lost.
Therefore:
1 1
EK A = WFrictional f. " m ? V 2A = n ? m ? g ? Dx " V 2A = n ? g ? Dx "
2 2
(The mass m is simplified.)
v 2A 8 2 m 2 /s 2
" Dx = = = 4.7 m is the distance it will travel until it stops.
2?n? g 2 ? 0.7 ? 9.8 m/s 2
b) What has the work done by the frictional force, which was previously transformed from kinetic energy,
been transformed into now?
Into another form of energy called heat. This will have caused an increase in temperature in the body
and the table, but will be barely noticeable since the bodies have a large mass, as we will see in the next unit.

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
1 Follow the steps in the example and using the law of conservation of energy, solve the following problem:
a boy is lying down on a rooftop terrace and flicks a bottle top with his finger, causing it to move at a speed
of 4 m/s. The coefficient of friction between the bottle top and the floor is n = 0.2.
a)
Will the top fall over the edge, passing under the railing of the rooftop, which is located 3.5 m away from the top when
it was flicked? (Hint: think about the distance the top will travel until it stops.)
1. Draw a diagram of the problem, with the bottle top in its supposed final position. Draw all the necessary vectors.
B A
2. Write the law of conservation of energy and how it relates to this problem.
3. Isolate the displacement of the bottle top until it stops, and substitute the data.
4. Answer the question.
b) In the event that it falls, what trajectory will the bottle top follow through the air?

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
2 On the ‘La Lanzadera’ ride in an amusement park in Madrid, passengers drop 53 m in free fall. They are slowed
down by magnetic forces while they drop a further 5 m, before stopping 4 m above the ground. The total mass
of the seats and passengers is one tonne.
a)
Calculate the work done by the magnetic braking forces.
1. Draw a diagram using the data from the problem.
2. Indicate the initial and the final positions and write the law of conservation of energy for this case.
3. Isolate the work done by the magnetic braking forces (use the absolute value) and substitute the data
from the problem.
b) What is the magnetic force exerted by the braking system?

1. Write the expression that relates WMagnetic F and Fmagnetic and use the absolute value.
2. Isolate Fmagnetic.

11
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
Is energy gained in mechanical machines?

Remember that…
Machines are devices that transform one type of energy or work into another more useful type.
Sometimes machines transform the force that we apply into another greater force. We exert less force
with less effort, but we are doing the same amount of work.
LEVER
By applying a force at one end (F1), we get another greater force at the other W1
F
end (F2). d1
When we apply F1, this end of the bar traces an arc, S1, which is greater S1
W2
F
than the arc traced at the other end, S2, where we get the force F2. a
Assuming that there is no energy loss due to friction, all of the work S2 a
d2
that we apply in 1 is applied to 2.
W1 = W2 " F1 ? S1 = F2 ? S2
S1 = d1 ? a; S2 = d2 ? a
The arc of a circumference is related to the corresponding radius and angle. As we can see in the diagram,
the angle of arc S1 is the same as the angle of arc S2.
F1 ? d1 ? a = F2 ? d 2 ? a " F1 ? d1 = F2 ? d2
Therefore, if d1 is greater than d2, we get a force (F2) that is greater than the force that we apply (F1).
This means that we can lift heavy weights with less force, as we can see below.
SOLVED PROBLEM
An inclined plane, or ramp, allows us to lift weights INCLINED PLANE

up to a certain height with less effort. For equal W1 W2
F F
heights, the greater the distance travelled along
F2 < F1
the plane, the less force we have to apply.
Is there an energy gain in the inclined plane?
ANSWER h h
d1 d2
No, the opposite is true, since in every machine there
is a loss of energy due to friction.
In both cases, we will have managed to raise the body
to a height h, increasing equally the potential energy of the body. Therefore, the work done will have been the same,
satisfying the law of conservation of energy:
On the one hand, W = DEP " W = DEP1 = DEP2 = m ? g ? h
On the other hand, W = F ? d " W1 = F1 ? d1; W 2 = F2 $ d 2
Since the change in potential energy is the same in both cases: W1 = W2 " F1 ? d1 = F2 ? d2
The work done is the same in both cases, although the greater the distance travelled along the inclined plane,
the less force we have to apply. In other words, if d2 > d1: F2 < F1

11
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
The law of conservation of mechanical energy

Remember that…
When gravity is the only force acting on a body that changes its position and its velocity, the mechanical energy of the body
remains constant. In other words, it has the same value during the whole process.
This is called the law of conservation of mechanical energy. Remember that mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic
and potential energy:
EM = EK + EP
SOLVED PROBLEM
A person drops their glasses while looking down onto the street from the rooftop of a building that is 30 m high.
ANSWER
a) At what speed will the glasses reach the ground?
Using what you know about kinematics, we can easily solve this problem. In Physics, we can also solve problems
from the point of view of energy.
In this problem, since only gravitational force is acting (it causes the glasses to accelerate), the law of conservation
of mechanical energy is satisfied. The mechanical energy is constant during the fall, so the amount of potential
energy that the glasses lose when falling is gained in kinetic energy, the sum of both remaining constant.
1. Since the mechanical energy is constant during the fall, we have to make it equal at two points:
where we have data for (at the top, position A) and where we want to find out something about
(at the bottom, position B):
A
1 1
" mv A2 + mgh A = mvB2 + mgh B
2 2
In this case vA = 0, since ‘the glasses fall’ and hB = 0. Therefore, the two terms are cancelled out.
1 1 1
2 2 2
3. Divide it by m and get rid of the mass. As we already know (thanks to Galileo), mass does not affect
the speed at which they will reach the ground:
1 1
2 2
4. Isolate what we want to find out (vB) and substitute the data:
continues "

11
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
b) What speed will the glasses have when they are 10 m above the ground?
To solve problems relating to h or v, we follow the four steps we saw on the previous page:
1. ince the mechanical energy is constant during the fall,

S
we have to make it equal at two points: where we have data
A for (position A or position B, since we already know that
hB = 0 and vB = 24.25 m/s) and where we want to find out
something about (new position C):
C 1 1
hC = 10 m " mvA2 + mgh A = mvC2 + mghC
2 2
B
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out: in this case only vA = 0 is cancelled out.
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 2
gh A = vC + ghC
2
1 2
vC = gh A - ghC " vC2 = 2 g ? (h A - hC) "
2
" vC = 2 g ? (h A - hC) = 2 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? (30 - 10) m = 19.8 m/s

c) At what height above the ground were the glasses when they had a speed of 10 m/s?
1. ince the mechanical energy is constant during the fall, we make

S
it equal at two points: where we have data for (position A, B or C.
A We want to use A or B since one of the terms is cancelled out)
and where we want to find out about (new position D):
D
1 1
C " mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mghD
2 2
B
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out: in this case, again, it’s only vA = 0 that is cancelled out.
Therefore:
1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D " mgh A = mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D
2 2 2

1 2
gh A = v D + gh D
2
1 2 1
gh A - vD 9.8 m/s2 ? 30 m - ? 10 2 m2 /s2
1 2 2
gh D = gh A - vD2 " hD = = = 24.9 m
2 g 9.8 m/s2

11
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
1 Use the steps followed in the example to solve the following problem: a tourist, A, drops a camera from the first floor
of the Eiffel Tower, at a height of 95 m above the ground:
ANSWER
a)
energy while the camera falls. Draw a diagram of the problem with the data and complete it as you work through
the following steps.
hA = 95 m
A vA = 0 When only the gravitational force is acting,

the mechanical energy remains constant.
As the camera falls, its potential energy decreases
vD = 25 m/s to the same extent as its kinetic energy increases.
D
The sum of both, which is the mechanical energy,
remains unchanged.
C
hC = 40 m
B vB = 43.2 m/s
b) What will the camera's speed be when it reaches the ground? Follow these steps:
1. Make the mechanical energy equal at the two positions that we are interested in, draw them
in section a) and write the data that we know on the diagram.
1 1
EM = constant " EM A = EM B " EK A + EP A = EK B + EP B " mv 2A + mgh A = mv B2 + mghB
2 2

In this case, vA = 0, since ‘he drops the camera’ and hB = 0.
Therefore, two terms cancel each other out:
1 1 1
2 2 2
3. Divide it by m.
1 1
2 2

11
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
c) What will the camera's speed be when it is 40 m above the ground?

1 1
EM = constant " EM A = EM C " EK A + EP A = EK C + EP C " mv 2A + mgh A = mv C2 + mghC
2 2
vA = 0. Therefore:
1 1 1
2 2 2
3. Divide it by m.
1 2
gh A = vC + ghC
2
1 2
vC = gh A - ghC " vC2 = 2 g ? ( h A - hC) "
2
" vC = 2 g ? ( h A - hC) = 2 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? (95 - 40) m = 32.8 m/s
d) At what height above the ground will the camera be when its speed is 25 m/s?
1. Make the mechanical energy equal at the two positions we are interested in, draw them in section a)
1 1
EM = constant " EM A = EM D " EK A + EP A = EK D + EP D " mv 2A + mgh A = mv D2 + mghD
2 2
vA = 0. Therefore:
1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D " mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D
2 2 2
3. Divide it by m.
1 2
gh A = v D + gh D
2
1 2 1
gh A - vD 9.8 m/s2 ? 95 m - ? 25 2 m2 /s2
1 2 2
gh D = gh A - vD2 " hD = = = 63.1 m
2 g 9.8 m/s2
e)
Does the camera have the same amount of potential energy as kinetic energy halfway down to the ground?
Explain, without doing any calculations.
Yes, because when h is reduced by half, the EP is also reduced by half (EP = mgh) and the other half will have
transformed into EK. Therefore, they will be equal.
What about if the tourist had thrown the camera downwards at an initial speed? Explain your answer
without doing any numerical calculations.
In this case, they wouldn’t be equal because halfway down, its kinetic energy would be the sum of half
of the EP that it has lost, like before, plus the kinetic energy that it already had due to its initial speed.
Halfway down, it has more kinetic energy than potential energy.

11
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
SOLVED PROBLEM
A firework shoots upwards at a speed of 100 m/s. Using the law of conservation of energy, calculate:
ANSWER
a) What is the maximum height it will reach?
In this problem, since gravitational force is the only force present (slowing down the rocket), the law of conservation
of mechanical energy is satisfied. The mechanical energy remains constant during the launch upwards, so the amount
of kinetic energy that the rocket loses as it goes up is gained in potential energy, the sum of both remaining constant.
1.
vB = 0
vA = 100 m/s
Since the mechanical energy remains constant during the launch upwards, we make it equal at two points:
the one that we have data for (at the bottom, position A) and the one that we want to find out something
about (at the top, position B):
1 1
" mvA2 + mgh A = mvB2 + mgh B
2 2
In this case hA = 0 and vB = 0 (since when it stops is when it has reached the maximum height. If it didn’t stop,
it would continue to go upwards).
Therefore, two terms are cancelled out.
hA = 0; vB = 0.
1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvB2 + mgh B "
2 2
1
" mvA = mgh B
2
2
3. Divide it by m and get rid of the mass. As we already know (thanks to Galileo), its mass has no effect
on the maximum height:
1 1
m vA2 = m gh B " vA2 = gh B
2 2
4. Isolate what we want to find out (hB) and substitute the data:
v A2 100 2 m 2 /s 2
hB = = = 510.2 m
2g 2 ? 9.8 m/s 2
This is the maximum height (we have assumed that the rocket is only propelled at the beginning of its journey,
which is not exactly true).
b) What will the rocket's speed be when it is 150 m above the ground?
To solve any problem relating to h or v, we follow the four steps we learned previously.
continues "

11
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
1. ince the mechanical energy remains constant during the launch
S
upwards, we make it equal at two points: where we have data
vW
for (position A or position B, since we already know that
hB = 510.2 m and vB = 0 m/s), and where we want to find out
C about (new position C):
hC = 150 m
1 1
vA = 100 m/s " mvA2 + mgh A = mvC2 + mgh C
2 2
A
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out. In this case, only hA = 0 is cancelled out. Therefore:
1 1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvC2 + mgh C " mvA2 = mvC2 + mgh C
2 2 2 2

1 2 1
vA = vC2 + gh C
2 2
vC = vA2 - gh C " vC2 = 2 ? f vA2 - gh C p "

1 2 1 1
2 2 2
" vC = vA2 - 2 gh C = 1002 m2/s2 - 2 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 150 m = 84 m/s

c) At what height above the ground was the rocket when its speed was 50 m/s?
1. Since the mechanical energy is constant during the launch
vC = 50 m/s upwards, we make it equal at two points: where we have data
C for (position A, B or C. We want to use A or B since one of the terms
is cancelled out) and where we want to find out something about
(new position D):
vA = 100 m/s
1 1
" mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D
A
2 2
2. Check whether any of the four terms are cancelled out: in this case, again, it’s only hA = 0 that is cancelled out.
Therefore:
1 1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D " m v 2A = m vD2 + m gh D
2 2 2 2
1 2 1
vA = vD2 + gh D
2 2
1 1
? (vA2 - vD2) ? (1002 - 502 ) m2 /s2
1 1 2 2
gh D = vA2 - vD2 " D
h = = = 382.7 m
2 2 g 9.8 m/s2

11
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
2 Follow the steps in the example to solve the following problem: a circus acrobat jumps on a trampoline,
propelling himself upwards at a speed of 15 m/s.
ANSWER
a)
energy of the acrobat as he jumps up. Draw a diagram of the problem with the data and complete it as you work through
the following sections.
When gravitational force is the only force acting, the mechanical

C energy remains constant. As the acrobat goes up, his kinetic energy
hB decreases to the same extent as his potential energy increases.
The sum of both, which is the mechanical energy, remains
unchanged.
vA = 15 m/s
hC = 8 m
b) What maximum height above the trampoline does the acrobat reach?
Follow these steps:
1. Make the mechanical energy equal at the two positions that you are interested in, draw them in section a)
and write the data that you know on the diagram.
1 1
EM = constant " EM A = EM B " EK A + EP A = EK B + EP B " mv 2A + mgh A = mv B2 + mghB
2 2

In this case vB = 0 and hA = 0 since he stops when he reaches the maximum height; if he didn’t stop,
he would continue to go up.
Therefore, the two terms are cancelled out.
1 1 1
mv A2 + mgh A = mvB2 + mgh B " mvA2 = mgh B
2 2 2
3. Divide it by m.
1 1
m vA2 = m ghB " vA2 = gh B
2 2
vA2 15 2 m 2 /s 2
hB = = = 11.5 m
2g 2 ? 9.8 m/s 2

11
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
c) What will the acrobat's speed be when he is 8 m above the trampoline?

1 1
EM = constant " EM A = EM C " EK A + EP A = EK C + EP C " mv 2A + mgh A = mv C2 + mghC
2 2
hA = 0. Therefore:
1 1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvC2 + mghC " m vA2 = m vC2 + m gh C
2 2 2 2
3. Divide it by m.
1 2 1
vA = vC2 + gh C
2 2
vC = vA2 - ghC " vC2 = 2 ? f vA2 - gh C p "

1 2 1 1
2 2 2
" vC = vA2 - 2 gh C = 152 m2 /s2 - 2 ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 8 m = 8.26 m/s

d) At what height above the trampoline will the acrobat be when his speed is 5 m/s?
1 1
EM = constant " EM A = EM D " EK A + EP A = EK D + EP D " mv 2A + mgh A = mv D2 + mghD
2 2
hA = 0. Therefore:
1 1 1 1
mvA2 + mgh A = mvD2 + mgh D " mvA2 = mvD2 + mgh D
2 2 2 2
3. Divide it by m.
1 2 1
vA = vD2 + gh D
2 2
1 1
? ( vA2 - vD2) ? (152 - 52 ) m 2 /s 2
1 1 2 2
gh D = vA2 - vD2 " hD = = = 10.2 m
2 2 g 9.8 m/s2
e)
At what position will the potential energy of the acrobat be greater than the kinetic energy he has when propelling
himself upwards? Explain your answer without doing any numerical calculations.
None of them. The maximum potential energy that he can have is the value of the kinetic energy at the bottom.
As we have already seen, this happens when he is at the very top, where there is no kinetic energy, and where all
of the kinetic energy he had at the bottom has transformed into potential energy.

11
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
The law of conservation of energy

Remember that…
When a system evolves, its total energy remains constant. In other words, it is conserved. When there are other forces,
such as frictional force or external forces acting in addition to gravitational force, the mechanical energy no longer remains
constant. In the law of conservation of energy, we have to consider energy gains and losses resulting from these new forces.
This is an intuitive representation of the law of conservation of energy:
In the expression above, we include the energies that go through a change. Those that remain constant are not included,
because since the initial energy and the final energy are the same, they can be simplified.
• What causes the system to gain energy?
The work done by the external forces that act in the same direction as the motion.
• What causes the system to lose energy?
The work done by the external forces that oppose motion. For example, frictional force.
Remember that work is a form of energy related to forces.
SOLVED PROBLEM
We throw an object along a horizontal table at a speed of 8 m/s. The coefficient of friction between the body
and the table is n = 0.7. Answer the following questions:
ANSWER
a) How far will it travel until it stops?
We could solve this problem using what we know about dynamics, but being a problem related to Physics,
it can also be solved from the point of view of energy:
We draw the initial situation (position A) and the final situation (position B):
W
N W
N
A B
vWA
vB = 0
DxW
FF
hA = hB W
P PW
continues "

11
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
In this case:
• Initial energy:
EM A = EK A + EP A
• Final energy:
EM B = EK B + EP B = EP B (EK B = 0, since vB = 0)
• Energy lost " WFrictional f.
In other words:
In the equation above, EP A and EP B are superfluous because the height doesn’t change, and so the potential
energy doesn’t change. Therefore, we get:
We can read the resulting equation as:
The amount of kinetic energy that the body initially had was completely consumed by the work done
by the frictional force, since both amounts of energy are the same.
Now we calculate the value of EK A and WFrictional f.:
1
• E K A = mvA2
2
• WFrictional f. = FF ? Dx ? cos 180° = n ? m ? g ? Dx ? (-1)
Since:
FF = n ? N = n ? W = n ? m ? g and cos 180° = -1
(Newton’s second law " N = W).
We take the WFrictional f. as an absolute value, since we have already taken its minus sign into account when
subtracting the energy lost.
Therefore:
1 1
EK A = WFrictional f. " m ? V 2A = n ? m ? g ? Dx " V 2A = n ? g ? Dx "
2 2
(The mass m is simplified.)
v 2A 8 2 m 2 /s 2
" Dx = = = 4.7 m is the distance it will travel until it stops.
2?n? g 2 ? 0.7 ? 9.8 m/s 2
b) What has the work done by the frictional force, which was previously transformed from kinetic energy,
been transformed into now?
Into another form of energy called heat. This will have caused an increase in temperature in the body
and the table, but will be barely noticeable since the bodies have a large mass, as we will see in the next unit.

11
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
1 Follow the steps in the example and using the law of conservation of energy, solve the following problem:
a boy is lying down on a rooftop terrace and flicks a bottle top with his finger, causing it to move at a speed
of 4 m/s. The coefficient of friction between the bottle top and the floor is n = 0.2.
ANSWER
a)
Will the top fall over the edge, passing under the railing of the rooftop, which is located 3.5 m away from the top when
it was flicked? (Hint: think about the distance the top will travel until it stops.)
1. Draw a diagram of the problem, with the bottle top in its supposed final position. Draw all the necessary vectors.
We solve the problem by calculating the distance it will travel until it stops. This way we can find out if it falls over
the edge or not. We will call the supposed position where the bottle top would stop position B.
W
N W
N
B A
DxW
W FWF
W W
W
2. Write the law of conservation of energy and how it relates to this problem.
• Initial energy " EM A = EK A + EP A.
• Final energy: " EM B = EK B + EP B = EP B (EK B = 0, since vB = 0).
• Energy lost " WFrictional f .
3. Isolate the displacement of the bottle top until it stops, and substitute the data.
In the equation above, EP A and EP B are superfluous, because, since the height doesn't change, the potential
energy doesn't either. Therefore, we get:
1 V 2A 4 2 m 2 /s 2
And since EK A = WFrictional f. " m ? V 2A = n ? m ? g ? D x " D x = = = 4.1 m
2 2?n? g 2 ? 0.2 ? 9.8 m/s 2
The bottle top would travel 4.1 m until it stops.
4. Answer the question.

Since the distance it would travel until it stops (4.1 m) is greater than the distance to the railing (3.5 m),
the top will fall over the edge. We have to correct the initial drawing.
b) In the event that it falls, what trajectory will the bottle top follow through the air?
A parabolic trajectory, the velocity at which it falls from the rooftop being constant on the X axis and a UARM
on the Y axis due to the acceleration of gravity, g.

11
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
2 On the ‘La Lanzadera’ ride in an amusement park in Madrid, passengers drop 53 m in free fall. They are then slowed
down by magnetic forces while they drop a further 5 m, before stopping 4 m above the ground. The total mass
of the seats and passengers is one tonne.
ANSWER
a)
Calculate the work done by the magnetic braking forces.
1. Draw a diagram using the data from the problem.
DxW
FW
2. Indicate the initial and the final positions and write the law of conservation of energy for this case.
In this case:
• Initial energy " EM A = EK A + EP A = EP A (EK A = 0, since at the top it is stationary).
• Final energy " EM B = EK B + EP B = EP B (EK B = 0, since it stops at the bottom).
• Energy lost " WMagnetic F .
EP A - WMagnetic F = EP B
3. Isolate the work done by the magnetic braking forces (use the absolute value) and substitute the data
from the problem.
WMagnetic F. = EP B - EP A = mghB - mghA = mg ? (hB - hA) = 1000 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 ? (58 - 4) m = 5.3 ? 105 J
b) What is the magnetic force exerted by the braking system?

1. Write the expression that relates WMagnetic F and FMagnetic and use the absolute value.
WMagnetic F = Fmagnetic ? D x ? cos 180° = Fmagnetic ? D x ? (-1) = Fmagnetic ? D x
2. Isolate Fmagnetic.
Wmagnetic F 5.3 ? 105 J
Fmagnetic = = = 1.1 ? 105 N
Dx 5m

11
WORKSHEET 3
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
Is energy gained in mechanical machines?

Remember that…
Machines are devices that transform one type of energy or work into another more useful type.
Sometimes machines transform the force that we apply into another greater force. We exert less force
with less effort, but we are doing the same amount of work.
LEVER
By applying a force at one end (F1), we get another greater force at the other W1
F
end (F2). d1
When we apply F1, this end of the bar traces an arc, S1, which is greater S1
W2
F
than the arc traced at the other end, S2, where we get the force F2. a
Assuming that there is no energy loss due to friction, all of the work S2 a
d2
that we apply in 1 is applied to 2.
W1 = W2 " F1 ? S1 = F2 ? S2
S1 = d1 ? a; S2 = d2 ? a
The arc of a circumference is related to the corresponding radius and angle. As we can see in the diagram,
the angle of arc S1 is the same as the angle of arc S2.
F1 ? d1 ? a = F2 ? d 2 ? a " F1 ? d1 = F2 ? d2
Therefore, if d1 is greater than d2, we get a force (F2) that is greater than the force that we apply (F1).
This means that we can lift heavy weights with less force, as we can see below:
SOLVED PROBLEM
An inclined plane, or ramp, allows us to lift weights INCLINED PLANE

up to a certain height with less effort. For equal W1 W2
F F
heights, the greater the distance travelled along
F2 < F1
the plane, the less force we have to apply.
Is there an energy gain in the inclined plane?
ANSWER h h
d1 d2
No, the opposite is true, since in every machine there
is a loss of energy due to friction.
In both cases, we will have managed to raise the body
to a height h, increasing equally the potential energy of the body. Therefore, the work done will have been the same,
satisfying the law of conservation of energy:
On the one hand, W = DEP " W = DEP1 = DEP2 = m ? g ? h
On the other hand, W = F ? d " W1 = F1 ? d1; W 2 = F2 $ d 2
Since the change in potential energy is the same in both cases: W1 = W2 " F1 ? d1 = F2 ? d2
The work done is the same in both cases, although the greater the distance travelled along the inclined plane,
the less force we have to apply. In other words, if d2 > d1: F2 < F1

11
SOLVED PROBLEMS
WORK AND ENERGY
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
A body with a mass of 2 kg moves 2 metres along a horizontal surface, subjected to the action of a force of 10 N
parallel to the plane of displacement. Answer the following questions, bearing in mind that the coefficient of friction
between the ground and the body is 0.2:
a) What is the work done by the dragging force?
b) What is the work done by frictional force?
c) Will the normal force and the weight force do work?
d) What will the total work done be?
e) If this work was completed in 5 seconds, what would the power be?
Approach and answer

a)
Using the definition of work, we calculate the work The work done has a negative sign, because
done by the dragging force: frictional force acts in the opposite direction
Wdragging force = F ? s = 10 ? 2 = 20 J to the displacement.
b) To calculate the work done by frictional force, c)

Neither the normal force nor the weight force do work,
we first have to find out the value of this force. since they are perpendicular to the displacement.
Ffriction = n ? m ? g = 0.2 ? 2 kg? 9.8 N/kg = 3.92 N d) The total work done will be the sum of the work
calculated above:
Now:
Wtotal = 20 J + (-7.84) J = 12.16 J
Wfrictional force = -Ffriction ? s
e)
Using the definition of power:
Wfrictional force = -3.92 N ? 2 m = -7.84 J W 12.16 J
P= = = 2.43 W
t 5s
ACTIVITIES
1 A body moves 5 m when a force of 50 N is applied c)

What forces don’t do any work?
to it. Calculate the work done in the following cases: d) What work is done by the dragging force
a)
Force and displacement have the same orientation if the cupboard moves at a constant velocity?
and direction. Answer: a
) Dragging force; b) Frictional force;
b) Force and displacement have the same orientation c) Normal force and weight force; d) 600 J
but opposite direction.
c)
Force and displacement are perpendicular.
3 Calculate the work that an engine, with a power
of 10 000 W, can do in two hours.
Answer: a) 250 J; b) -250 J; c) 0 J
Answer: 7.2 ? 107 J
2 We want to drag a cupboard with a mass of 100 kg
along the floor of a room and place it 3 m away.
4 A crane lifts a weight of 200 N from the ground
The coefficient of friction is 0.2. to a height of 10 m in 10 s. Find the power
developed in kW.
a)
What forces do positive work?
Answer: 0.2 kW
b) What forces do negative work?

11
SOLVED PROBLEMS
WORK AND ENERGY
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
To what height do we need to lift a 10 kg object for its potential energy to be the same as the kinetic energy
of a 5 kg object moving at a speed of 10 m/s?
Approach and answer

First we calculate the kinetic energy of the second object. So, the first object must have 250 J of potential energy.
To do this, we substitute the data given in the problem Potential energy is energy related to position and can
into the following expression: be expressed like this:
1 Epotential = m ? g ? h
Ekinetic = ? m ? v 2
2
By substituting the data that we know, we find that
We get:
the height must be equal to:
1
Ekinetic = ? 5 kg ? 102 m2/s2 " Ekinetic = 250 J 250 J = 10 kg ? 9.8 N/kg ? h " h = 2.55 m
2
ACTIVITIES
1 Calculate how much kinetic energy the following 5 Can the kinetic energy of a body be negative?
objects have: Explain your answer.
a)
A football with a mass of 500 g that moves at a speed Answer: N
o, because mass and the square
of 8 m/s. of speed are always positive values
b) A tennis ball with a mass of 50 g that moves at a speed
of 108 km/h.
6 A 60 kg person goes up an escalator to a height
of 10 m. How much potential energy has he/she
Answer: a) 16 J; b) 22.5 J gained?
2 Calculate how much potential energy the following Answer: 5880 J

objects have:
7 Calculate the kinetic energy of a 1200 kg automobile
a)
A 100 g stone when it is at a height of 4 m. that is moving at a speed of 180 km/h.
b) A 250 g ball when it is at a height of 2 m. Answer: 1.5 ? 10 6 J
Answer: a) 3.92 J; b) 4.9 J
8 A stone with a mass of 100 g is thrown vertically
3 Give three examples of systems that have kinetic upwards at a speed of 72 km/h. Calculate:
energy and three examples of systems that have a)
The kinetic and potential energy of the stone
potential energy. one second after being thrown.
4 A vehicle with a mass of 1000 kg is moving at b) The kinetic and potential energy of the stone when
a speed of 72 km/h along a flat road. it is at a height of 20 m.
At this moment, it runs out of petrol. Do the necessary Answer: a) EK = 5 J; EP = 15 J; b) EK = 0 and EP = 20 J
calculations and answer this question: how much
energy does it lose from this moment until it stops
moving?
Answer: 200 000 J

11
SOLVED PROBLEMS
WORK AND ENERGY
SOLVED PROBLEM 3
A 10 g missile is fired vertically upwards at a speed of 200 m/s. Calculate:

a) Its kinetic energy when it is fired.
b) The maximum height it reaches.
c) Its mechanical energy at the highest point.
Note: Solve this problem by applying the law of conservation of energy.
Approach and answer

a) At the moment it is fired, its kinetic energy will be: energy, because the speed at the maximum height
1 1 is zero and, therefore, the kinetic energy is also zero.
EK = ? m ? v 2 " EK = ? 10-2 kg ? 2002 m2/s2 "
2 2 So, EP = 200 J, and isolating we get:
" EK = 200 J
EP = m ? g ? h "
The mechanical energy that the missile
has is the same as its kinetic energy because " 200 J = 10 kg ? 9.8 N/kg ? h " h = 2040.8 m
-2
at this moment, the potential energy is zero. c)

As we have already mentioned above, the mechanical
b) Since the energy is conserved, at the highest point, energy, which is the sum of the kinetic and potential
the mechanical energy will be 200 J. At this moment, energy, will be 200 J at all times, since the energy
the mechanical energy is the same as the potential is conserved.
ACTIVITIES
1 A 10 kg object is dropped from a height of 200 m. 3 An object with a mass of 1 kg is thrown vertically
(g = 10 m/s2). upwards at an initial speed of 15 m/s. Calculate:
a)
What will its potential energy be at its highest a)
The maximum height reached.
point? b) The speed when it reaches the ground.
b) What will its kinetic energy be when it reaches Answer: a) 11.48 m; b) 15 m/s
the ground?
c)
What speed will it reach the ground at?
4 A car with a mass of 1200 kg moves along a road
at a speed of 72 km/h, until it reaches a point
d) What will its speed be halfway through that is 150 m vertically above the initial height.
its journey? At this point, it is moving at a speed of 36 km/h.
Answer: a) 20 000 J; b) 20 000 J; c) 63.25 m/s; Calculate the car’s change in mechanical energy.
d) 44.7 m/s Answer: DE = +1 620 000 J
2 The same object is dropped from the same height 5 Complete the following table:
in two different ways: firstly, in vertical free fall,
and secondly, sliding down an inclined plane that Kinetic Potential Mechanical
is at a 45° angle to the horizontal. If there is no friction, energy (J) energy (J) energy (J)
and applying the law of conservation of mechanical
100 500
energy, determine in which case the object will reach
the ground at a greater speed. 200 600
Answer: In the absence of friction, the speed at which
350 175
they will reach the ground will be the same.

11
SOLVED PROBLEMS
WORK AND ENERGY
SOLVED PROBLEM 4
A pump with a power of 1400 W extracts water from a 25 m deep well at a rate of 200 litres per minute.
Calculate:
a) The work done each minute.
b) The power developed by the pump.
c) The efficiency of the pump.
Approach and answer

a) We calculate the work done each minute using Substituting the values, we get:
the expression: 49 000 J
W=F?s
P= " P = 816.67 W
60 s
taking into account that the force will be equal c)
To calculate the efficiency of the pump, we have
to the weight of the water extracted. to consider that the efficiency of the machine can
The weight of the water extracted each minute will be: be determined using the expression:
Pdeveloped
Weight = 200 kg ? 9.8 N/kg = 1960 N Efficiency = ? 100
Ptheoretical
And the work done will be:
816.67 W
W = 1960 N ? 25 m = 49 000 J Efficiency = ? 100 = 58.3 %
1400 W
b) We calculate the power developed using the expression:
W
P=
t
ACTIVITIES
1 A 1.5 kW engine lifts a weight of 150 kg to a height 5 To lift an object, we need an engine with a power
of 5 metres in 10 seconds. What is the efficiency of 0.2 HP. If the object is lifted up at a rate of 3 m/s,
of the engine? how much does it weigh?
Answer: 49 % Answer: 49 N
2 If the power used by an engine is 15 000 W 6 Can the efficiency of a machine be 100 %?
and its efficiency is 65 %, what would its theoretical Explain your answer.
power be?
Answer: N
o, since there is always loss due to friction.
Answer: 23 077 W
7 The energy consumed by two machines and the time
3 We want to install a pump to lift a flow of 300 litres taken to do so is shown in the table below.
per minute to a tank at a height of 20 metres.
Calculate the power of the engine if its efficiency Energy Time taken
is 70 %. Machine
consumed (kJ) (min)
Answer: 1400 W
A 20 2.0
4 Calculate the energy consumed in kWh by a water B 60 4.0
pump to lift 100 m3 of water to a tank located
at a height of 50 m. Which machine is the most powerful?
Answer: 13.6 kWh Answer: B

11
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
WORK AND ENERGY
The pendulum
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Steel ball.
To check the energy transformations
• Wire.
that occur in a moving pendulum.
• Ruler.
PROCEDURE
A pendulum is a very simple system that we can use to study some of the laws of Physics. In this experiment,
we will use it to study the transformations and conservation of energy.
1. Build a simple pendulum using a steel ball attached to a wire.
Use a 1‐metre‐long wire.
2. Hang the wire and steel ball on a nail attached to the wall.
3. Hold the ball so that the wire is more or less horizontal,
let it go and observe how it moves.
4. Draw a horizontal line on the wall at the lowest position
of the ball.
5. Now, let the ball go from the other side.
6. Answer:
• How high does it go?
• Does the wire reach the position where it is horizontal
on the other side?
• Is the law of conservation of mechanical energy satisfied?
7. If no energy was lost at any moment, when would the ball stop? In reality, why does it stop?
8. Place a nail at a point along the pendulum (see the image) and let the ball go again from the same height.
What happens now?
9. Repeat the experiment placing the nail at other points along the pendulum.
QUESTIONS
1 Explain which energy transformations occur in this experiment.
2 Why does the ball of the pendulum continue to lose height with each oscillation and gradually come to a stop?
3 Calculate the average percentage of energy that is lost due to friction in each oscillation. To do this, count
the number of oscillations of the ball from the moment it is let go with the wire pulled tight to when it stops.

11
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 2
WORK AND ENERGY
Simple machines: lever and inclined plane
Equipment
PURPOSE
For the lever
• To check how a lever is balanced.
• Plastic or metal 20 cm ruler.
• To analyse the use of ramps.
• Weights.
• To prove that machines don’t save us work;
For the ramp
they save us effort.
• Strip of wood to make a ramp.
• Miniature toy car (with a hook) or skate board.
• Dynamometer.
PROCEDURE
1. Lever
• Place a pencil under the ruler at the halfway point (at 10 cm),
so that it is balanced.
• Place a 5 g weight at one end of the ruler. To balance it again,
you can place two 5 g weights 5 cm away from the pencil.
• Test the law of the lever using different weights and placing
them at different distances.
• Two children sit on a seesaw. One of them weighs twice
as much as the other. Where does the child that weighs
less need to sit so that the seesaw is balanced and both
of the children can therefore play?
2. Inclined plane
• Hang the toy car from the dynamometer and write down
its weight.
• Position the strip of wood so that it acts as a ramp.
• Measure and write down its height.
• Pull the car attached to the dynamometer up the ramp
to the maximum height. Write down the force.
• Measure the distance that the car has travelled on the ramp
and write it down.
• What difference is there between the force you apply when
lifting the car up vertically and the force you apply when lifting
it up the ramp?
• Disregarding friction, is the work done the same in both cases?

NOTES

11
ASSESSMENT
WORK AND ENERGY
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 A body with a mass of 5 kg is placed on a horizontal plane where there is no friction.

A constant force of 100 N is applied to it for 5 s.
Answer:
a) What acceleration will it acquire?
b) What distance does it travel in this time?
c) What is the work done by the force?
2 A 100 HP machine operates for 30 min.

a) Indicate the power of the machine expressed in watts.
b) Calculate the work done by the machine and express it in International System units.
c) Express it in Wh and in kWh.
3 A 400 g object goes through a 0.5 m thick wall at a speed of 400 m/s, coming out the other side
at a slower speed of 100 m/s.
Calculate:
a) The work done by the object. What theorem did you base
your answer on? 400 m/s 100 m/s
b) The resistance force of the wall.
4 A 100 g ball is dropped from a height of 100 m.

Answer:
a) What will its potential energy be at the highest point?
b) What will its kinetic energy be when it reaches the ground?
c) What speed will it reach the ground at?

Name: Class: Date:
5 A one tonne car travels at 36 km/h on a horizontal road.

Suddenly the engine is turned off and the car travels
in neutral for 10 s until it stops. The coefficient of friction
with the ground is 0.5.
Calculate:
a) The distance travelled before it stops.
b) The work done by the frictional force.
c) What would happen if there was no friction?
6 Is it true that the mechanical energy of a body always remains constant?

Give an example to explain your answer.
7 Machines use a lubricant to reduce friction between their parts.

How does the loss of lubricant affect the efficiency of the machine?

11
ASSESSMENT
WORK AND ENERGY
1 a) F = m ? a " 100 N = 5 kg ? a " a = 20 m/s2

1 1
b) x = x0 + v0 ? t + ? a ? t2 = ? 20 m/s2 ? 25 s2 = 250 m
2 2
c) W = F ? x ? cos a = 100 N ? 250 m ? 1 = 25 000 J
2 a) 1 HP = 736 W, therefore:
100 HP = 73 600 W
b) W = P ? t = 73 600 W ? 1800 s = 1.324 8 ? 10 J 8
c) W = P ? t = 73 600 W ? 0.5 h = 36 800 Wh = 36.8 kWh

3 a) We can calculate the work done by finding out the difference between the final and initial kinetic energy:
1 1
W = DEK = ? 0.4 kg ? (100 m/s)2 - ? 0.4 kg ? (400 m/s)2 = -3 ? 104 J
2 2
The work is negative since it corresponds to resistance.

The theorem of live forces states that the work done by a force when acting on a body for a certain time is equal
to the change in kinetic energy experienced by the body in this time.
b) W = F ? x " -3 ? 104 J = F ? 0.5 m " F = -6 ? 104 N
The force is negative since it is a force that opposes motion.
4 a) EP = m ? g ? h = 0.1 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 ? 100 m = 98 J
b) EM = Einitial P = Efinal K = 98 J
1
c) EK = 98 J = ? m ? v 2. Therefore:
2
98 J
v 2 =
0.5 ? 0.1 kg
" v = 44.3 m/s
5 a) When the car’s engine stops, it continues to move in a uniform rectilinear motion until it stops due to friction,
and the speed is zero:
1 1
x = x0 + v0 ? t + ? a ? t2 = 10 m/s ? 10 s + ? a ? 100 s2
2 2
First we need to calculate the acceleration:
Dv 0 - 10 m/s
a= = = -1 m/s2
t 10 s
We substitute the equation of position:

x = 50 m
b) N = W = 1000 kg ? 9.8 m/s2 = 9800 N
Ffriction = n ? N = 0.5 ? 9800 N = 4900 N
The frictional force will have a negative sign since it opposes motion.
WF = -Ffriction ? x = -4900 N ? 50 m = -245 000 J
c) If there was no friction, the car would never stop and would continue travelling with the engine turned off
at the same speed as the initial speed, 10 m/s.
6 It’s not true. The mechanical energy of a body only remains constant if it is just subjected to weight force.
If any other type of force is acting on the body, its mechanical energy doesn’t remain constant.
For example, if we throw a ball upwards with a force F, both its kinetic energy and its potential energy increase,
and therefore its mechanical energy also increases.
Another example could be a parachutist descending towards the Earth. When he opens his parachute, his descent
speed decreases as his height decreases. His kinetic energy and potential energy decrease and, therefore,
his mechanical energy also decreases.
7 If the lubricant is lost, the friction between the parts increases and the machine must do more work to overcome
friction. Therefore, its efficiency decreases.

12
ENERGY AND HEAT
INTRODUCTION
1. It is important that students are able to identify heat 3. It is also very important that students can distinguish
and work as two types of energy in transit. between the conservation and degradation of energy.
2. Similarly, they should know that increases in temperature,
changes in state and the expansion of bodies are all
effects of heat.
OBJECTIVES
• Understand
the concept of temperature in terms • Know the difference between specific heat and latent
of kinetic theory. heat.
• Clearly
differentiate between the concepts • Understand the meaning of the principle of conservation
of heat and temperature. of energy and apply it to everyday energy transformations.
• D
etermine the temperature of thermal equilibrium • Describe how thermal machines work and understand
in mixtures. the concept of efficiency of a machine.
CONTENTS
FIND OUT ABOUT • The temperature of bodies.

• Thermal equilibrium.
• Measuring temperature: thermometers.
• Heat and temperature variation: specific heat.
• Heat and changes in state: latent heat.
• Expansion of bodies.
• The mechanical equivalent of heat and work.
• The principle of conservation of energy.
• Energy transformation: thermal machines.
KNOW HOW TO • Analyse everyday situations in which transformations and exchanges of energy occur.
• Solve problems related to energy and heat.
• Convert joules into calories and vice versa.
• Interpret diagrams that show some of the effects of heat on bodies.
• Determine the specific heat of aluminium in the laboratory using a calorimeter.
BE ABLE TO • A
ppreciate the importance of energy in our society, and its impact on the quality of our lives
and on economic progress.
• B
e aware of the consequences that technological development has on the environment,
and the need to minimise damage.
• Promote responsible energy consumption.

12
ENERGY AND HEAT
SPECIAL ATTENTION
1. Once students have grasped the concept of mechanical 4. We will use the concept of efficiency to teach students
work, we will move on to study heat as another way that it is impossible to transform 100 % of heat energy
of transmitting energy between bodies. We identify the into mechanical energy. This is not a technical limitation,
relationship between work and heat, and the possibilities but a limitation imposed by the laws of nature.
of transforming one into the other. 5. Some of the concepts discussed in this unit form part
2. It is important that students learn to differentiate of everyday language. However, their meaning is not
between the concepts of heat and temperature, always the same as their scientific meaning. It is therefore
while also identifying the relationship between important to discuss any preconceived ideas that students
the two and the internal structure of bodies. may have so they can fully understand the concepts
studied.
3. We will use the various microscopic structures of bodies
to analyse properties such as specific heat, latent heat,
melting temperature, boiling temperature and the
expansion coefficients that make different bodies behave
in different ways when faced with heat.
WEBSITES YouTube: Temperature vs Heat – Explained. In this

Heat vs Temperature – Energy Education. This site, video by the Chem Academy, the difference between heat
which is hosted by the University of Calgary, explains the main and temperature is explained with the help of two visual
differences between heat and energy. It includes a practical simulations.
and comprehensive glossary of vocabulary related to these
two concepts.
Keywords: heat vs temperature, energy education.
Thermal Imaging (iOS, Android). Thermal imaging
States of Matter – PhET Interactive Simulations. applications act in a similar way to a thermal imaging camera.
In this simulation, users can observe the different types This user-friendly app gives a visual representation of the heat
of molecules that form a solid, a liquid or a gas. of bodies, thermal equilibrium and the difference between
For example, we can see a change in state by adding the conduction of heat and the temperature of a body.
or removing heat. The simulation also demonstrates in real
Smart Thermometer (Android). Smart Thermometer
time how a pressure-temperature diagram responds when
is a simple application that allows us to use the temperature
the temperature or volume of a container changes. It also
sensors on our phone screens to show the temperature
enables students to see the relationships between the
around us. With a beautiful design and a very high level
interaction potential and the forces between molecules.
of accuracy, this application is a great tool for instantly
Keywords: states of matter, phet.
measuring temperature.

12
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
1 Complete the table: 8 The boiler in a house heats the water to 70 °C.
If the water enters the boiler at 15 °C, how much
Temperature (°C) Temperature (K) heat does it use to heat 200 L of water?
50 Density of water = 1000 kg/m3;

c (water) = 4180 J/(kg ? K).
450
-10 9 A bath contains 50 L of water at 60 °C. We add

some cold water at 17 °C, making it up to 150 L.
15 Find the equilibrium temperature of the mixture.
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3;
2 Is it correct to say that seawater has a large c (water) = 4180 J/(kg ? K).
amount of heat?
10 A lead ball that is at 80 °C is placed in a container
3 A container with water at a temperature of 60 °C containing 250 mL of water at 15 °C. After a certain
cools down when it comes into contact with period of time, the temperature of the water
the surrounding air. is measured, giving a reading of 30 °C.
Answer the following questions, giving reasons: Determine the mass of the lead ball.
a) Does the water lose or absorb heat? c (lead) = 125 J/(kg ? K);
b) Does the surrounding air lose or absorb heat? c (water) = 4180 J/(kg ? K);
density of the water = 1000 kg/m3.
c) What temperature does the water reach?
11 Complete the following table, indicating
4 Complete the table:
the appropriate type of heat transmission:
Physical state Transmission of heat

Melting Boiling
at room
Substance temperature temperature Metals
temperature
(°C) (°C)
(20 ºC) Air
A -5 10 Incandescent body
B -10 40 Water
C 1100 3000
12 Analyse the following sentence: ‘Wool coats
provide a lot of heat.’
5 Calculate the amount of heat needed to heat 200 g
of lead from 20 °C to 80 °C. 13 A thermal machine uses 1000 kcal from a hot
cPb = 125 J/(kg ? K). reservoir and does 1000 kJ of work.
Determine its efficiency.
6 We heat some ice, which is at -20 °C, until it is
converted into water at 90 ºC. Explain how much heat 14 Which of the following relationships is correct?
is consumed in the process, giving details about a) 1 calorie = 4186 joules.
each stage in the process.
b) 1 kilocalorie = 4186 joules.
7 Calculate the amount of heat needed to melt 150 g c) 1 joule = 0.24 ? 102 calories.
of copper that is at its melting temperature. d) 1 joule = 4.18 calories.

12
REINFORCEMENT
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
1 Temperature (°C) Temperature (K)

8 Q = m ? c ? Dt
We substitute the values in the expression above:
50 323
J
Q = 200 kg ? 4180 ? (70 - 15) K = 4.59 ? 107 J
177 450 kg ? K
-10 263
9 |Qlost| = |Qabsorbed|
We substitute the values in the expression above:
47 15
J
50 kg ? 4180 ? (60 - t) K =
2 No, bodies do not have heat. Heat is a form of energy kg ? K
that is in the process of being transferred. J
= 100 kg ? 4180 ? (t - 17) K
kg ? K
3 a) The water loses heat, since its temperature decreases.
We isolate the temperature from the expression and get:
b)
The surrounding air absorbs the heat lost by the water.
c)
Room temperature. t = 31.3 °C
10 |Qlost | = |Qabsorbed|
4
J
m ? 125 ? (80 - 30) K =
Physical state kg ? K
Melting Boiling
at room J
Substance temperature temperature = 0.250 kg ? 4180 ? (30 - 15) K
temperature kg ? K
(°C) (°C)
(20 ºC) Isolating the mass, we get:
A -5 10 Gas m = 2.5 kg
B -10 40 Liquid 11
Transmission of heat
C 1100 3000 Solid
Metals Conduction
5 Q = m ? c ? (t2 - t1) Air Convection
J
= 0.2 kg ? 125 ? (80 - 20) K = 1500 J Incandescent body Radiation
kg ? K
6 1. The ice at -20 °C absorbs heat and its temperature Water Convection
rises to 0 °C:
12 Wool coats don’t provide heat, but they protect
Q1 = m ? c ? Dt
us against the cold because they insulate our bodies,
2. The ice absorbs heat and turns into liquid water at 0 ° C preventing heat from escaping.
(a change of state occurs):
13 To calculate its efficiency we need to know the value
Q2 = m ? L m of the heat:
3. The water at 0 ºC absorbs heat and its temperature cal J kJ
increases to 90 °C: Q = 1000 kcal ? 103 ? 4.18 ? 103 = 4180 kJ
kcal cal J
Q3 = m ? c ? Dt Therefore, the efficiency will be:
The total heat consumed in the process is: W 1000 kJ
E = ? 100 = ? 100 = 23.9 %
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 Q 4180 kJ
J 14 The correct answer is b).

7 Lf = 2.05 ? 105
kg
J
Q = m ? Lf = 0.15 kg ? 2.05 ? 105 = 30 750 J
kg

12
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1 Use kinetic theory to explain the concept of the 8 The heat needed to melt ice is 80 cal/g. Answer
temperature of a body. When a body cools down, the following questions:
does the amount of heat inside it decrease? a)
How much heat would have to be supplied to 20 kg
of ice at 0 °C for it to melt? Express the result in kJ.
2 The specific heat of aluminium and gold are
0.22 cal/(g ? K) and 126 J/(kg ? K), respectively. b) If we want to refreeze all the water obtained,
Which of the two metals has a higher specific heat? how much heat should we use?
c)
If the ice had a temperature of -5 °C, would
3 The waterfalls at Niagara Falls are up to 50 m tall. it melt with the same amount of heat?
Assuming that all the energy in the flowing water
transforms into heat, calculate the change 9 A lead ball with a mass of 1.5 kg falls from a height
in temperature produced by the waterfall. of 100 m. When it hits the floor, all of its energy
c (water) = 4180 J/(kg ? K); g = 10 m/s2. is transformed into heat. If the initial temperature
of the ball was 20 °C, what is its final temperature?
4 Based on the data that appears in the table: The specific heat of lead is 125 J /(kg ? K);
g = 9.8 m/s2.
a)
Put the substances in ascending order, according
to how easily their temperature can be raised by 1 ºC.
10 A 5 kg block of ice with a temperature of 0 °C
b) Put the substances in ascending order according is pushed along a horizontal surface, and slides
to how easily they convert into liquid once the melting at a speed of 15 m/s. After a while, the block
temperature has been reached. stops due to the effect of friction.
c (cal/g °C) Lf (cal/g) If all the energy is used to melt the ice, calculate:
a)
The amount of ice that melts.
Water 1 —
b) The speed the block would have to move
Iron 0.11 48.24 at to melt all the ice.
Copper 0.095 49.2
J
Data: Lf (ice) = 3.34 ? 105 .
kg
Ice 0.5 80.16
11 Answer the following question:
How does an increase in temperature affect
5 Explain why the sand on a beach is warmer than
the density of a body?
the seawater, even though they both receive the
same amount of heat.
12 The heat of the combustion of petrol is 42700 kJ/kg.
A car that has a power of 30 HP is travelling at a speed
6 We have three equal masses of three substances,
of 90 km/h, and consumes 7 litres of petrol per 100 km.
A, B and C, which all have the same initial temperature.
The density of petrol is 720 kg/m3.
They are supplied with the same amount of heat.
The final temperature of C is higher than that of A, Determine:
and the final temperature of A is higher than that of B. a)
The energy produced from the combustion
Put the substances in ascending order, according of 7 L of petrol.
to their specific heats.
b) The work done by the engine to travel 100 km.
7 To find the specific heat of a metal, we put a 150 g bar c)
The efficiency of the engine.
made out of this metal, with a temperature of 80 °C,
into a calorimeter containing 500 mL of water at 20 °C.
If the final temperature is 22 °C and we assume
that no heat is lost to the surroundings, calculate
the specific heat.
c (water) = 4180 J/(kg ? K);
density of the water = 1000 kg/m3.

12
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
1 The particles that form bodies, such as atoms and molecules, 10 3 g cal
8 a)
Q = m ? Lf = 20 kg ? ? 80 = 1.6 ? 106 cal
move continuously, and therefore, they store kinetic energy. 1 kg g
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy 4.18 J 1 kJ
of the particles that form a body. Q = 1.6 ? 106 cal ? ? " Q = 6688 kJ
1 cal 10 3 J
When a body cools down, the kinetic energy of the particles b)
Q = -6688 kJ.
decreases, and is transferred to the surroundings in the form
c)
No, the heat required to increase its temperature
of heat. Bodies don't have heat; they absorb or lose heat.
from -5 °C to 0 °C would also be required.
J cal
2 c (gold) = 126 = 0.03 9 W = Q.

kg ? K g?K
m ? g ? h = m ? c ? (t2 - t1) " 1.5 kg ? 100 m ? 9.8 m/s2 =
The specific heat of aluminium is higher.
J
3 W = Q. = 1.5 kg ? 125 ? (t2 - 20) K " t2 = 27.8 °C
kg ? K
m ? g ? h = m ? c ? Dt 10 a) EK = W = Q.
We isolate Dt from the expression and substitute 1
? m ? v2 = ml ? Lm "
the values we obtain: 2
1
g?h " ? 5 kg ? (1.5 m/s)2 = ml ? 3.34 ? 105 J/kg "
Dt = " 2
c
10 m/s 2 ? 50 m " ml = 1.68 ? 10-3 kg = 1.68 g
" Dt = = 0.119 °C 1
b) ? m ? v2 = m ? Lf " v = 817.3 m/s
4180 J/ (kg ? K)
2
4 a) Copper < iron < ice < water. 11 When the temperature increases the body expands.
b)
Iron < copper < ice. In other words, its volume increases. Since its mass does
5 According to the expression: Q = m ? c ? Dt, if they receive not change, its density decreases.
the same amount of heat, the sand heats up more because kg kJ
a)
12 Q = 720 ? 7 ? 10-3 m3 ? 42 700 = 215 208 kJ
its specific heat is lower than that of the water. m3 kg
b) W = P ? t.
6 cB > cA > cC.

s 100 km
7 |Qlost| = |Qabsorbed| s = v ? t " t = = = 1.11 h
v 90 km/h
0.150 kg c ? (80 - 22) K = W 1 kJ
J J W = 30 HP ? 735 ? 4000 s ? 3 = 88 200 kJ
= 0.5 kg ? 4180 ? (22 - 20) K " c = 480 HP 10 J
kg ? K kg ? K
W 88 200 J
c) E = ? 100 = ? 100 = 41 %
Q 215 208 J

12
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Year: Date:
Internal energy and temperature

Remember that...
The concept of temperature

The concept of temperature is easy to understand intuitively. When we get sick and we feel hot, we usually say
that we have a temperature, and use a thermometer to see how many degrees, or tenths of a degree our body
temperature has increased by.
From a macroscopic perspective, temperature is simply a measure of how fast particles move due to the thermal
energy of a system.
However, we will look at what this means by defining internal energy.
Internal energy
The internal energy of a system is the energy associated with its microscopic components (atoms and molecules).
It is expressed as the sum of all of the forms of energy associated with all of the particles that make up the system.
The relationship between the movement of particles and temperature (macroscopic manifestation of a microscopic
phenomenon) can be clearly seen by studying the molecules of an ideal gas. An ideal gas is one whose molecules
experience perfectly elastic collisions with no intermolecular forces. It can be seen as a set of spheres that collide
with each other, but do not interact. In this type of gas, all of the internal energy is kinetic energy (as the other forms
of energy are zero). Therefore, any change in internal energy is accompanied by a change in temperature.
Ideal gas law

On the one hand, for an ideal gas we have:
p?V=n?R?T
Where:
• p = pressure.
• V = volume.
• n = amount of substance.
• R
= universal gas constant, which has a value of 8.31 J/mol K in the International System.
• T = temperature.
If we call:
NA = Avogadro’s number = No. of molecules in one mole of gas = 6.022 ? 1023 molecules/mol
• N = number of molecules there are in n moles of gas.
So:
N
n=
NA
Therefore:
N
p?V=n?R?T"p?V= ?N?R?T
NA

12
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Year: Date:
The Boltzmann constant

R
If we now call the new constant that appears K:
NA
R 8.31
K = the Boltzmann constant = = "
NA 6.022 ? 10 23
" K = 1.38 ? 10-23 J/K = 8.6 ? 10-5 eV/K
The ideal gas equation can be expressed as:
p?V=n?K?T
Average kinetic energy

On the other hand, the ideal gas law can also be interpreted as the pressure of gas molecules colliding with the walls
of the container that they are in, fulfilling Newton's laws.
If we take the kinetic energy as an average, we would obtain an equation like this:
N ? EK = N ? > mv 2H
2 2 1
p?V=
3 3 2
Where:
• m = mass of the particles.
• V = velocity of the particles.
By associating both expressions, we can see that there is a direct relationship between average kinetic energy
(due to the speed of the particles), and temperature:
N ? > mv 2H
2 1
N?K ?T=
3 2
We eliminate N and move 2/3 to the other side:
> 1 mv 2H = 3 K ? T
2 2
Once we have solved this simple equation, we can see that at a microscopic level, temperature is simply a measure
of how quickly particles move due to the energy contained in the system, as we mentioned before.
In other words, if we increase the speed of the microscopic particles that are held in a container, both the kinetic energy
(where m is constant) and the temperature increase.
Absolute zero temperature

Having explained this, it’s easier to understand the concept of ‘absolute zero’ temperature, which is achieved at 0 K
(which is equal to -273.15 °C). In this case, the kinetic energy is zero, the speed is zero and, therefore, the speed
of the particles is zero. In other words, they do not move. There are no vibrations or random movements.
It is not possible to obtain absolute zero through experimentation. Therefore, it is a theoretical concept.
(In reality, according to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, it cannot be reached even in theory, because however
much the temperature is lowered by, the particles will not remain completely still.)

12
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Year: Date:
1 e are now going to simplify the equation. Imagine we only have one particle, which means it is no longer
W
necessary to calculate the average kinetic energy. We isolate T:
mv 2 m
T= = A ? v 2, where A = is a constant.
3K 3K
a) If we consider the constant A = 1, complete the table below:
Temperature (K) Speed (m/s)

0
10
20
30
60
120
b) Represent the data from the table on a graph in which the Y axis shows the temperature, and the X axis, the speed:

c)
Based on the graph and the equation T = A ? v2 , explain the relationship between the speed of the molecules
and the temperature. What is this function that you have represented called?

12
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Year: Date:
Change in size of bodies

Change in one dimension
Remember that the expansion and/or contraction of a body occurs when it experiences a change in temperature.
When bodies expand or contract, they do so in all dimensions (length, width and height). However, if one dimension
is much greater than the others, we can disregard the expansion or contraction in the other two dimensions.
This is the case with bridges. Therefore, we will only look at changes in length caused by changes in temperature.
The expression that relates the variations in length with variations in temperature is:
Dl = l0 ? DT ? a
Where:
• Dl = increase in length.
• l0 = initial length.
• DT = temperature variation = Tmaximum - Tminimum.
• a = linear expansion coefficient.
1 s the Ebro River passes through Zaragoza, it flows

A
under an iron bridge called the Nuestra Señora
del Pilar bridge. In 2006, the highest annual
temperature in Zaragoza was recorded in July,
at 42.3 °C, while the minimum temperature was
recorded in March, at -6 °C (according to the
Meteorology Center of Aragón, La Rioja and Navarra,
and the National Institute of Meteorology).
a)
Assuming that the bridge is 350 m long, what was
the variation in length of the bridge between these
two temperatures?
Complete:
Substitute in the expression above and convert the result into cm:
b) Why is it important to know about this variation?

12
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
Changes in two dimensions

Sometimes when a body changes size, we can only disregard one of its dimensions (thickness), but not its length or width,
because these have the same dimensions.
The expression that associates variations in surface area with variations in temperature is:
A = A0 ? (1 + DT ? b)
Where:
• A = surface area after the increase in temperature.
• A0 = surface area before the temperature increase, its initial length.
• DT = variation in temperature:
DT = Tmaximum - Tminimum.
• b = area expansion coefficient.
We isolate b from the expression above:
A = A0 ? (1 + DT ? b) "
A A
" = 1 + DT ? b " - 1 = DT ? b "
A0 A0
A - A0 A - A0
" = DT ? b " b =
A0 A0 ? DT
2 e will now see how we can apply the same concept to a surface area. We have a sheet of an unspecified
W
material at a temperature of 0 °C. At this temperature, the sheet has an area of 2 m2.
When heated to a temperature of 50 °C, its area expands by 10 cm2. Determine the area expansion and linear
expansion coefficients of the material that the sheet is made of.
Complete the data we already have:

• A0 "
• A "
• DT "
Substitute it into the expression for b:
Now, find a knowing that b = 2a:

12
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 2
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
Changes in three dimensions
3 tin cube with a volume of 1.5 m3 is stored in a store room that has a constant temperature of 15 °C.
A
If we take the cube outside to where the air is at room temperature (25 °C), how much will its volume vary?
Use the table below to help you solve the problem.
Material a (°C-1) Material a (°C-1)
Mild steel 0.000 012 Brass 0.000 018 5
Nickel steel 0.000 001 5 Molybdenum 0.000 005 2
Aluminium 0.000 023 8 Nickel 0.000 013
Bismuth 0.000 013 5 Gold 0.000 014 2
Bronze 0.000 017 5 Silver 0.000 019 7
Cadmium 0.000 03 Platinum 0.000 009
Zinc 0.000 03 Lead 0.000 029
Copper 0.000 016 5 Porcelain 0.000 004
Quartz 0.000 000 5 Tungsten 0.000 004 5
Tin 0.000 023 Common glass 0.000 009
Cast iron 0.000 010 5 Pyrex glass 0.000 000 3
1. Analyse the dimensions of the object. Can you disregard any of the dimensions?
2.
Write the expression that associates a variation in volume with a variation in temperature:

Find out the information you need. In this case, we already know V.
Write the data that we have:
(Remember that c = 3a.)
3. Substitute it into the expression for V and calculate the increase in volume: DV = V - V0:

12
EXTENSION
WORKSHEET 3
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
Transmission of heat. The difference between heat

and temperature
Remember that...
Specific heat is the amount of heat we have to apply to one kilogram of substance to raise its temperature by 1 K or 1 °C
(remember that increasing either of these two systems is the same).
This definition of specific heat tells us that there is a direct relationship between the amount of heat that is transferred
to a body and the temperature that it reaches, according to the expression:
Q = m ? c ? DT
where:
• Q = amount of heat transferred by a body (gained or lost).
• m = mass of the body.
• c = specific heat.
• DT = increase in temperature.
But how can we understand the difference between heat and temperature?
Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy of a body. It is a property of the body and is caused by the random
movement of the particles it is formed by.
SOLVED PROBLEM
We want to cook a roast chicken in the oven. We need a constant temperature of 170 °C.
We turn on the oven and wait a few minutes until it reaches this temperature.
We put the chicken, which is at room temperature (25 °C), in the oven, and after 15 minutes,
we take it out without wearing oven gloves. What happens?
ANSWER
That's right, we burn ourselves. The chicken has absorbed
170 °C
the heat (Q > 0).
Therefore, the chicken has increased in temperature by:
Heat
4 T2 > 25 °C
T1 = 25 °C
T2 > T1
If we used a special thermometer for measuring the
60 °C
temperature of food, we would see that the temperature
of the chicken is about 60 °C. It's very hot!
When we go to a restaurant and order a steak, for example,
when the food is served, the waiter might warn us:
‘Be careful, the plate is hot’. Have you ever wondered
why meat is served on hot plates and salad on cold plates?

12
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
Internal energy and temperature

Remember that...
The concept of temperature

The concept of temperature is easy to understand intuitively. When we get sick and we feel hot, we usually say
that we have a temperature, and use a thermometer to see how many degrees, or tenths of a degree our body
temperature has increased by.
From a macroscopic perspective, temperature is simply a measure of how fast particles move due to the thermal
energy of a system.
However, we will look at what this means by defining internal energy.
Internal energy
The internal energy of a system is the energy associated with its microscopic components (atoms and molecules).
It is expressed as the sum of all of the forms of energy associated with all of the particles that make up the system.
The relationship between the movement of particles and temperature (macroscopic manifestation of a microscopic
phenomenon) can be clearly seen by studying the molecules of an ideal gas. An ideal gas is one whose molecules
experience perfectly elastic collisions with no intermolecular forces. It can be seen as a set of spheres that collide
with each other, but do not interact. In this type of gas, all of the internal energy is kinetic energy (as the other forms
of energy are zero). Therefore, any change in internal energy is accompanied by a change in temperature.
Ideal gas law

On the one hand, for an ideal gas we have:
p?V=n?R?T
Where:
• p = pressure.
• V = volume.
• n = amount of the substance.
• R
= universal gas constant, which has a value of 8.31 J/mol K in the International System.
• T = temperature.
If we call:
NA = Avogadro’s number = No. of molecules in one mole of gas = 6.022 ? 1023 molecules/mol
• N = number of molecules there are in n moles of gas.
So:
N
n=
NA
Therefore:
N
p?V=n?R?T"p?V= ?N?R?T
NA

12
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
The Boltzmann constant

R
If we now call the new constant that appears K:
NA
R 8.31
K = the Boltzmann constant = = "
NA 6.022 ? 10 23
" K = 1.38 ? 10-23 J/K = 8.6 ? 10-5 eV/K
The ideal gas equation can be expressed as:
p?V=n?K?T
Average kinetic energy

On the other hand, the ideal gas law can also be interpreted as the pressure of gas molecules colliding with the walls
of the container that they are in, fulfilling Newton's laws.
If we take the kinetic energy as an average, we would obtain an equation like this:
N ? EK = N ? > mv 2H
2 2 1
p?V=
3 3 2
Where:
• m = mass of the particles.
• V = velocity of the particles.
By associating both expressions, we can see that there is a direct relationship between the average kinetic energy
(due to the speed of the particles), and temperature:
N ? > mv 2H
2 1
N?K ?T=
3 2
We eliminate N and move 2/3 to the other side:
> 1 mv 2H = 3 K ? T
2 2
Once we have solved this simple equation, we can see that at a microscopic level, temperature is simply a measure
of how quickly particles move due to the energy contained in the system, as we mentioned before.
In other words, if we increase the speed of the microscopic particles that are held in a container, both the kinetic energy
(where m is constant) and the temperature increase.
Absolute zero temperature

Having explained this, it’s easier to understand the concept of ‘absolute zero’ temperature, which is achieved at 0 K
(which is equal to -273.15 °C). In this case, the kinetic energy is zero, the speed is zero and, therefore, the speed
of the particles is zero. In other words, they do not move. There are no vibrations or random movements.
It is not possible to obtain absolute zero through experimentation. Therefore, it is a theoretical concept.
(In reality, according to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, it cannot be reached even in theory, because however
much the temperature is lowered by, the particles will not remain completely still.)

12
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
1 e are now going to simplify the equation. Imagine we only have one particle, which means it is no longer
W
necessary to calculate the average kinetic energy. We isolate T:
mv 2 m
T= = A ? v 2, where A = is a constant.
3K 3K
ANSWER
a)
If we consider the constant A = 1, complete the table below:
Temperature (K) Speed (m/s)

0 0
10 3.16
20 4.47
30 5.48
60 7.75
120 10.95
b) Represent the data from the table on a graph in which the Y axis shows the temperature, and the X axis, the speed:
T (K)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 v (m/s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

c)
Based on the graph and the equation T = A ? v2 , explain the relationship between the speed of the molecules
and the temperature. What is this function that you have represented called?
It is a parabola. The temperature is directly proportional to the speed of the molecules: it increases as v2 increases.
hen the temperature is low, it is because the particles move at a lower speed (extreme case:
W
temperature 0 K " the particles do not move).
When the temperature increases (the gas is heated up), it is because the speed of the particles is greater.

12
WORKSHEET 2
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
Change in size of bodies

Change in one dimension
Remember that the expansion and/or contraction of a body occurs when it experiences a change in temperature.
When bodies expand or contract, they do so in all dimensions (length, width and height). However, if one dimension
is much greater than the others, we can disregard the expansion or contraction in the other two dimensions.
This is the case with bridges. Therefore, we will only look at changes in length caused by changes in temperature.
The expression that relates the variations in length with variations in temperature is:
Dl = l0 ? DT ? a
Where:
• Dl = increase in length.
• l0 = initial length.
• a = linear expansion coefficient.
1 s the Ebro River passes through Zaragoza, it flows

A
under an iron bridge called the Nuestra Señora
del Pilar bridge. In 2006, the highest annual
temperature in Zaragoza was recorded in July,
at 42.3 °C, while the minimum temperature was
recorded in March, at -6 °C (according to the
Meteorology Center of Aragón, La Rioja and Navarra,
and the National Institute of Meteorology).
ANSWER
a)
Assuming that the bridge is 350 m long, what was
the variation in length of the bridge between these
two temperatures?
The value of the linear expansion coefficient a varies for each type of substance. In this case, as the bridge is made of iron,
the value of a is:
a = 1.2 ? 10-5 °C-1
Complete:
• l0 = 350 m
• DT = 42.3 - (-6) = 48.3 ºC
(Remember! DT is in °C since a is in °C-1.)
Substitute in the expression above and convert the result into cm:
Dl = l0 ? DT ? a = 350 m ? 48.3 °C ? 1.2 10-5 °C-1 = 0.202 86 m - 20.3 cm
b) Why is it important to know about this variation?

It is extremely important for an engineer or architect to know the variations in temperature of the place where they are
going to build a bridge. This means that they can take into account the changes the structure will undergo when they
design it.

12
WORKSHEET 2
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
Changes in two dimensions

Sometimes when a body changes size, we can only disregard one of its dimensions (thickness), but not its length or width,
because these have the same dimensions.
The expression that associates variations in surface area with variations in temperature is:
A = A0 ? (1 + DT ? b)
Where:
• A = surface area after the increase in temperature.
• A0 = surface area before the temperature increase, its initial length.
• DT = variation in temperature:
DT = Tmaximum - Tminimum.
• b = area expansion coefficient.
We isolate b from the expression above:
A = A0 ? (1 + DT ? b) "
A A
" = 1 + DT ? b " - 1 = DT ? b "
A0 A0
A - A0 A - A0
" = DT ? b " b =
A0 A0 ? DT
2 e will now see how we can apply the same concept to a surface area. We have a sheet of an unspecified
W
material at a temperature of 0 °C. At this temperature, the sheet has an area of 2 m2.
When heated to a temperature of 50 °C, its area expands by 10 cm2. Determine the area expansion and linear
expansion coefficients of the material that the sheet is made of.
ANSWER
Complete the data we already have:
• A0 " A0 = 2 m2
1 m2
• A " A = 2 m2 + 10 cm 2 ? = 2.001 m2
10 4 cm 2
• DT " DT = 50 - 0 = 50 °C
Substitute into the expression for b:
A - A0 2.001 m 2 - 2 m 2
b= = = 1 ? 10-5 °C-1
A0 ? D T 2 m 2 ? 50 °C
Now, find a knowing that b = 2a:
b
b = 2a " a = = 0.5 ? 10-5 °C-1
2

12
WORKSHEET 2
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
Changes in three dimensions
3 tin cube with a volume of 1.5 m3 is stored in a store room that has a constant temperature of 15 °C.
A
If we take the cube outside to where the air is at room temperature (25 °C), how much will its volume vary?
Use the table below to help you solve the problem.
Material a (°C-1) Material a (°C-1)
Mild steel 0.000 012 Brass 0.000 018 5
Nickel steel 0.000 001 5 Molybdenum 0.000 005 2
Aluminium 0.000 023 8 Nickel 0.000 013
Bismuth 0.000 013 5 Gold 0.000 014 2
Bronze 0.000 017 5 Silver 0.000 019 7
Cadmium 0.000 03 Platinum 0.000 009
Zinc 0.000 03 Lead 0.000 029
Copper 0.000 016 5 Porcelain 0.000 004
Quartz 0.000 000 5 Tungsten 0.000 004 5
Tin 0.000 023 Common glass 0.000 009
Cast iron 0.000 010 5 Pyrex glass 0.000 000 3
ANSWER
1. Analyse the dimensions of the object. Can you disregard any of the dimensions?
In this case we have a cube. We cannot disregard any of the dimensions, so we are faced with a problem
in which we will consider that there has been a change of volume.
2.
Write the expression that associates a variation in volume with a variation in temperature:
V = V0 ? (1 + DT ? c)
Where:
• V = volume after the increase in temperature.
• V0 = initial volume, before the increase in temperature.
• c = volumetric expansion coefficient.
Find out the information you need. In this case, we already know V.
Write the data that we have:
V0 = 1.5 m3
DT = 25 °C - 15 °C = 10 °C
(Remember that c = 3a.)
c = 3a = 3 ? 0.000 023 °C-1 = 0.000 069 °C-1
3. Substitute it into the expression for V and calculate the increase in volume: DV = V - V0:
V = 1.5 m3 ? (1 + 10 °C ? 0.000 069 °C-1) = 1.501 035 m3 "
" DV = V - V0 = 1.501 035 m3 - 1.5 m3 = 1.035 ? 10-3 m3 = 1.035 dm3 = 1035 cm3

12
WORKSHEET 3
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
Transmission of heat. The difference between heat

and temperature
Remember that...
Specific heat is the amount of heat we have to apply to one kilogram of substance to raise its temperature by 1 K or 1 °C
(remember that increasing either of these two systems is the same).
This definition of specific heat tells us that there is a direct relationship between the amount of heat that is transferred
to a body and the temperature that it reaches, according to the expression:
Q = m ? c ? DT
where:
• Q = amount of heat transferred by a body (gained or lost).
• m = mass of the body.
• c = specific heat.
• DT = increase in temperature.
But how can we understand the difference between heat and temperature?
Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy of a body. It is a property of the body and is caused by the random
movement of the particles it is formed by.
SOLVED PROBLEM
We want to cook a roast chicken in the oven. We need a constant temperature of 170 °C.
We turn on the oven and wait a few minutes until it reaches this temperature.
We put the chicken, which is at room temperature (25 °C), in the oven, and after 15 minutes,
we take it out without wearing oven gloves. What happens?
ANSWER
That's right, we burn ourselves. The chicken has absorbed
170 °C
the heat (Q > 0).
Therefore, the chicken has increased in temperature by:
Heat
4 T2 > 25 °C
T1 = 25 °C
T2 > T1
If we used a special thermometer for measuring the
60 °C
temperature of food, we would see that the temperature
of the chicken is about 60 °C. It's very hot!
When we go to a restaurant and order a steak, for example,
when the food is served, the waiter might warn us:
‘Be careful, the plate is hot’. Have you ever wondered
why meat is served on hot plates and salad on cold plates?

12
SOLVED PROBLEMS
ENERGY AND HEAT
SOLVED PROBLEM 1
We mix 15 litres of water at 65 °C with 20 L of water at 30 °C. Determine:

a) The final temperature of the mixture.
b) The amount of water at a temperature of 10 °C we would need to reach the same temperature
as the example above.
Data: dwater = 1000 kg/m3; cwater = 4180 J/(kg ? K)
Approach and answer

a) Hot water: m1 = dH2O ? V1 = 1 kg/L ? 15 L = 15 kg -m1 ? c ? (t - t1) = m2 ? c ? (t - t2)
at t1 = 65 °C. -15 kg ? 4180 J/(kg ? °C) ? (t - 65 °C) =
Cold water: m2 = dH2O ? V2 = 20 ? 1 kg/L = 20 kg = 20 kg ? 4180 J/(kg ? °C) ? (t - 30 °C)
at t2 = 30 ºC.
When we isolate the value of t, we obtain the final
The hot water loses heat, and its temperature temperature of the mixture: t = 45 °C.
decreases until reaching its final temperature t:
Make sure all the results are expressed using
Qlost = m1 ? c ? (t - t1) the same units.
The cold water absorbs heat, and its temperature Remember that the temperature variation is the same
increases until reaching its final temperature t: in the Celcius scale and the Kelvin scale.
Qabsorbed = m2 ? c ? (t - t2) b) If the cold water is at 10 °C and we follow the same
Assuming that there is no energy loss and applying process as we did in the previous section:
the criteria of signs, according to which: -15 kg ? 4180 J/(kg ? °C) (45 °C - 65 °C) =
Qabsorbed > 0 and Qlost < 0, therefore: = m2 ? 4180 J/(kg ? °C) ? (45 °C - 10 °C)
-Qc = Qa where, m2 = 8.57 kg.
ACTIVITIES
1 We put a copper ring with a mass of 100 g and 3 We put an object with a mass of 20 kg and a
a temperature of 50 °C into a container holding temperature of 90 ºC into a container holding 2 litres
250 g of water at 18 °C. Calculate the final temperature of water at 20 °C. When thermal equilibrium is reached,
of the ring once equilibrium is reached. the temperature is 30 °C. What is the specific heat
What temperature does the water reach? of the object?
Data: the specific heat of copper is 0.385 kJ/(kg ? °C); Data: the specific heat of water is 4180 J/(kg ? K).
the specific heat of water is = 4180 J/(kg ? K). Answer: c = 0.016 cal/(g ? °C)
Answer: t = 19.1 °C; in thermal equilibrium, the ring
and water are at the same temperature. 4 We put a copper spoon with a mass of 50 g and
a temperature of 20 °C into a pan containing oil
2 We mix 10 litres of water at 70 °C with 80 L at a temperature of 80 °C. When thermal equilibrium
of water at 20 °C. What is the final temperature is reached, the temperature is 76 °C.
of the mixture? Determine the volume of oil that was in the pan.
Data: density of water = 1000 kg/m 3 ; specific Data: c (oil) = 1800 J/(kg ? K);
heat of water = 4180 J/(kg ? K). c (copper) = 375 J/(kg ? K);
Answer: t =25.5 °C density of the oil = 0.8 g/cm3.
Answer: 182.29 cm3

12
SOLVED PROBLEMS
ENERGY AND HEAT
SOLVED PROBLEM 2
Calculate the heat needed to transform 1 kg of ice at -15 °C into water with a temperature of 80 °C.
J
Data: Lf (ice) = 3.34 ? 105 ; c (ice) = 2090 J/(kg ? K); c (water) = 4180 J/(kg ? K).
kg
Approach and answer

Q2
This process takes place in several stages: Ice (0 °C) water (0 °C)
Stage 1: Q2 = m ? Lm ice = 1 kg ? 3.34 ? 105 J/kg = 334 000 J
The ice absorbs heat and warms up until it reaches Stage 3:
melting temperature. The water absorbs heat and its temperature increases
Q1
Ice (-15 °C) ice (0 °C) to 80 °C.
Q3
Q1 = m ? cice ? Dt = Water (0 °C) water (80 °C)
= 1 kg ? 2090 J/(kg ? K) ? (0 - (-15)) K = 31 350 J Q1 = m ? cwater ? DT =
Stage 2: = 1 kg ? 4180 J/(kg ? K) ? (80 °C - 0) = 334 400 J
The ice absorbs heat and it changes state, In the total process:
but its temperature does not change. Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 =
= 31 350 J + 334 000 J + 334 400 J = 699 750 J
ACTIVITIES
1 Determine the amount of heat needed to melt 4 Calculate the amount of heat needed to convert 500 g
a 10 kg block of iron, which is at 20 °C. of ice at a temperature of 5 °C into water vapour at a
Data: c = 460 J/(kg ? K); Lf = 200.6 kJ/kg; temperature of 100 °C.
tm = 1540 °C. Data: Lf (ice) = 334.4 kJ/kg;
Answer: 8.99 ? 10 J6 Lv (water) = 2248.8 kJ/kg;
cice = 2080 J/(kg ? K);
cwater = 4180 J/(kg ? K).
2 We have a 6 kg block of ice. If we supply 1504.8 kJ
of heat, what percentage of the block will melt? Answer: 1.5 ? 103 kJ
Data: Lm = 334.4 kJ/kg.
5 Determine the latent heat of vaporisation of ethanol
Answer: 75 % if we know that 137.4 kJ of heat is needed for 200 mL
of ethanol to evaporate completely at its boiling
3 A container holding 20 litres of water at 100 °C temperature (78.5 ºC).
receives 200 cal of heat every second. How long will
(dethanol = 0.79 g/cm3).
it take for the water to evaporate?
Answer: Lv = 869.6 kJ/kg
Data: density of water = 1000 kg/m3;
Lv = 2248.8 kJ/kg.
Answer: t = 15 h

12
SOLVED PROBLEMS
ENERGY AND HEAT
SOLVED PROBLEM 3
The hot reservoir of a thermal machine produces 450 kcal/min, 200 kcal/min of which is transferred to the cold
reservoir. Calculate:
a) The mechanical work done by the machine in 1 hour (expressed in joules).
b) The efficiency of the machine.
c) The machine’s power (expressed in kilowatts).
Approach and answer

The energy transformed into heat is:
Hot
Q1
reservoir W = Q1 - Q2 = 27 000 kcal - 12000 kcal =
= 1.5 ? 104 kcal
W = Q1 - Q2
This expressed in joules is:
Cold
Q2 W = 1.5 ? 104 kcal ? 103 cal/kcal ? 4.18 J/cal =
reservoir = 6.27 ? 107 J
b) Therefore, the efficiency is:
a)
The amount of heat that the machine absorbs from Q 1- Q2 1.5 ? 10 4
the hot reservoir in one hour is: E= ? 100 = ? 100 " E = 55.5 %
Q1 2.7 ? 10 4
Q1 = 450 kcal/min ? 60 min = 2.7 ? 104 kcal c)
The power of the machine is:
The amount of heat transferred to the cold reservoir W 6.27 ? 10 7 J
P= = =
in the same time is: t 3600 s
Q2 = 200 kcal/min ? 60 min = 1.2 ? 104 kcal 1k W
= 17 416 W ? = 17.4 kW
10 3 W
ACTIVITIES
1 A thermal machine consumes 200 cal/min. If it has 4 The engine of a car has an efficiency of 45 %.
an efficiency of 80 %, how much mechanical energy If the gas provides 10 200 kcal/kg and its density
can it produce in one hour? is 0.7 kg/l, calculate:
Answer: W = 40 128 J a)
The amount of energy consumed by the car if/when
5 litres of petrol are burned (expressed in kilojoules).
2 The hot reservoir of a thermal machine produces b) The amount of energy that is transformed into
5016 kJ/min, 860 kcal/min of which is transferred useful work.
to the cold reservoir. Calculate the efficiency
of the machine. Do you think it’s possible to design c)
What happens to the rest of the energy?
a machine that would work with 100 % efficiency? Answer: a
) Q = 149 226 kJ; b) W = 67 151.7 kJ;
Answer: E = 28.3 %. No, since it is impossible to produce c) It dissipates in the form of heat.
work taking heat from only one reservoir.
5 The thermal efficiency of a home solar‑panel system
3 The hot reservoir of a thermal machine produces is 65 %. Calculate the amount of energy that can
800 kcal/min. If its efficiency is 20 %, calculate: be produced in a solar panel that receives 4500 J
of energy from the Sun per minute.
a)
The amount of heat transferred to the cold
reservoir in 1 hour. Answer: 2925 J/min
b) The power of the machine.

Answer: a) Q2 = 38 400 kcal; b) P = 11.146 kW

12
EXPERIMENTS
ENERGY AND HEAT
Heat conduction
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Test tube. • W
eight for ice (e.g. a steel ball
To test that water in its liquid and some string).
• Water.
state is a poor conductor
• Ice. • Heat source: Bunsen burner, etc.
of heat.
• Lab tongs.
PROCEDURE
Liquids and gases are generally poor conductors of heat.

Check this by carrying out the following experiment:
1. Pour some water into a test tube.
Don't fill it up to the top to ensure that the water doesn't spill over
when it starts to boil.
2. Place an ice cube with a small weight attached to it in the test tube,
so it sinks to the bottom and stays there.
3. Using laboratory tongs, hold the test tube over the heat source Laboratory
tongs.
and heat it. Hold the test tube at an inclined angle at the top,
where the water is.
Test tube.
4. After a short time, the water will begin to boil, but the ice will
only melt a little bit. Carefully remove the test tube from the heat
source before the boiling water bubbles over the top of the tube. Ice.
Weight.
5. Observe the test tube until the ice has completely melted.
QUESTIONS
1 What does the result of this experiment on the thermal conductivity of water indicate?
2 If the water starts to boil and the ice remains in a solid state, is it because the temperatures of the water
and the ice don't become the same immediately? Why is this?
3 Measure the time it takes to melt the ice.

Repeat the experiment with another liquid. How can you find out which of the two liquids conducts heat better?

12
EXPERIMENTS
WORKSHEET 1
ENERGY AND HEAT
Measure the amount of heat transferred to a body through variations in temperature
Equipment
PURPOSE
• Beaker. • Bunsen burner.
• To measure temperatures and times.
• Measuring cylinder. • Thermometer.
• T
o calculate amount of heat transferred
• Asbestos gauze. • Timer.
through experiments.
• Tripod.
• Tongs.
PROCEDURE
1. Measure 200 mL of water in a measuring cylinder and pour it into

the beaker.
2. Place the beaker in the centre of the gauze, about 2 cm above
the Bunsen burner.
3.
Put the thermometer into the beaker (without touching the bottom)
and heat the water over a steady flame.
4.
Wait a few minutes for the gauze to reach its equilibrium temperature
and then start measuring the water temperature at one minute intervals,
for seven minutes.
5.
Before taking a measurement, stir the contents of the beaker so that
the temperature is uniform.
6.
Complete the following table:
Time (min) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Temperature (°C)
QUESTIONS
1 Draw a temperature‐time graph. What is the relationship between these magnitudes?
2 Determine the amount of heat transferred to the water using the equation:
Q = m ? c ? ( tf - t0)
(Find the value of c in your textbook).
3 If we repeated the experiment, would we get the same results? You can check this by drawing a new table.
4 Assuming that the heat supplied by the gas in the bottle is 44 000 J/g and 3.3 g of gas was used in 5 minutes,
calculate the efficiency of the process.
5 Design an experiment to measure the data in the previous section.

12
ASSESSMENT
ENERGY AND HEAT
Name: Class: Date:
ASSESSMENT
1 If a body’s temperature increases by 1 °C, will it have received more, less or the same amount of heat
than was required to raise its temperature by 1 K? Explain your answer.
2 200 g of liquid X is cooled in a room as shown in the graph below.

When it reaches 20 °C, the temperature remains steady.
T (°C)
100
80
60
40
20 Q (cal)
0 1600 3200 4800
Answer:
a) What is the specific heat of X?
b) Why do you think the temperature becomes steady at 20 °C?
3 Calculate how much heat is needed to warm the air in a room with dimensions
7 m × 5 m × 4 m from 10 °C to 23 °C.
Data: the specific heat of air = 0.24 kcal/(kg ? ° C); air density = 1.29 ? 10-3 kg/L.
4 If a mercury thermometer was made out of special glass, with an expansion coefficient greater
than that of mercury, could it be used to measure temperatures? Why?

Name: Class: Date:
5 To heat a container holding 400 g of water from 20 °C to 80 °C, we need 24 000 cal. A butane gas bottle is weighed
before and after heating the water, and it was observed that 12 g of gas were burned (take the combustion energy
of butane to be 11 000 kcal/kg).
Calculate the efficiency of the energy transformation.
6 Explain whether the following phrase is true: ‘An ice cube covered
in wool takes longer to melt’.
7 There are two objects on a table in a closed room, one made

of glass and the other made of metal. If they come into contact,
in which direction will heat pass between them?

12
ASSESSMENT
ENERGY AND HEAT
1 It will have received the same amount of heat, since a temperature variation of 1 °C corresponds to a variation of 1 K,
given that the two scales are equivalent.
2 a) From the graph we obtain the data necessary to calculate the specific heat of the liquid:
Q = m ? c ? DT
Therefore:
Q 3200 cal cal
c= = = 0.4
m ? DT 200 g ? (80 ºC - 40 ºC) g ? ºC
b) Because the thermal equilibrium has been reached. Therefore, the liquid stops losing heat to the surrounding air.
3 We need to know the mass of air that we want to heat, so we first calculate the volume of air contained in the room,
using the dimensions given in the question.
V=a?b?h
1000 L
V = 7 m ? 5 m ? 4 m = 140 m 3 ? = 1.4 ? 105 L
1 m3
The mass will be:
m = d ? V = 1.29 ? 10-3 kg/L ? 1.4 ? 105 L = 181.02 kg
The heat that we need to supply to this mass of air will be:
Q = m ? c ? DT = 181.02 kg ? 0.24 kcal /(kg ? °C) ? (23 °C - 10 °C) = 564.782 kcal
4 In theory, it would not work. If the glass expanded more than the mercury there would be two problems:
• Firstly, the mercury wouldn’t rise (it could even fall).
• Secondly, when the glass expands, the space between the marks on the scale would increase, causing the results
of the experiment to be inaccurate.
5 Efficiency in an energy transformation is the ratio between the useful energy output and the total energy input
in this transformation:
useful energy
efficiency = ? 100
energy used
The useful energy in this process corresponds to the increase in temperature of the water.
The energy used is that which corresponds to the combustion of butane.
Therefore:
• Useful energy = 24 000 cal
• Energy used = 0.012 ? 11000 = 132 kcal = 132 000 cal
Substituting the values, we get:
useful energy 24 000 cal
efficiency = ? 100 = ? 100 = 18.2 %
energy used 132 000 cal
6 Wool is an insulating material. By covering the ice cube with wool, we prevent heat from the surroundings being passed
to the ice. In other words we ‘insulate’ the ice from the exterior. For this reason, the ice will take longer to melt; therefore,
the statement is true.
7 If they are in the same room, both objects will be at the same ambient temperature. Heat is energy in transit between two
objects that are at different temperatures. Therefore, when they come into contact, heat will not pass from one to the other,
because they are at the same temperature.

ANNEX: The periodic table of the elements
GROUP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Electronic 1 2
configuration
s s d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6
PERIOD
* Although 1.008
1 Atomic
Atomic 40.08
40.08 Atomic
Atomic mass
mass (u) (u)
hydrogen is on Number 20
number
the left of the
periodic table,
1 H* Ca SSymbol (synthetic
ymbol (synthetic
Hydrogen elements, such as ,
it is not a metal. Calcium
Calcium elements, such
are represented as
with ,
6.94 9.012
are represented
hollow letters)
3 4 Name
Name with hollow letters)
2 Li Be
Lithium Beryllium
ES UNA IMAGEN. NO SE PUEDEN
11
23.00
12
24.31 HACER LAS CORRECCIONES
3 Na Mg
Sodium Magnesium
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 (97) 101.1

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2

55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76
6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os
Caesium Barium Lanthanoids Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium
(223) (226) (267) (270) (271) (270) (277)

87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108
7 Fr Ra
Francium Radium Actinoids Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4

57 58 59 60 61 62
Lanthanoids 6 La Ce Pr Nd Sm
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium
(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244)

89 90 91 92 93 94
Actinoids 7 Ac Th Pa U
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
d7 d8 d9 d10 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
4.003
2
NONMETALS He
Helium
METALLOIDS
10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
5 6 7 8 9 10
METALS
B C N O P Ne
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
NOBLE GASES
26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
13 14 15 16 17 18
Al Si P S Cl Ar
Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
(276) (281) (282) (285) (286) (289) (290) (293) (294) (294)
109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0

63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
(243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)

95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

STUDENT AUDIO TRANSCRIPT
UNIT 1: Quantities and units Remember (track 2.2)
The discovery of the Higgs boson (track 1.1) Page 27: REMEMBER
Page 12: THE DISCOVERY OF THE HIGGS BOSON The coulomb (C) is the unit used in the International System
of Units (SI) to measure the electric charge of particles.
The discovery of the Higgs boson particle in 2013 completed the
It is a very large unit. One coulomb is equal to the charge
current standard model of the elementary particles of matter.
of 6.24 · 1018 electrons.
Research was conducted over many years by teams of researchers
from several countries, including the scientists from CERN, This is why we use the elemental unit of charge (symbol e),
European Organisation for Nuclear Research, pictured above. which is equivalent to the electric charge of an electron.
1 e = 1.6 · 10-19 C
Remember (track 1.2)
Think about it (track 2.3)
Page 15: REMEMBER
An instrument can be classified according to its: Page 45: THINK ABOUT IT
Sulphur can ignite when a flame is nearby. The substance
• Lower range value: the lowest possible value that can be
that is produced, SO2, sulphur dioxide, is very toxic.
measured.
WE DO NOT RECOMMEND EXPERIMENTING WITH THIS.
• Upper range value: the highest possible value that can be
measured.
• Precision or sensitivity: the minimum variation of a quantity
that can be measured. This is the smallest division that can UNIT 3: Chemical bonds
be read on the scale. Remember (track 3.1)
• Accuracy: the ability of the instrument to give the true value Page 50: REMEMBER
of the measurement.
Metals tend to obtain a noble gas configuration by losing
• Reliability: the ability of the instrument to give the same electrons in their valence shell and becoming positively
result every time the same quantity is measured. charged ions or cations.
Nonmetals tend to obtain a noble gas configuration
Think about it (track 1.3) by gaining electrons in their valence shell and becoming
Page 15: THINK ABOUT IT negative ions or anions.
Absolute error:
Know how to (track 3.2)
• It has units.
Page 57: ANALYSE HOW SOAP WORKS
• It can be equal to or higher than the precision of the instrument.
1. We use soap and water together.
Relative error:
2. The non‑polar part of the soap molecules penetrates
• It has no units.
the grease.
• It is a number ranging between 0 and 1.
3. When the molecules have completely surrounded a greasy
• It indicates the quality of a measurement. area, it can mix with the water.
4. The grease particles are surrounded by soap molecules,
whose polar parts face outwards, and disperse in the water.
UNIT 2: Atoms and the periodic table
Learn more (track 3.3)
How do we know? (track 2.1)
Page 58: AROMATIC SUBSTANCES
Page 25: HOW DO XENON HEADLIGHTS WORK?
Xenon is a gaseous chemical element at room temperature. We can smell food, flowers or solvents, because their
It is not very abundant: xenon only makes up 1 in every molecules easily change to a gaseous state and reach our
noses, where they are detected by our olfactory receptors.
20 million litres of air.
Xenon has many different uses. In recent years, its use Smells are more noticeable in high temperatures, because
has increased dramatically due to the popularity of xenon it is easier for the molecules to break free from their
car headlights, which are brighter and more durable than intermolecular bonds.
traditional halogen headlights. Crystalline substances are odourless.

UNIT 4: Carbon chemistry Think about it (track 5.3)
Think about it (track 4.1) Page 96: THINK ABOUT IT

Page 67: THINK ABOUT IT To do stoichiometric calculations:
Carbon is a very important element. It forms more 1. Write the balanced chemical equation and write the
compounds than all of the elements in the periodic information for each substance under its formula.
table put together. 2. Express the amount of the substances in moles.
There are around 15 million known carbon compounds, 3. Relate the moles of the known substance to the substance
compared to only around 100 000 that do not contain carbon. you are looking for. Use the stoichiometric coefficients
of both substances as a conversion factor.
4. For gases under the same temperature and pressure
Page 74: CURIOUS FACTS ABOUT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS conditions, the volume ratio is the same as the mole ratio.
• Methanol is alcohol from distilled wood. 5. Express the amount of the final substance in the units
required: g, mL of solution or L of gas.
• Ethanol is the alcohol in drinks.
• Ethers, aldehydes and ketones are very volatile.
This is why they have a strong smell.
UNIT 6: Examples of chemical reactions
• Diethyl ether, also known as ether, used to be used
as an anaesthetic.
• Benzaldehyde has an almond smell. Page 106: THINK ABOUT IT
Never taste, smell or touch products in the laboratory.
• Formaldehyde is used in laboratories to conserve
They can be highly corrosive or poisonous.
biological samples.
• In addition to their systematic name, many organic
compounds have a common name, like formaldehyde
or acetone. Page 112: ROCKET FUELS
Compounds such as hydrazine (N2H4) and its derivatives have
Learn more (track 4.3) been used as fuel in space rockets, with dinitrogen tetroxide
(N2O4) as the oxidant.
Page 75: CURIOUS FACTS ABOUT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Formic acid occurs naturally in ants.
Be committed (track 6.3)
• Acetic acid is the acid in vinegar.
Page 113: BE COMMITTED
Combustion produces CO2, carbon dioxide, which pollutes
the air. Think about what changes you could make to reduce
UNIT 5: Chemical reactions emissions. Think about how you use heating in winter and air
conditioning in summer.
Page 90: CATALYSTS AND INHIBITORS

Negative catalysts slow a reaction down. They are called UNIT 7: Motion
inhibitors, and they increase the activation energy of a reaction.
Enzymes (such as lipases and proteases) are proteins that
catalyse metabolic or industrial processes. Page 123: HOW DOES THE GPS SYSTEM WORK?
Many devices have built-in GPS receivers, such as mobile
phones, digital cameras and vehicle navigation systems. GPS
receivers give your exact position on Earth with an accuracy
Page 91: AVOGADRO'S NUMBER of just a few centimetres.
Avogadro’s number (NA) was established in 1875 by The GPS (Global Positioning System) is made up of 31
the British physicist John W. Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh satellites that orbit the Earth at an altitude of about 20 000 km,
(1842‑1919). He named it after the Italian chemist Amedeo moving at a speed of 14 000 km/h. There are always at least
Avogadro, who first proposed the hypothesis. four satellites above any particular point on the planet.

STUDENT AUDIO TRANSCRIPT
Remember (track 7.2) UNIT 9: Gravitational forces

Page 127: VELOCITY IS A VECTOR How do we know? (track 9.1)
To find out a mobile object's velocity we need: Page 167: HOW DO ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES WORK?
• The magnitude, i.e. the numerical value. Thousands of artificial satellites orbit the Earth, allowing
us to watch TV, communicate with each other, predict the
• The orientation, i.e. the line along which there is movement.
weather, carry out research, etc.
• The direction, which is indicated by the arrow.
The closest are a few hundred kilometres above ground level
and all of them are way beyond the Earth's atmosphere.
Learn more (track 7.3) The most distant satellites are tens of thousands of kilometres
away. They orbit the Earth thanks to the gravitational force
Page 129: REACTION TIME
that our planet exerts on them.
Reaction time is the least amount of time a person needs
to perceive a situation and make a decision based on it.
A car travelling along a road needs to stay at a certain safe
distance from the car in front. The safe distance depends Page 171: THINK ABOUT IT
on the velocity and must be at least twice the distance that Since the value of G is so small, in order for the magnitude
can be covered at that speed within the reaction time. of the gravitational force to be significant, at least one of
the two masses must be very large.

UNIT 8: Forces
Learn more (track 8.1) Page 171: T HE CAVENDISH EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE G
The value of G could not be established by Newton, although
Page 155: THE LAW OF INERTIA
he concluded that its value should be very small. Its value
As a result of his observations, Galileo noted that: was measured years later, thanks to results obtained in an
‘If a moving object is not disturbed, it will continue to move ingenious laboratory experiment by the British scientist
forever with uniform rectilinear motion’. Henry Cavendish (1731‑1810) in 1798.
Cavendish used a torsion balance. He put two large lead balls
of 175 kg (M) on either side of a base. He hung a horizontal
bar from a vertical wire, which had small lead balls attached
Page 156: THINK ABOUT IT to the end of it weighing 0.75 kg each (m). When the small
An object is in equilibrium if the sum of the forces acting weights were at a certain distance away from the large ones,
on it is zero. Thus, an object with URM is in equilibrium, even gravitational force made the horizontal bar rotate. This caused
though it is not at rest. a twisting force or torque in the wire.
On the other hand, an object is at rest if its velocity is zero. The torque was measured by reflecting a ray of light with
For example, when an object is thrown vertically upwards, a mirror attached to the wire. This torque was equal to the
at the moment it reaches the highest point, its velocity is zero. force of gravitational attraction between M and m.
At this point, an object is at rest but not in equilibrium, since
it is subject to gravitational force.
UNIT 10: Forces in fluids
Remember (track 8.3) How do we know? (track 10.1)
Page 158: REMEMBER Page 185: HOW DO AEROPLANES FLY?

Experience tells us that no object moves indefinitely. Sooner ‘Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.’ This
or later it ends up stopping. statement was made at the end of the 19th century
This is because of frictional forces that oppose motion until by Lord Kelvin, one of the most famous scientists of the time.
it stops. As we all know, it was proved wrong by the Wright brothers,
who flew for the first time in 1903.

Think about it (track 10.2) Remember (track 12.2)
Page 189: THINK ABOUT IT Page 227: THE TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

The force exerted by a fluid on a submerged object is In solids, heat is transmitted by conduction. Particles
perpendicular to the contact surface. The greater in contact with a heat source begin to vibrate and collide
the depth, the greater the force will be. with the particles closest to them, spreading the vibration
throughout the body.
Vocabulary (track 10.3) In liquids, heat is transmitted by convection. The particles can
Page 189: VOCABULARY move freely, and those which are closest to the heat source
move upwards. The colder particles take their place, and when
Hydrostatics (from the Latin ‘still water’) is the branch
they come into contact with the heat source, they heat up
of science that studies incompressible fluids in a state
and begin to rise. This creates a convection current that
of equilibrium.
circulates heat throughout the liquid.
Radiation spreads heat through electromagnetic waves,
without the need for any material medium.
UNIT 11: Work and energy
How do we know? (track 11.1) Be committed (track 12.3)
Page 207: H
OW CAN WE MAKE TRAINS MORE ENERGY Page 236: BE COMMITTED
EFFICIENT?
By using machines correctly, we save money, consume less
Today, trains are one of the most energy-efficient forms of energy and reduce pollution. Here are some ways we can
transport. However, energy consumption needs to be reduced do this:
further. Strategies focus on improving the infrastructure and
• When using the washing machine, choose programmes
the design of the vehicles.
with a lower temperature, since 90 % of the energy
is used to heat the water.
• Only use the washing machine and dishwasher when they
Page 209: THINK ABOUT IT are full, or use the half load programme.
A system of matter is a body or a group of related • When cooking, choose a pan that is slightly wider
objects that are being studied together. than the cooking surface, and make use of the excess
heat by switching off the hob three minutes before
For example, our body, a balloon, a rucksack or a toy
removing the pan.
train carriage are systems of matter.
• Set electronic devices to power saving mode and switch
When we study them, we generally call them bodies.
them off when they are not being used.
Remember (track 11.3)

• When buying an appliance, choose a model with
a Class A energy efficiency rating. They can save over
Page 212: REMEMBER 45 % more energy compared to a class D rating.
Kinetic energy is the energy a body has when it is in motion.
It depends on its mass and velocity.
UNIT 12: Energy and heat

Page 225: HOW DOES A MICROWAVE OVEN HEAT FOOD?

The first people to heat food used fire. Today, we can do
it much faster without having to use fire at all. We can heat
up a glass of milk or a plate of food in a matter of seconds.
Magic? No, the microwave oven.

CLASS AUDIO TRANSCRIPT
UNIT 1: Quantities and units f ) It is characterised by a sea of electrons.
Class audio (activity 16) g) It forms volatile substances.
Page 19, activity 16 h) Only non‐metallic atoms are combined.
The following statements are about sources of information i ) It always forms compounds.
and what they can be used for. Say if they are true j ) It is characterised by sharing electrons.
or false.
k) It forms hard and brittle substances.
a) The only reliable sources of information are scientific
l ) It forms molecules.
journals.
m) It conducts electricity when dissolved.
b) Some websites or personal blogs contain high quality
scientific information. n) Only metallic atoms are combined.
c) The best sources of information are the websites o) It forms substances that can be scratched
of well‑known research centres and universities. and deformed.
d) General interest newspapers and magazines p) It is characterised by the attraction between anions
do not provide reliable scientific information. and cations.
q) It can form simple substances.
UNIT 2: Atoms and the periodic table

Class audio (activity 14)
UNIT 4: Carbon chemistry
Page 41, activity 14
Match the following statements to the atomic model: Page 79, activity 18
Rutherford's model, the modern atomic model, Bohr's model Which of the following statements are true?
or Thomson's model.
a) Carbon atoms have six electrons.
a) It doesn't explain why electrons do not fall into the nucleus.
b) Carbon atoms have four electrons.
b) It describes positively charged mass with electrons
c) Carbon atoms always form part of a compound.
embedded in it.
d) Carbon is the most abundant chemical element.
c) Electrons are arranged in layers.
d) The gold foil experiment showed that this model doesn't work.
e) It explains why atoms produce radiation spectra. UNIT 5: Chemical reactions
f ) The electrons are in orbitals. Class audio (activity 19)
g) It describes an atom with a very small nucleus Page 97, activity 19
and very large shell.
Which of the following factors can increase the speed
h) It explains all of the rays in the atomic spectra. of a reaction?
a) Increasing the temperature of the system.
b) Making the particles of the reactants larger.
UNIT 3: Chemical bonds
c) Increasing the concentration of the reactants.
d) Increasing the amount of catalyst added.
Which of the following sentences are true for a covalent bond,
a metallic bond and an ionic bond? UNIT 6: Examples of chemical reactions
a) It is a bond between identical atoms. Class audio (activity 20)
b) It forms substances that are difficult to melt. Page 117, activity 20
c) It is a bond between different atoms. Complete the following sentences with the correct term:
d) It always forms crystals. a) Acids are substances that, when in aqueous solution,
e) Metallic atoms combine with non‐metallic atoms. release (…).

b) Bases are substances that, when in aqueous solution, UNIT 10: Forces in fluids
release (…).
c) Acids neutralise the action of bases because, when they
come into contact, they form (…).
Are the following statements about buoyant force
and floating true or false?
a) The magnitude of the buoyant force depends on the mass
UNIT 7: Motion
of the submerged object.
b) The magnitude of the buoyant force depends on the
Page 140, activity 23 volume of the liquid in which the object is submerged.
What type of motion do the following objects have? c) The magnitude of the buoyant force depends on the
a) The Moon orbiting the Earth. volume of the submerged object.
b) A car braking until it stops. d) The magnitude of the buoyant force depends on the
depth at which the object is submerged.
c) An aeroplane travelling at a cruising speed.
e) If the weight of the object is very small, it will always float.
d) A Ferris wheel starting to move.
f ) If the weight of the object is less than the buoyant force,
e) A Ferris wheel when it is moving.
the object will sink.
f ) A chestnut falling from a tree.
g) If the weight of the object is equal to the buoyant force,
g) An athlete running a 100 m race. the object will be in equilibrium.
h) If the weight is greater than the buoyant force, the object
will rise to the surface and float.
UNIT 8: Forces
Page 161, activity 13 UNIT 11: Work and energy

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false:
a) The weight of an object does not affect its motion. Page 218, activity 16
b) Tension force always increases an object's speed. For an object that only moves under its own weight,
explain whether it is true that:
c) Frictional force always opposes motion.
a) Its mechanical energy always remains constant.
d) Normal force is always the same as weight, but acts
in the opposite direction. b) Its kinetic energy is always the same as its potential energy.
c) There is a point at which kinetic energy becomes the same
as potential energy.
UNIT 9: Gravitational forces

UNIT 12: Energy and heat
Are the following statements about gravitational force
true or false? Page 237, activity 19
a) It depends on the masses of bodies. Indicate whether these phrases describing a glass
of water are correct.
b) It is universal, because it acts anywhere in space.
a) It has a lot of heat.
c) It can be both attractive and repulsive.
b) It has a high temperature.
d) It is impossible to isolate one body from the
gravitational force of another. c) It has a lot of energy.
e) It depends on the distance between bodies.

NOTES

NOTES

NOTES

NOTES

NOTES

NOTES

Physics and Chemistry 4 is a collective work, conceived, designed and created by the Secondary Education
department at Santillana, under the supervision of Teresa Grence.
Writers: Carmen Escudero Bascón, Francisco Javier Holgado Pérez, Margarita Montes Aguilera,
José Luis de Luis García, María Isabel Siles González, Beatriz Simón Alonso and María del Carmen Vidal Fernández
CLIL consultant: Ane San José Méndez
Editor: Bárbara Braña and Karakter Servicios Editoriales, S. L.
Development editor: David Sánchez
Managing editor: Antonio Brandi
Proofreaders: Karakter Servicios Editoriales, S. L., and Rosalie Wheeler
Art director: José Crespo
Cover design and illustration: Carlos Cubeiro
Design coordinator: Rosa Marín
Design development coordinator: Javier Tejeda
Design development: Raúl de Andrés, Julia Ortega, Jorge Gómez, Álvaro Recuenco, Rubén Chumillas
and Marisol del Burgo
Technical director: Jorge Mira
Technical coordinator: Francisco Moral and Marisa Valbuena
Layout: Karakter Servicios Editoriales, S. L., Luis González and Antonio Díaz
Photo research: Nieves Marinas
Photographs: ARCHIVO SANTILLANA
This book is protected by copyright law and is the intellectual property of Santillana.
Permission to make multiple copies is restricted solely to legitimate classroom use.
All other uses are prohibited, especially those with commercial ends.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form without the prior permission in writing of the copyright holder.
© 2019 by Santillana Educación, S. L. / Richmond Richmond

Avda. de los Artesanos, 6 Tres Cantos 58 St Aldate's
28760 Madrid Oxford 0X1 1ST
United Kingdom
Richmond is an imprint
of Santillana Educación, S. L.
Printed in Spain
CP: 891464

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4

Physics and Chemistry 4: principal features . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1. Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

• Students take an active role: they ask questions,

ES0000000079391 880227_Phy-Chem_4_SB_81866.indd 1 10/01/2019 8:25:06

ADAPTED TO LEARNER NEEDS

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. 5

Linguistic competence Social and civic competence

6 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. 7

FIND OUT ABOUT

• Evaluate sources of information.

• What other measuring instruments do you know?

an equal and opposite force force Nl on the floor. It is equal in ma

on the Earth. and in the opposite direction to N.

Chemical elements can be found in nature as isolated

under the action of this force:

Crystals Substitute the values and calculate: the atoms of a crystal

A crystal is a group of many atoms or ions with molecules or intermolecular atoms

aE = = = 3.27 ⋅ 10-24 m/s 2

that it would not be noticeable. In practice, the2 force

ACTIVITIES Water + Sulphur Water + Alcohol Water + Salt

does not have a visible effect on the Earth. 1

8 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4.

2.3. The third law of motion

• Therefore, do both forces

that itthe Santillana website.

does not have a visible effect on the Earth. Will it be in equilibrium?

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. 9

Energy and heat 12

THE TEACHER'S BOOK: SPECIALISED SOLUTIONS FOR MANY NEEDS

• Resources for each unit:

websites, apps, etc.

use in class, thus supporting the development

10 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4.

REINFORCEMENT WORKSHEETS AND EXTRA ACTIVITIES 2

ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

content and language and help ensure that students have

a thorough understanding of what they have learned.

2 One of the most famous experiments in the history

• Photocopy and distribute the worksheets. Students can

hand them in for marking or self-correct them using

the Student's Book.

of topics covered briefly in the Student's Book.

• Guided activities that take students step-by-step through the

Time (s) 3.55 9.05 21.15 40.08

in the physics classroom. No. of oscillations

Time (s) 3.55 9.05 21.16 40.08

Period (s) 1.78 1.81 2.12 2.00

Ea (s) 5 ? 10-3 2 ?10-3 1 ? 10-3 5 ? 10-4

• A series of practical activities to put what students have learned

into a practical context.

• Assessment reflects teaching, so a two-page model of objective assessment and a rubric

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4. 11

• Title and unit contents.

12 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 4.

– Whenever possible, ask students THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

can be useful in real life. • Test tube.

• ACTIVITY ROUND-UP and • Digital scales.

• Students take an active role: they ask questions,

• Resources for each unit:

• Photocopy and distribute the worksheets. Students can

• Guided activities that take students step-by-step through the

• A series of practical activities to put what students have learned

• Assessment reflects teaching, so a two-page model of objective assessment and a rubric

• Title and unit contents.

– Whenever possible, ask students THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

• ACTIVITY ROUND-UP and • Digital scales.

• Answer keys. Available at

Next, they describe its function, referring, if necessary, to captions or labels:

– Can you follow the presentation? – Do we have to work individually?

– Can you add something to that? – How much time do we have?

– Do you have any questions? – Can we use the computer?

– Am I going too fast? – How long should this be?

– Can you hear/see me well? – Have you finished Activity 3?

– Does anyone have any questions? • Discussing work

– Who can answer this? – Would anyone like to volunteer?

– Why is this important? – Did everyone get the same results?

– Can you see the screen? – Can I make a suggestion?

– Can you all read this? – Can we look at Activity 2?

• Linking ideas or concepts – I have a question on the presentation.

– There is a connection between the two • Providing feedback

• Before starting. Explain that activities with this

• Information to be communicated with slides, posters, pre-existing graphics,

FIND OUT ABOUT • Scientific research.

KNOW HOW TO • Evaluate a source of information.

BE ABLE TO • Think critically when selecting information.