Sindhudurg Shikshan prasarak mandal’s College of

Engineering,Kankvali

Program : Bachelor of Engineering

Course Name: Engineering Physics II

Course Code: FEC102 ( Theory) Credits : 02

Course Code: FEL101 (Lab) Credits : 0.5

Max marks : Theory 60 marks + Internal 15 marks

Course Coordinator : Dr S. T. Mane
 DIFFRACTION
Q1.Define Diffraction and distinguish between Types of diffraction :
The bending of light near the edges of an obstacle or slit and spreading into
the region of geometrical shadow is known as diffraction of light.
Types of diffraction :
Fresnel diffraction Fraunhoffer's
diffraction
1) Distance between the source to 1) Distance between the
the obstacle, & the obstacle to source to the obstacle,
the screen is finite. & the obstacle to the
2) spherical or cylindrical wave screen is infinite.
front is used. 2) plane parallel
3) No Lens system is used wavefront is used.
3) Lens system is used
Differentiate between interference and diffraction

Interference Diffraction

1) Coherent sources are required 1) Coherent sources are not required.

2) Interference fringes may or may not be 2) Diffraction fringes are certainly not
of the same width. of the same width.
3) Points of minimum intensity are not
3) Points of minimum intensity are dark. perfectly dark.Vaience in intensity is
observed.
4) Maxima of Intensity bands are of same 4) Intensity of the diffracted bands
uniform intensity. decreases rapidly
5) Interference is the composite effects of 5) Diffraction pattern is the resultant of the
light waves coming from two different light waves coming from different parts of
wave fronts originating from the same the same wavefront
source.
Fraunhoffer's diffraction at single slit
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐵E
= 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2𝜋
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆
Let’s consider the width of the slit to be divided into ‘n’ number of
parts & amplitude of the wave from each of these part is ‘a’. The
phase difference between any two consecutive waves from these parts
would be,
1
𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
n

1 2𝜋
= 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑛 𝜆
Using the method of vector addition we get the resultant amplitude ‘R’
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑑 2
given by 𝑅= 𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑 2

1 2𝜋
where d= 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑛 𝜆

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜆)
∴ R =𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛𝜆)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
∴𝑅=𝑎 Where, 𝛼 = 𝜋𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
∴𝑅=𝑎 ∴𝑅= 𝑛𝑎 = 𝐴
𝛼 𝑛 𝛼 𝛼
(where, A = na = Maximum amplitude)
The intensity is given by,
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐼= 𝑅2 = 𝐴2
𝛼
Principal Maximum :
The expression for resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending
powers of α as,
𝐴 𝛼3 𝛼5 𝛼7
𝑅= 𝛼− + − +∙∙∙∙∙∙∙
𝛼 3! 5! 7!

𝛼2 𝛼4 𝛼6
𝑅 =𝐴 1− + − +∙∙∙∙∙∙∙
3! 5! 7!
The value of R will be maximum only if the negative terms vanish,
i.e. 𝛼 = 0 Since 𝛼 = 𝜋𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜆
𝑅 = 𝐴 & intensity 𝐼 = 𝑅2 = 𝐴2 is Maximum.
The condition 𝜃 = 0, means that this maximum is formed by those
secondary wavelets which travel normally to the slit. The maximum is
known as Principal maximum.
Minima :
The intensity will be minimum when sin α =0. The values of α which satisfy
this equation are,
𝛼 = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋………
e 𝛼 = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜋
∴ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜆

∴ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆 Where, 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, …

Thus, we obtain the points of minimum intensity on either side of principal
maximum. The value m = 0 is not admissible because for this value, θ
= 0, which corresponds to principal maximum.
Secondary Maximum :
In addition to the principal maximum at α =0 ,there are weak secondary maxima between
equally spaced minima. Differentiating the expression of I with respect to α & equating to
𝑑𝐼 𝑑 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
zero, ∴ = 𝐴 =0
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝛼
2 2
2 𝛼 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−sin𝛼 𝛼 2
∴ =𝐴 =0
𝛼 𝛼3
2𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
∴ = 𝐴2 3
=0
𝛼 𝛼

∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0 ⇒ 𝛼 = 0
For which intensity is zero on the screen.
Hence the positions of maxima are given by roots of the equation,
𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0
or 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
By plot the graph of y= 𝛼 and 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 on same graph
Intersecting points of both the graph which gives the values of α
3𝜋 5𝜋
𝛼 = 0, ± , ±
2 2
where α = 0 gives principal maximum. Thus substituting the values of α in
equation we get intensities in various maxima as,
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
𝐼=𝐴
𝛼
𝐼0 = 𝐴2 , 𝛼 = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜋 2 𝐴2
𝐼1 = 𝐴2 ≈
3𝜋 2 22

2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝜋 2 𝐴2
𝐼2 = 𝐴 ≈ ………….. & so on.
5𝜋 2 62
 Intensity distribution graph for single slit :
A graph showing the variation of intensity with α is shown in fig.

The diffraction pattern consists of central maximum.There are secondary maxima of

3𝜋 5𝜋
decreasing intensity on either side of it at positions, 𝛼 = 0, ± , ± …
2 2
Between secondary maxima, there are minima at positions, 𝛼 = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋……
Plane Diffraction Grating :-
Diffraction Grating :– An arrangement consisting of large
number of parallel slits of the same width & separated by equal
opaque spaces is called as diffraction grating.
The gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant lines on a
transparent material such as glass, with a fine diamond point. The
ruled lines are opaque to the light while the space between two
lines is transparent to the light & acts as slit. This is known as
plane transmission grating

Consider a plane transmission grating. Let ‘e’ be the width

of each slit & ‘d’ is the width of each opaque part. Thus, (e + d)
is known as grating element.
Therefore Grating Element is given by
(e + d) = 1/N’
=
Fraunhoffer diffraction at diffraction grating:
Let ‘e’ be the width of each slit & ‘d’ is the width of each opaque part.
Thus, (e + d) is known as grating element.
Consider a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident on the
grating.
The point P0 will be central maximum.
Now consider the secondary wavelets traveling at an angle θ with direction of incidence
of light. These are focused at P1 . As a result dark & bright bands on both sides of
central maximum are obtained.
If there are N slits, then we have N diffracted waves each from middle point of slits.
As per geometry,
The path difference between two consecutive slits is
= (e + d) sin θ
Phase difference = 2π (e + d) sin θ
λ
Principle maxima –

𝑠𝑖𝑛∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑁𝐵
I = A2 ( )2
∝ sin2 𝐵
The intensity is maximum when Sin β = 0

sin 𝑁𝐵
But for this values of β, the term becomes indeterminate.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

Hence, we can find it’s values by using L’Hospital’s rule

d 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽
Lim
𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 d𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
d
d𝛽
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽)
= Lim d
𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽)
d𝛽
𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁𝛽 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁𝑛𝜋
Lim = =N
𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋
This increases with increasing N.
 condition of Principle minima
The intensity at pt. P is minimum when,
Sin N β = 0 but Sin β 0
Nβ= nπ
Where n can have all integral values except 0 N, 2N…nN because for these
values of n, sin β becomes zero and we get principle maxima.
Hence, we have the condition for minima as,
𝜋
N (e+d) sin θ = n π
𝜆
N (e+d) sinθ = n λ here n= 1,2,3,……………..(N-1)
Where n can have all integral values except 0, N, 2N … nN
 Secondary maxima
Since (N-1) minima occur between two adjacent
maxima, there must be (N-2) other maxima which occurs
between two adjacent principle maxima that are known as
secondary maxima.
To find intensity of secondary maxima :Differentiating
intensity equation with respect to 𝛽and then equating it to
Zero.
𝑑𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛∝ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁𝛽 sin 𝛽− 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 cos 𝛽
=A (2 ) ( )[ 2 ]
𝑑𝛽 ∝ sin 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
 =0
N tan β = tan N β
N
Sin N β =
Nβ

)= Cot β

=
 𝑠𝑖𝑛∝ 𝑁 2
Is = A2 ( )2
∝ 1+(N2 −1)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
This is the condition for secondary maximum intensity
𝑠𝑖𝑛∝ 2
and Ip = 𝐴2 𝑁2
∝
I 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 1
s= =
I 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 1+(𝑁2 −1) sin2 𝛽
p
Thus
As N increases the intensity of secondary maximum
relative to principle maxima decreases and becomes
negligible when N becomes large
Determination of wavelength of light.

The grating spectrum of a given monochromatic source of light is obtained.by

using a spectrometer
The spectrometer is adjusted to parallel rays. The grating is placed on the
prism table & adjusted for normal incidence. In the direction of incident light,
the direct image of the slit or zero order spectrum can be seen through the
telescope while on the either side of this direct image a symmetrical
diffraction pattern of different orders can be seen.
 The values of diffraction angle can be measured for different orders
using spectrometer and wavelength can be calculated by using the
equation
Where, n = Order of the spectrum.

The number of lines/inch is written

over the diffraction grating, hence,
grating element i.e. (e+d) can be
calculated using above relation.
Therefore the wavelength can be
calculated by,
Resolving power of an optical instrument :
An optical instrument is said to be able to resolve two point
objects if the corresponding diffraction patterns are distinguishable
from each other.
The ability of the instrument to produce just separate diffraction
patterns of two close objects is called resolving power.
 Let XY be the grating surface &
SS1 is field of view of the
telescope
 P1 is the m th principal maxima
of a spectral line of wavelength
λ at an angle of diffraction 𝜃
 P2 is mth principal maxima of
a second spectral line of
wavelength λ +dλ at a
diffracting angle θ+dθ .
 The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as its ability to form separate
diffraction maxima of two closely separated wave lengths.
At P2 ,at an angle of (θ+dθ ), λ= λ+dλ ,The condition for principal maxima is given
by
(e+d) sin(θ+dθ ) =m( λ+ dλ)………..(1)
At P2 ,at an angle of (θ+dθ ),Condition for adjacent minima of principal maxima due to wavelength
λ,, is given by
(e+d) sin(θ+dθ ) = m λ+ 𝑁𝜆 ………….(2)
since both these conditions are overlapping to each other

𝜆
∴ m( λ+ dλ)…=m λ+
𝑁
𝜆
∴ 𝑅. 𝑃 = = 𝑚𝑁
dλ
Where m = Order of the spectrum & N = Number of lines on the grating.
 ASSIGNMENT 2
1. In an experiment with a grating, 3rd order spectral line of wavelength𝜆, coincides with the fourth
order spectral line of wavelength 4992 A0. Calculate the value of𝜆.
2. A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a line 5400 A0 in a certain order
superimposed on another line 4050 A0 of the next higher order. If the angle diffraction is 300,
how many lines/cm are there on the grating?
3. How many orders will be observed by grating having 4000 lines/cm, if it’s illuminated by light of
wavelength in the range 5000 A0 – 7500 A0.
4. In Fraunhoffer diffraction due to a single slit of width 0.2 mm, a screen is placed 2 m away from
the lens, to obtain the pattern. The 1st minimum lies 5 mm on either side of the central
maximum. Compute the wavelength of light.
5. Light incident on a grating of 0.5 cm wide with 3000 lines. Find angular separation in 2nd order of
two sodium lines 5893 A0 & 5896 A0. Check whether those two lines are resolved in 2nd order or
not?
6. Deduce the missing orders for a double slit Fraunhoffer’s diffraction pattern if the slit widths are
0.16 mm & they are 0.8 mm apart.
8) A diffraction grating which has 4000 lines/cm is used at normal incidence. Calculate
the dispersive power of the grating in the third order spectrum in the wavelength region
5000 A0.
9) What is the highest order of the spectrum that can be seen with monochromatic light
of wavelength 6000 A0 by means of diffraction grating having 5000 lines/cm?
10) Calculate the least width that the grating must have to resolve the components of
sodium D lines in the second order, the grating having 1000 lines/cm. D1 = 5896 A0 , D2 =
5890 A0
11) A plane grating has 15000 lines/inch. Find the angle of separation of the 5048 A0&
5016 A0lines of Helium in the second order spectrum.
12) A diffraction grating has 5000 lines/cm & the total ruled width is 5 cm. calculate for
wavelength 6000 A0 in 2nd order the resolving power and the smallest value of 𝜆 which
can be resolved.