Unit III

Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Physics is applicable to the region of small dimensions.
The Planck's constant (h) characterizes Quantum Physics.
Blackbody Radiation: Failure of Classical Physics
Birth of Quantum Mechanics?

❑ At the end of the 19th century, the nature of light seemed clear: light consisted of EM waves
that obeyed Maxwell’s theory.
❑ Radiation (i.e., light) emitted by blackbody → 1st sign that not everything is understood!!

A body that completely absorbs radiations

of all wavelengths incident on it is
referred to as a blackbody.

When such a body is heated, it emits

radiations which we call as blackbody
radiations.
As per Classical theory,
average energy per wave = kT

→ Total energy per unit volume (or, the intensity per unit volume) is Rayleigh-Jeans
Law

Ultraviolet Catastrophe!!
 ❑ In 1900, Max Planck suggested that the atoms in the walls of the blackbody does
not have continuous energy → Instead, they have discrete energies given by nhν
❑ These atoms exchange energy with the light ‘waves’ in units of nhν
❑ Each discrete bundle of energy hν is called a ‘quanta’

In this scenario, the total energy (or intensity) per unit volume becomes

❑ At high frequencies, hν >> kT → exp. (hν / kT) tends to infinity → intensity tends to 0
No longer ultraviolet catastrophe!!
❑ At low frequencies, above formula reduces to Rayleigh-Jeans law.
Photo Electric Effect
The emission of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light (or any
other radiation) of suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect.
The emitted electrons are called ‘photo-electrons’.

Anode
Experimental observations in the photoelectric effect:

1. Emission is instantaneous

Emission of photoelectrons takes place almost instantaneously after the light shines on
the metal, with no detectable time delay. Cannot be explained by the wave theory of
light (where energy is spread across wave-fronts).

2. Bright light (i.e., more intense) yields more photoelectrons than a dim one of
the same frequency, but the photoelectron energies remain the same

Cannot be explained by the wave theory of light which predicts that more intense the
light, the greater the energies of the photoelectrons.

3. At the same intensity, higher the frequency of the incident light, more is the
energy of the photoelectrons.

Cannot be explained by the wave theory of light which predicts that the photoelectrons
should have the same energy since the intensity of the incident light is the same.
✓ The intensity of incident light has no effect on the kinetic energy of photoelectrons.

✓ The KE of emitted electrons depends on the frequency of incident light rather than intensity

✓ Higher the intensity of the incident light, more are the photoelectrons (and hence higher the
photoelectric current).

✓ The intensity of incident light has no effect on the reverse (or, stopping) potential

✓ The stopping potential increases with frequency of incident light

✓ Existence of threshold frequency (νo)

Anod
e

Note: Important points

Note: Important plots
The energy of a incident photon is utilized in two ways

1. A part of energy is used to free the electron from the atom - known as work-function (W).
2. Other part is used in providing kinetic energy to the emitted electron .

This is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

0 is threshold frequency (minimum frequency for photoelectric effect).

V0 is stopping potential (applied negative potential
when photocurrent = 0).
Kmax & KEmax are the same.

KEmax = h( − o )
eVo = h − h o
h h o
Vo = −
e e
It is in form of y = mx + c. The graph with V0 on y-axis and frequency ν on x-axis will be a
straight line with slope h/e
RECAP
✓ Blackbody Radiation

✓ Photoelectric Effect
❑ Emission is instantaneous

❑ The intensity of incident light has no effect on the kinetic energy of

photoelectrons.

❑ The KE of emitted electrons depends on the frequency of incident light

rather than intensity
KEmax = h( − o )

eVo = h − h o
h h o
Vo = −
e e
Vo is the stopping
potential
Compton Effect

The Compton effect is the term used for an unusual result observed when X-rays are
scattered on some materials.

✓ By classical theory, when an electromagnetic wave is scattered, the wavelength of the

scattered radiation is expected to be the same as the wavelength of the incident
radiation.

✓ Contrary to this prediction of classical physics, observations show that when X-rays
are scattered off some materials, the scattered X-rays have different wavelengths from
the wavelength of the incident X-rays.

This classically unexplainable phenomenon was studied experimentally by Arthur H.

Compton and his collaborators, and Compton gave its explanation in 1923.
Electron initially at rest → Initial momentum = 0
Initial photon frequency = ν
Photon frequency after scattering = ν/
Electron recoils → Final electron momentum = p
 Momentum of massless particle is related to its energy by E = momentum*c

→ Since the energy of photon is hν, its momentum is

Applying conservation of momentum in the original photon direction,

Applying conservation of momentum in the perpendicular direction,

Multiplying the above 2 equations by c, we get

Squaring these 2 equations and adding, we get

… EQN. (A)
Now for the electron we have,
Note: m should be mo
(i.e., the rest mass).
TYPO!!

Equating the above 2 equations for the electron, we have

Now, since

Substituting this value of p2c2 in EQN. (A), we have

Dividing above equation by 2h2c2, we have

Compton
Wavelength
(2.426 * 10-12 m)

Compton Effect

Compton Effect is maximum when the angle of scattering is 180 degrees

 h
 '− =  = (1 − cosΦ)
mo c
 is the Compton Shift.

It neither depends on the incident wavelength nor on the scattering material. It

only depends on the scattering angle.
Compton effect can’t observed in Visible Light

h
 '− =  = (1 − cosΦ) = 0.0243 (1- cos Φ) Å
mo c

 is maximum when (1- cos Φ) is maximum, i.e. 2.

max = 0.05 Å

So Compton effect can be observed only for radiation having

wavelength of few Å.

For  = 1Å  ~ 1%

For  = 5000Å (visible light)  ~ 0.001% (undetectable)

Experimental Verification

45

90

135
✓ One peak is found at same position. This
is unmodified radiation
✓ Other peak is found at higher 
wavelength. This is modified signal of ✓  increases with increase in the
low energy. scattering angle.
RECAP

✓ Blackbody Radiation

✓ Photoelectric Effect
❑ Emission is instantaneous

❑ The intensity of incident light has no effect on the kinetic energy of

photoelectrons.

❑ The KE of emitted electrons depends on the frequency of incident light

rather than intensity
✓ Compton Effect
Pair Production
As we have seen, in a collision, a photon can give an electron all of its energy (photoelectric
effect) or only a part of its energy (Compton effect).

It is also possible for a photon to materialize into an electron and a positron (positively charged
electron) → this process is called pair production. In this process, therefore, electromagnetic
energy is converted into matter.

When a photon (electromagnetic energy) of sufficient energy passes near the field of nucleus,
it materializes into an electron and positron. This phenomenon is known as pair production.

𝑒−

Photon
Nucleus (+ve) 𝑒+
Charge, energy and momentum remains conserved prior and after the production of pair
via this process.
✓ Sum of charge of electron and positron is 0, as is the charge of the photon;
✓ The total energy (including the rest energy) of the electron and positron equals the
photon energy
✓ Linear momentum is conserved with the help of the nucleus which carries away
enough photon momentum for the process to occur (because of its relatively
enormous mass, the nucleus absorbs only a negligible fraction of the photon energy).

The rest mass energy of an electron or positron is 0.51 MeV (according to E = mc2) →
the minimum energy of photon required for pair production is 1.02 MeV.

Any additional photon energy becomes the kinetic energy of the electron and positron.

The corresponding maximum photon wavelength is 1.2 pm. Electromagnetic waves

with such wavelengths are called gamma (γ) rays.
Pair Annihilation

When an electron and positron interact with each other due to their opposite charge,
both the particles can annihilate converting their mass into electromagnetic energy in
the form of two γ ray photons.

𝑒− + 𝑒+ → 𝛾 + 𝛾

Charge, energy and momentum are again conversed.

Two γ photons are produced (each of energy 0.51 MeV plus half the K.E. of
the particles) to conserve the momentum.
The directions of the photons are such as to conserve both energy and linear
momentum, and no nucleus or other particle is needed for this pair
annihilation to take place.
Pair Production cannot occur in empty space
From conservation of energy
ℎ𝜈 = 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝑌

here mo is the rest mass of electron or positron, and 𝑌 = 1Τ 1 − 𝑣 2 Τ𝑐 2

e-
𝑝
𝑝 cos 𝜃 The angles θ are equal in
𝜃 order that momentum be
Photon ℎ𝜈 Τ𝑐 𝜃 𝑝 cos 𝜃 conserved in the transverse
direction.
𝑝
e+

ℎ𝜈
In the direction of motion of the photon, the momentum is conserved if = 2𝑝 cos 𝜃
𝑐
 ℎ𝜈 = 2𝑐𝑝 cos 𝜃 (i)

Momentum of electron and positron is 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑣𝑌

Equation (i) now becomes ℎ𝜈 = 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐𝑣𝑌 cos 𝜃

𝑣
ℎ𝜈 = 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐2𝑌 cos 𝜃
𝑐

But 𝑣Τ < 1 and cos 𝜃 ≤ 1 ℎ𝜈 < 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝑌

𝑐

But conservation of energy requires that ℎ𝜈 = 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝑌

Hence it is impossible for pair production to conserve both the energy and momentum unless some
other object is involved in the process to carry away part of the initial photon momentum.
Therefore, pair production cannot occur in empty space.
Wave Particle Duality
Light exhibit both kind of nature: waves and particles
deBroglie waves
Generalization of the concept of duality

✓ deBroglie suggested that the dual nature of electromagnetic radiation may be

extended to material particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons etc.

✓ It means that a moving particle, whatever its nature be, has wave properties associated
with it. The waves associated with these particles are known as matter waves or
deBroglie waves.
deBroglie gave the following hypothesis which is applicable to all matter, radiation
& particles:
Relativistic expression for deBroglie wavelength
 Davisson-Germer Expt.: An experiment that confirms the existence of matter waves
Matter waves were experimentally demonstrated in the
Davisson-Germer experiment on Electron Diffraction

✓ Classical physics predicts that the scattered

electrons will emerge in all directions with
only little dependence of their intensity on
scattering angle and even less on the energy of
the primary electrons.

✓ The method of plotting is such that the

intensity at any angle is proportional to the
distance of the curve at that angle from the
point of scattering. If the intensity were same
at all scattering angles, the curves would be
circles centered on the point of scattering.

Reference Book: Concepts of Modern Physics, Beiser

Properties of deBroglie waves

❑ Not classified as electromagnetic or mechanical waves, neither as

transverse or longitudinal.
❑ Associated with every moving body irrespective of whether charged or
uncharged.
❑ Tells about the probability of existence of a particle with which it is
associated.
❑ Travels at ‘group velocity’.
bei48482_ch03_qxd 1/16/02 1:51 PM Page 104

104 Chapter Three

3.5 PARTICLE DIFFRACTION

An experiment that confirms the existence of de Broglie waves

A wave effect with no analog in the behavior of Newtonian particles is diffraction. In

Electron gun 1927 Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in the United States and G. P. Thomson in
England independently confirmed de Broglie’s hypothesis by demonstrating that elec-
tron beams are diffracted when they are scattered by the regular atomic arrays of crys-
Electron tals. (All three received Nobel Prizes for their work. J. J. Thomson, G. P.’s father, had
detector earlier won a Nobel Prize for verifying the particle nature of the electron: the wave-
particle duality seems to have been the family business.) We shall look at the experi-
Incident ment of Davisson and Germer because its interpretation is more direct.
beam
Davisson and Germer were studying the scattering of electrons from a solid using
Scattered an apparatus like that sketched in Fig. 3.6. The energy of the electrons in the primary
beam beam, the angle at which they reach the target, and the position of the detector could
all be varied. Classical physics predicts that the scattered electrons will emerge in all
directions with only a moderate dependence of their intensity on scattering angle and
Figure 3.6 The Davisson-Germer even less on the energy of the primary electrons. Using a block of nickel as the target,
experiment.
Davisson and Germer verified these predictions.
In the midst of their work an accident occurred that allowed air to enter their ap-
paratus and oxidize the metal surface. To reduce the oxide to pure nickel, the target
was baked in a hot oven. After this treatment, the target was returned to the appara-
tus and the measurements resumed.
Now the results were very different. Instead of a continuous variation of scattered
electron intensity with angle, distinct maxima and minima were observed whose
positions depended upon the electron energy! Typical polar graphs of electron intensity
after the accident are shown in Fig. 3.7. The method of plotting is such that the intensity
at any angle is proportional to the distance of the curve at that angle from the point
of scattering. If the intensity were the same at all scattering angles, the curves would
be circles centered on the point of scattering.
Two questions come to mind immediately: What is the reason for this new effect?
Why did it not appear until after the nickel target was baked?
De Broglie’s hypothesis suggested that electron waves were being diffracted by the
target, much as x-rays are diffracted by planes of atoms in a crystal. This idea received
Incident beam

50°

40 V 44 V 48 V 54 V 60 V 64 V 68 V

Figure 3.7 Results of the Davisson-Germer experiment, showing how the number of scattered elec-
trons varied with the angle between the incoming beam and the crystal surface. The Bragg planes of
atoms in the crystal were not parallel to the crystal surface, so the angles of incidence and scattering
relative to one family of these planes were both 65° (see Fig. 3.8).
bei48482_ch03_qxd 1/16/02 1:51 PM Page 105

Wave Properties of Particles 105

support when it was realized that heating a block of nickel at high temperature causes
the many small individual crystals of which it is normally composed to form into a
single large crystal, all of whose atoms are arranged in a regular lattice.
Let us see whether we can verify that de Broglie waves are responsible for the findings

54-eV electrons
of Davisson and Germer. In a particular case, a beam of 54-eV electrons was directed
perpendicularly at the nickel target and a sharp maximum in the electron distribution
occurred at an angle of 50° with the original beam. The angles of incidence and 50°
scattering relative to the family of Bragg planes shown in Fig. 3.8 are both 65°. The
spacing of the planes in this family, which can be measured by x-ray diffraction, is
0.091 nm. The Bragg equation for maxima in the diffraction pattern is Single crystal
of nickel
n   2d sin
(2.13)
Figure 3.8 The diffraction of the
Here d  0.091 nm and
 65°. For n  1 the de Broglie wavelength  of the de Broglie waves by the target is
diffracted electrons is responsible for the results of
Davisson and Germer.
  2d sin
 (2)(0.091 nm)(sin65 )  0.165 nm

Now we use de Broglie’s formula   hm to find the expected wavelength of

the electrons. The electron kinetic energy of 54 eV is small compared with its rest en-
ergy mc2 of 0.51 MeV, so we can let   1. Since
2
KE  12 m

the electron momentum m is


m  2mKE
 (2)(9.1
 
 1031 kg)(
54 eV)
(1.6 
1019
J/eV)
 4.0  1024 kg m/s

The electron wavelength is therefore

h 6.63  1034 J s
      1.66  1010 m  0.166 nm
m 4.0  1024 kg m/s

which agrees well with the observed wavelength of 0.165 nm. The Davisson-Germer
experiment thus directly verifies de Broglie’s hypothesis of the wave nature of moving
bodies.
Analyzing the Davisson-Germer experiment is actually less straightforward than in-
dicated above because the energy of an electron increases when it enters a crystal by
an amount equal to the work function of the surface. Hence the electron speeds in the
experiment were greater inside the crystal and the de Broglie wavelengths there shorter
than the values outside. Another complication arises from interference between waves
diffracted by different families of Bragg planes, which restricts the occurrence of maxima
to certain combinations of electron energy and angle of incidence rather than merely
to any combination that obeys the Bragg equation.
Electrons are not the only bodies whose wave behavior can be demonstrated. The
diffraction of neutrons and of whole atoms when scattered by suitable crystals has been
observed, and in fact neutron diffraction, like x-ray and electron diffraction, has been
used for investigating crystal structures.
RECAP

✓ Blackbody Radiation

✓ Photoelectric Effect
✓ Compton Effect
✓ Pair Production & Pair Annihilation
✓ Wave-Particle Duality (deBroglie or Matter waves)
 Reference Book: Concepts of Modern Physics, Beiser
Concept of Phase (Wave) Velocity and Group Velocity

Reference Book: Concepts of Modern Physics, Beiser

By definition, phase (or, wave) velocity is given by the ratio of angular frequency (ω) and the
propagation constant (k).

❑ Each moving particle is associated with a group of waves (or, wave packet) rather than a
single wave.
❑ So, the wave representation of a moving body (i.e, the deBroglie waves) correspond to a
‘wave group’ or ‘wave packet’.
❑ A way to mathematically describe a wave group is in terms of superposition of individual
waves of different wavelengths whose interference with one another results in the
variation in the amplitude that defines the group shape.
Postulating that a moving particle is associated with a “wave
packet” or “wave group”, rather than a single wave.

A wave group having wavelength λ is composed of a number of

component waves with slightly different wavelengths in the
neighborhood of λ.
Amplitude modification:
Group contribution
Reference Book: Concepts of Modern Physics, Beiser

Note: All m should be

replaced by mo in this slide
Relationship between Phase (Wave) Velocity and Group Velocity
In a dispersive medium, Vp varies with λ
RECAP
✓ Photoelectric Effect
✓ Compton Effect
✓ Wave Particle Duality → deBroglie waves

✓ Concept of Wave Packets / Wave Groups → Phase Velocity & Group Velocity
 Reference Book: Concepts of Modern Physics, Beiser
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
❑ As per wave-particle duality, a wave group is associated with
every moving particle.

❑ The particle that corresponds to a wave group may be located

anywhere within the group at a given time.

❑ The narrower the wave group, the more precisely the

particle’s location can be specified.
✓ However, the wavelength of the waves in a narrow packet
is not well-defined (since there are not enough waves to
measure λ accurately) → momentum not know.
❑ On the other hand, a wide wave group has a clearly defined
wavelength
✓ But then, where is the particle located? The width of the
group is now too great for us to say exactly where the
particle is at the given time.
Thus, we have the uncertainty principle:

It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an

object at the same time.
 and vice-versa

Reference Book: Concepts of Modern Physics, Beiser

Applications of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
1. Non-existence of electrons inside the nucleus

Size of nucleus ~ 10-15 m

If electrons exist inside nucleus, the uncertainty in its position would be 10-15 m

→ Uncertainty in its momentum = h / (4*pi* uncertainty in position)

→ mass * uncertainty in velocity = h / (4*pi* uncertainty in position)

→ uncertainty in velocity = h / (4*pi* uncertainty in position*mass)

→ uncertainty in velocity = (6.6 * 10-34 Js) / (4 * 3.14 * 10-15 m * 9.1*10-31 kg)

→ Uncertainty in velocity = 5.8 * 1010 m/s → greater than c (Not possible!!)

2. Determination of Bohr radius
Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh
Reference Book: Engineering Physics, Malik & Singh
3. Finite width of spectral lines
Thought Experiment – Gamma Ray Microscope
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NxjW1GutYZg&ab_channel=ChemistrybyDesamSudhakarAVC
RECAP

✓Photoelectric Effect
✓Compton Effect
✓Wave Particle Duality → deBroglie waves
❑ Concept of Phase & Group Velocity
✓Uncertainty Principle
❑ Non-existence of electrons in nucleus
❑ Determination of Bohr radius
Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)
Wave Function

✓ The quantity with which Quantum Mechanics is

concerned is the wave function of a body.
✓ Wave function (ψ) is a quantity associated with a
moving particle.
✓ The wave function (ψ) itself has no physical
interpretation.
✓ Ψ is a complex quantity (i.e., real & imaginary
parts).
✓ |Ψ|2 is proportional to the probability of finding
the particle at a particular point at a particular time
→ It is the probability density.
The problem of Quantum Mechanics is to determine ψ
for a body / particle when its freedom of motion is
limited by the action of external forces.
Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)
Properties of Wave Function

✓ It must be finite everywhere.

If ψ is infinite for a particular point, it means an infinite probability of finding
the particles at that point. This would violate the uncertainty principle.
✓ It must be single valued everywhere.
If ψ has more than one value at any point, it mean more than one value of
probability of finding the particle at that point which is obviously impossible.
✓ It must be continuous and have a continuous first derivative everywhere.

✓ It must be normalizable → ψ must go to 0 as x tends to infinity, y tends to infinity, z

tends to infinity.

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

Unacceptable wave-functions
 Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)
Normalization
Since |Ψ|2 is proportional to the probability of finding a particle at a particular
point at a particular time, the integral of |Ψ|2 over all space must be finite: the
particle is somewhere after all.
Taking |Ψ|2 to be equal to the probability density P of finding the particle
(rather than proportional to the probability P), we have

A wave function that obeys this equation is said to be normalized.

Given a normalized and otherwise acceptable wave function ψ, the

probability that the particle it describes will be found in a certain
region is simply the integral of the probability density |Ψ|2 over that
region.
SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION: TIME-DEPENDENT FORM

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)
Once Schrodinger’s equation has been solved for a particle in a given physical
situation, the resulting wave function Ψ (x, y, z, t) contains all the information about
the particle that is permitted by the uncertainty principle.
Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)
Linearity & Superposition

If ψ1 and ψ2 are two solutions of any Schrodinger equation of a system, then

linear combination of ψ1 and ψ2 will also be a solution of the equation.

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

 If P1 is the probability density corresponding to ψ1 and
P2 is the probability density corresponding to ψ2

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

Expectation Values

Expectation value is the value of ‘x’

we would obtain if we measured the
positions of a large number of
particles described by the same
function at some instant ‘t’ and then
averaged the results.

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

Operators

For free particle,

An operator tells us what operation to carry

out on the quantity that follows it.

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

 Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)
Every observable quantity characteristic of
a physical system may be represented by a
suitable quantum mechanical operator.
Operators & Expectation Values

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION: TIME-INDEPENDENT FORM
In many situations, the potential energy of a particle does not depend on time explicitly.
Thus, the potential energy U, and hence the forces that act on the particle, vary with
the position of the particle only. When this is true, Schrodinger’s equation can be
simplified by removing all reference to time (t).

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

Schrodinger’s Equation: Time-Independent Form (Alternative Approach)
Eigenvalues & Eigenfunctions

❑ Schrodinger steady-state equation can be solved for some specific values of energy
(i.e., Energy Quantization) → these values of energy (denoted by En) are called
eigenvalues.
❑ The wave function corresponding to each eigenvalue is called eigenfunction (denoted
by ψn).

Suppose a wave function (ψ) is operated by an operator ‘α’ such that the result is the
product of a constant (say ‘a’) and the wave function itself, i.e.

Eigenvalue equation
Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)
RECAP

✓Wave Function
❖ Properties of Wave function
❖ Normalization
❖ Probability
✓Schrodinger’s Time Dependent Equation
❖ Linearity & Superposition
✓Expectation Values
✓Operators
✓Schrodinger’s Time Independent Equation (2 approaches)
✓Eigenfunctions & Eigenvalues
RECAP

Eigenvalues & Eigenfunctions

❑ Schrodinger steady-state equation can be solved for some specific values of energy
(i.e., Energy Quantization) → these values of energy (denoted by En) are called
eigenvalues.
❑ The wave function corresponding to each eigenvalue is called eigenfunction (denoted
by ψn).

Suppose a wave function (ψ) is operated by an operator ‘α’ such that the result is the
product of a constant (say ‘a’) and the wave function itself, i.e.

Eigenvalue equation
Particle in a 1D Box

We may specify the particle’s motion by saying that it is restricted to traveling along the x axis
between x = 0 and x = L by infintely hard walls.

Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)

Whose solution is

A & B are to be determined

Important: n cannot be 0 as the wave-function would disappear; n = 1, 2, 3, 4 …
Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics
(Chapter 5)
Reference Book: Beiser et al., Concepts of Modern Physics (Chapter 5)
 PART-I

QUANTUM
PHYSICS

1
 2

Quantum physics is an exceedingly complex and theoretical field, usually

described only with the help of advanced math. Nobel-prize winning
physicist Richard Feynman alleged with confidence that there was
"nobody" who really understood quantum physics.
 3

Recent happenings in Quantum physics

1 2

(1) The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at the CERN facility.

(2) The actual machine, built in a circular tunnel the earth, is about 27
kilometers (16.8 miles) long. The LHC will help us test quantum
theories that could not be tested before.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
 12

Difficulties with Classical Physics

1. It could not explain the motion of the microscopic
bodies like atoms, electrons protons etc. which move
with the relativistic speeds.
2. It could not explain stability of atoms. Acc. To
classical electromagnetic theory atom must collapse
but atom is a stable system.
3. It could not explain line spectra i.e. emission of
radiations of some particular wavelengths and not
of all wavelengths.
4. It could not explain variation of specific heat of
solids with temperature, emission of X-rays etc.
5. It could not explain Photoelectric effect.
 13

6. The classical ideas failed to explain the distribution

of energy in black body radiation spectrum.
7. It could not explain the phenomena connected with
the spin of particles and Pauli exclusion principle.
8. Compton effect, Raman effect, Radioactivity,
scattering phenomena are not explained by classical
theory.
9. It could not explain dispersion of light.

The difficulties faced by classical physics led the

scientists to abandon classical ideas and search new
ideas.
Quantum Physics came into existence after Plank’s
hypothesis.
 14

WHAT IS QUANTUM?
IN LATIN IT MEANS DISCREATE QUANTITY
The quantities can be momentum, energy etc.

Two stages of quantum mechanics:

Max Plank hypothesis (1900): radiations are emitted
or absorbed by matter in discrete packets/ quantas.
W. Heisenberg (1925) & E. Schrӧdinger (1926): The
variables like momentum and energy were found to
have discrete and discontinuous values.
 15

Wave particle duality

Matter has particle properties and under suitable
conditions, it also has wave properties.
ℎ
λ=
𝑝
For large object: wavelength is so small that
cannot be observed
For electrons wave properties become significant.
The amount of energy of each quanta is
E=hv
 16

Classical vs Quantum world

At atomic & subatomic scales,
In everyday life, quantum effects
quantum effects are dominant & must be
can be safely considered
ignored

This is because Laws of nature

Planck’s constant is so developed without
small consideration of
quantum effects do not work
for atoms
 17

Classical vs Quantum world

Deals with the objects of Deals with the objects of
macroscopic size microscopic size

Newtonian Physics, it has Laws of motion are based on

been developed on the Schrodinger wave equation
basis of Newton’s law of
motion −ℏ2 2
[ 2𝑚 𝛻 +
𝜕𝜓
V] 𝜓 = iℏ 𝜕𝑡
F=m.a

Deals with the certainties

Deals with the probabilities

Future behavior can be Uncertainty in finding the

predicted If the initial initial position and
position and momentum momentum as given by
are known Heisenberg Uncertainty
principle
 18

Planks Quantum hypothesis

The hypothesis that energy is emitted or absorbed in
a discrete manner in the form of quanta is called
Plank’s quantum hypothesis.
E= nhv
n= 1,2,3,…..any positive integer, defines as energy
state
h= frequency of oscillations
v= Plank’s constant (6.63 X 10-34 Joule-sec)
There are a few phenomenon which the classical mechanics
failed to explain.

1. Relativistic motion of sub-atomic particles.

2. Stability of an atom
3. Spectral series of Hydrogen atom
3. Black body radiation

Max Planck in 1900 at a meeting of German Physical Society

read his paper “On the theory of the Energy distribution law of
the Normal Spectrum”. This was the start of the revolution of
Physics i.e. the start of Quantum Mechanics.
The first stage began with max Plank’s hypothesis (14
Dec.’1900) according to that radiation is emitted and absorbed
by matter in discrete packets. Each quantum has energy, hv,
where v is frequency of radiations.

The second stage began with the concepts of W. Heisenberg

(1925) and E. Schrodinger (1926). The variable like energy,
momentum, now, were found to have discrete quantity.

The particle has definite position, size, mass velocity,

momentum, energy and its motion is described by Newton’s
Law of motion.
A Wave possesses wavelength, amplitude, frequency. It can
transport energy without transport of matter. It cannot be
localized and extends in space.
 Quantum Mechanics

It is a generalization of Classical Physics that includes

classical laws as special cases.

Quantum Physics extends that range to the region of small

dimensions.

Just as ‘c’ the velocity of light signifies universal constant, the

Planck's constant characterizes Quantum Physics.

h = 6.625 10 −27 erg . sec

h = 6.625 10 −34 Joule. sec
 Quantum Mechanics

It is able to explain

1. Photo electric effect

2. Black body radiation
3. Compton effect
4. Emission of line spectra

The most outstanding development in modern science was

the conception of Quantum Mechanics in 1925. This new
approach was highly successful in explaining about the
behavior of atoms, molecules and nuclei.
 Wave Velocity or Phase Velocity
When a monochromatic wave travels through a medium,
its velocity of advancement in the medium is called the
wave velocity or phase velocity (Vp).

Vp =
k
where  = 2 is the angular frequency

2
and k= is the wave number.

 2

Wave velocity/phase velocity

 Wave motion is a form of disturbance which travels
through medium due to the repeated motion of the
particles of the medium about their mean positions, the
motion being handed over from one particle to the next.
 Every particle begins its vibrations a little later than its
predecessor and there is a progressive change of phase as
wave travel from one particle to the next.
 The phase relationship of these particles that we observe
as a wave and the velocity with which the plane of equal
phase travels through the medium, is known as phase
velocity.
 Hence the velocity with which monochromatic wave
propagates through medium is called the wave velocity.
 3

The equation of motion for a

plane progressive wave is
given by
y=A cos (wt - kx) ……………(1)

Where y= displacement of the

wave depends upon space
coordinate ‘x’ and time ‘t’. A is
the amplitude and w is the
angular frequency which is
related to the frequency v by
w=2πv

k is the phase constant and given by k=2π/λ

 4

The argument of the cosine function represents the phase of the

wave, ϕ, or the fraction of a complete cycle of the wave.

In-phase waves

Line of equal phase = wavefront = contours of maximum field

Out-of-phase
waves
5
 6

Phase velocity of de-Broglie waves

exceeds velocity of light

 7


 8

Group velocity: the concept of wave packet

The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with
which the overall shape of the waves' amplitudes
known as the modulation or envelope of the wave
propagates through space.

For example, imagine what happens if a stone is

thrown into the middle of a very still pond. When
the stone hits the surface of the water, a circular
pattern of waves appears. It soon turns into a
circular ring of waves with a quiescent center. The Solid line: A wave
ever expanding ring of waves is the wave group, packet. Dashed line:
within which one can discern individual wavelets of The envelope of the
differing wavelengths traveling at different speeds. wave packet. The
The longer waves travel faster than the group as a envelope moves at the
whole, but they die out as they approach the leading group velocity.
edge. The shorter waves travel more slowly and
they die out as they emerge from the trailing
boundary of the group.
 9

The Group Velocity

This is the velocity at which the overall shape of the wave’s amplitudes, or the
wave ‘envelope’, propagates. (= signal velocity)
Here, phase velocity = group velocity (the medium is non-dispersive)
 10

Dispersion: phase/group velocity depends on frequency

Black dot moves at phase velocity. Red dot moves at group velocity.
This is normal dispersion (refractive index decreases with increasing λ)
 11

Expression for group velocity and

wave velocity
Let the wave packet is formed by the
superimposition of two waves of equal amplitude
‘A’ but of slightly different frequency w and w+dw
and propagation constants k and k+dk.
Displacement y1 and y2 of two waves
y1 = A cos(wt-kx)
y2 = A cos[(w+dw)t - (k+dk)x]
The resultant displacement y= y1+ y2
y= A {cos(wt-kx)+cos[(w+dw)t - (k+dk)x]}
 12

Wave packet
produced by
superimposition
of two waves
with slightly
different
frequency
 Group Velocity
In practice, we came across pulses rather than
monochromatic waves. A pulse consists of a number of
waves differing slightly from one another in frequency.

The observed velocity is, however, the velocity with which

the maximum amplitude of the group advances in a
medium.
So, the group velocity is the velocity with which the energy
in the group is transmitted (Vg).

The individual waves travel “inside” the group with their

phase velocities.
d
Vg =
dk