Homo Erectus

2/22/2021 Homo erectus - Wikipedia
Homo erectus
Homo erectus (meaning "upright man") is an extinct species
of archaic human from the Pleistocene, with its earliest Homo erectus
occurrence about 2 million years ago,[2] and its specimens are Temporal range: 2–0.1 Ma
↓
among the first recognisable members of the genus Homo. PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K PgN
H. erectus was the first human ancestor to spread throughout Early Pleistocene – Late Pleistocene[1]
the Old World, having a distribution in Eurasia extending from
the Iberian Peninsula to Java. African populations of H. erectus
are likely to be the ancestors to several human species, such as
H. heidelbergensis and H. antecessor, with the former
generally considered to have been the ancestor to Neanderthals
and Denisovans, and sometimes also modern humans.[3][4][5]
Asian populations of H. erectus may be ancestral to
H. floresiensis[6] and possibly to H. luzonensis.[7] As a
chronospecies, the time of the disappearance of H. erectus is a
matter of contention. There are also several proposed
subspecies with varying levels of recognition. The last known
record of morphologically recognisable H. erectus are the Solo
Man specimens from Java, around 117–108,000 years ago.[1]
Replica of the skull of Peking Man at
H. erectus had a humanlike gait and body proportions, and was the Paleozoological Museum of China
the first human species to have exhibited a flat face, prominent
nose, and possibly sparse body hair coverage. Though brain Scientific classification
size certainly exceeds that of ancestor species, capacity varied Kingdom: Animalia
widely depending on the population. In older populations,
brain development seemed to cease early in childhood, Phylum: Chordata
suggesting that offspring were largely self-sufficient at birth, Class: Mammalia
thus limiting cognitive development through life. Nonetheless,
sites generally show consumption of medium to large animals, Order: Primates
such as bovines or elephants, and suggest the development of Suborder: Haplorhini
predatory behaviour and coordinated hunting. H. erectus is
associated with the Acheulean stone tool industry, and is Infraorder: Simiiformes
postulated to have been the earliest human ancestor capable of Family: Hominidae
using fire, hunting and gathering in coordinated groups, caring
for injured or sick group members, and possibly seafaring and Subfamily: Homininae
art (though examples of art are controversial, and are otherwise Tribe: Hominini
rudimentary and few and far between).
Genus: Homo
H. erectus men and women may have been roughly the same
Species: H. erectus
size as each other (exhibit reduced sexual dimorphism) like
modern humans, which could indicate monogamy in line with Binomial name
general trends exhibited in primates. Size, nonetheless, ranged
widely from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in–6 ft 1 in) in height and 40– Homo erectus
68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight. It is unclear if H. erectus was (Dubois, 1893)
anatomically capable of speech, though it is postulated they Synonyms
communicated using some proto-language.
Anthropopithecus erectus
Dubois, 1893
Contents
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus#cite_note-Hatala-52 1/27
Taxonomy Pithecanthropus erectus

Naming (Dubois, 1893)
Evolution
Sinanthropus pekinensis
Subspecies
Descendents and synonyms Javanthropus soloensis
Anatomy Atlanthropus makes
Head Telanthropus capensis
Body
(?) Homo georgicus
Metabolism
(?) Homo ergaster
Culture
Social structure
Food
Technology
Art and rituals
Language
Extinction
Fossils
Individual fossils
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Taxonomy
Naming
The first remains, Java Man, were described by Dutch anatomist

Eugène Dubois in 1893, who set out to look for the "missing link"
between apes and humans in Southeast Asia, because he believed
gibbons to be the closest living relatives to humans in accordance
with the "Out of Asia" hypothesis. H. erectus was the first fossil
hominin found as a result of a directed expedition.
Excavated from the bank of the Solo River at Trinil, East Java, he
first allocated the material to a genus of fossil chimpanzees as
Java Man Anthropopithecus erectus, then the following year assigned it to a
new genus as Pithecanthropus erectus (the genus name had been
coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1868 for the hypothetical link
between humans and fossil Apes). The species name erectus was given because the femur suggested
that Java Man had been bipedal and walked upright. However, few scientists recognized it as a
"missing link", and, consequently, Dubois' discovery had been largely disregarded.[8]
In 1921, two teeth from Zhoukoudian, China discovered by Johan Gunnar Andersson had prompted
widely publicized interest.[9] When describing the teeth, Davidson Black named it a new species
Sinanthropus pekinensis from Ancient Greek Σίνα sino- "China" and Latin pekinensis "of Peking".
Subsequent excavations uncovered about 200 human fossils from more than 40 individuals including
five nearly complete skullcaps.[10] Franz Weidenreich provided much of the detailed description of
this material in several monographs published in the journal Palaeontologica Sinica (Series D).
Nearly all of the original specimens were lost during World War II during an attempt to smuggle
them out of China for safekeeping. However, casts were made by Weidenreich, which exist at the
American Museum of Natural History in New York City and at the Institute of Vertebrate
Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing.
Similarities between Java Man and Peking Man led Ernst Mayr to rename both as Homo erectus in
1950. Throughout much of the 20th century, anthropologists debated the role of H. erectus in human
evolution. Early in the century, due in part to the discoveries at Java and Zhoukoudian, the belief that
modern humans first evolved in Asia was widely accepted. A few naturalists—Charles Darwin the
most prominent among them—theorized that humans' earliest ancestors were African. Darwin
pointed out that chimpanzees and gorillas, humans' closest relatives, evolved and exist only in
Africa.[11]
Evolution
It has been proposed that H. erectus evolved from

H. habilis about 2 Mya, though this has been
called into question because they coexisted for at
least a half a million years. Alternatively, a group
of H. habilis may have been reproductively
isolated, and only this group developed into H.
erectus (cladogenesis).[12]
Because the earliest remains of H. erectus are

found in both Africa and East Asia (in China as
early as 2.1 Mya,[13][14][15][16] in South Africa 2.04
Mya[2][17]), it is debated where H. erectus
evolved. A 2011 study suggested that it was H. Map of the distribution of Middle Pleistocene
habilis who reached West Asia from Africa, that (Acheulean) cleaver finds
early H. erectus developed there, and that early
H. erectus would then have dispersed from West
Asia to East Asia (Peking Man), Southeast Asia (Java Man), back to Africa (Homo ergaster), and to
Europe (Tautavel Man), eventually evolving into modern humans in Africa.[18][19] Others have
suggested that H. erectus/H. ergaster developed in Africa, where it eventually evolved into modern
humans.[20][21]
H. erectus had reached Sangiran, Java, by 1.6 Mya, and a second and distinct wave of H. erectus had
colonized Zhoukoudian, China, about 780 kya. Early teeth from Sangiran are bigger and more similar
to those of basal (ancestral) Western H. erectus and H. habilis than to those of the derived
Zhoukoudian H. erectus. However, later Sangiran teeth seem to reduce in size, which could indicate a
secondary colonization event of Java by the Zhoukoudian or some closely related population.[22]
Subspecies
Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis (0.37 Ma)
Homo erectus erectus (Java Man, 1.6–0.5 Ma)
Homo erectus ergaster (1.9–1.4 Ma)
Homo erectus georgicus (1.8–1.6 Ma)
Homo erectus lantianensis (Lantian Man, 1.6 Ma)
Homo erectus nankinensis (Nanjing Man, 0.6 Ma)
Homo erectus pekinensis (Peking Man, 0.7 Ma)

Homo erectus soloensis (Solo Man, 0.546–0.143 Ma)
Homo erectus tautavelensis (Tautavel Man, 0.45 Ma)
Homo erectus yuanmouensis (Yuanmou Man)
"Wushan Man" was proposed as Homo erectus wushanensis, but is now thought to be based upon
fossilized fragments of an extinct non-hominin ape.[23]
Since its discovery in 1893 (Java man), there has been a trend in palaeoanthropology of reducing the
number of proposed species of Homo, to the point where H. erectus includes all early (Lower
Paleolithic) forms of Homo sufficiently derived from H. habilis and distinct from early H.
heidelbergensis (in Africa also known as H. rhodesiensis).[24] It is sometimes considered as a wide-
ranging, polymorphous species.[25]
Due to such a wide range of variation, it has been suggested that the ancient H. rudolfensis and H.
habilis should be considered early varieties of H. erectus.[26][27] The primitive H. e. georgicus from
Dmanisi, Georgia has the smallest brain capacity of any known Pleistocene hominin (about 600 cc),
and its inclusion in the species would greatly expand the range of variation of H. erectus to perhaps
include species as H. rudolfensis, H. gautengensis, H. ergaster, and perhaps H. habilis.[28] However,
a 2015 study suggested that H. georgicus represents an earlier, more primitive species of Homo
derived from an older dispersal of hominins from Africa, with H. ergaster/erectus possibly deriving
from a later dispersal.[29] H. georgicus is sometimes not even regarded as H. erectus.[30][31]
It is debated whether the African H. e. ergaster is a separate species (and that H. erectus evolved in
Asia, then migrated to Africa),[32] or is the African form (sensu lato) of H. erectus (sensu stricto). In
the latter, H. ergaster has also been suggested to represent the immediate ancestor of H. erectus.[33]
It has also been suggested that H. ergaster instead of H. erectus, or some hybrid between the two,
was the immediate ancestor of other archaic humans and modern humans. It has been proposed that
Asian H. erectus have several unique characteristics from non-Asian populations (autapomorphies),
but there is no clear consensus on what these characteristics are or if they are indeed limited to only
Asia. Based on supposed derived characteristics, the 120 ka Javan H. e. soloensis has been proposed
to have speciated from H. erectus, as H. soloensis, but this has been challenged because most of the
basic cranial features are maintained.[34]
In a wider sense, H. erectus had mostly been replaced by H. heidelbergensis by about 300 kya years
ago, with possible late survival of H. erectus soloensis in Java an estimated 117-108kya.[1]
Descendents and synonyms
Homo erectus is the most long-lived species of Homo, having survived for almost two million years.
By contrast, Homo sapiens emerged about a third of a million years ago.
Regarding many archaic humans, there is no definite consensus as to whether they should be
classified as subspecies of H. erectus or H. sapiens or as separate species.
African H. erectus candidates

Homo ergaster ("African H. erectus")
Homo naledi (or H. e. naledi)
Eurasian H. erectus candidates:
Homo antecessor (or H. e. antecessor)
Homo heidelbergensis (or H. e. heidelbergensis)
Homo cepranensis (or H. e. cepranensis)
Homo floresiensis[35]
Homo sapiens candidates
Homo neanderthalensis (or H. s. neanderthalensis)
Homo denisova (or H. s. denisova or Homo sp. Altai, and Homo
sapiens subsp. Denisova)
Homo rhodesiensis (or H. s. rhodensis)
Homo heidelbergensis (or H. s. heidelbergensis)
Homo sapiens idaltu
the Narmada fossil, discovered in 1982 in Madhya Pradesh,
India, was at first suggested as H. erectus (Homo erectus
narmadensis) but later recognized as H. sapiens.[36] Dmanisi skull 3 (fossils skull
D2700 and jaw D2735, two
If considering Homo erectus in its strict sense (that is, as referring to of several found in Dmanisi
only the Asian variety) no consensus has been reached as to whether it is in the Georgian
ancestral to H. sapiens or any later human species. Similarly, H. Transcaucasus)
antecessor and sisters, including modern humans, appear to have
emerged specifically as sister of, for example, the Asian variety of H.
erectus.[37] Moreover, some late H. erectus varieties may have introgressed into the Denisovans,
which then later introgressed into H. sapiens.[38] However, it is conventional to label European
archaic humans as H. heidelbergensis, the immediate predecessor of Neanderthals.
Meganthropus, based on fossils found in Java, dated to between 1.4 and 0.9 Mya, was tentatively
grouped with H. erectus in contrast to earlier interpretations of it as a giant species of early
human.[24] although older literature has placed the fossils outside of Homo altogether.[39] However,
Zanolli et al. (2019) judged Meganthropus to be a distinct genus of extinct ape.[40]
Anatomy
Head
H. erectus featured a flat face compared to earlier hominins;

pronounced brow ridge; and a low, flat skull.[41][42] The presence of
sagittal, frontal, and coronal keels, which are small crests that run
along these suture lines, has been proposed to be evidence of
significant thickening of the skull, specifically the cranial vault. CT
scan analyses reveal this to not be the case. However, the squamous
part of occipital bone, particularly the internal occipital crest, at the
rear of the skull is notably thicker than that of modern humans, likely a
basal (ancestral) trait.[42][43] The fossil record indicates that H. erectus
was the first human species to have featured a projecting nose, which is
generally thought to have evolved in response to breathing dry air in
Skull of H. e. pekinensis order to retain moisture.[44] American psychologist Lucia Jacobs
showing a flat face, hypothesized that the projecting nose instead allowed for
pronounced brow ridge, and
distinguishing the direction different smells come from (stereo
a sagittal keel
olfaction) to facilitate navigation and long-distance migration.[45]
The average brain size of Asian H. erectus is about 1,000 cc (61 cu in).
However, markedly smaller specimens have been found in Dmanisi, Georgia (H. e. georgicus); Koobi
Fora and Olorgesailie, Kenya; and possibly Gona, Ethiopia. Overall, H. erectus brain size varies from
546–1,251 cc (33.3–76.3 cu in),[46] which is greater than the range of variation seen in modern
humans and chimps, though less than that of gorillas.
Dentally, H. erectus have the thinnest enamel of any Plio–Pleistocene hominin. Enamel prevents the
tooth from breaking from hard foods, but impedes shearing through tough foods. The bodies of the
mandibles of H. erectus, and all early Homo, are thicker than those of modern humans and all living
apes. The mandibular body resists torsion from the bite force or chewing, meaning their jaws could
produce unusually powerful stresses while eating, but the practical application of this is unclear.
Nonetheless, the mandibular bodies of H. erectus are somewhat thinner than those of early Homo.
The premolars and molars also have a higher frequency of pits than H. habilis, suggesting H. erectus
ate more brittle foods (which cause pitting). These all indicate that the H. erectus mouth was less
capable of processing hard foods and more at shearing through tougher foods, thus reducing the
variety of foods it could process, likely as a response to tool use.[47]
Body
Like modern humans, H. erectus varied widely in size, ranging

from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in–6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg
(88–150 lb) in weight, thought to be due to regional differences
in climate, mortality rates, and nutrition.[48] Like modern
humans and unlike other great apes, there does not seem to have
been a great size disparity between H. erectus men and women
(size-specific sexual dimorphism), though there is not much
fossil data regarding this.[49] Brain size in two adults from Koobi
Fora measured 848 and 804 cc (51.7 and 49.1 cu in),[46] and
another significantly smaller adult measured 691 cc (42.2 cu in),
which could possibly indicate sexual dimorphism, though sex was
undetermined.[12] If H. erectus did not exhibit sexual
dimorphism, then it is possible that they were the first in the
human line to do so, though the fragmentary fossil record for
earlier species makes this unclear. If yes, then there was a
substantial and sudden increase in female height.[50]
Skeleton and reconstruction of
H. erectus had about the same limb configurations and Turkana boy by Mauricio Antón
proportions as modern humans, implying humanlike
locomotion.[51] H. erectus tracks near Ileret, Kenya, also indicate
a human gait.[52] A humanlike shoulder suggests an ability for high speed throwing.[53] It was once
thought that Turkana boy had 6 lumbar vertebra instead of the 5 seen in modern humans and 11
instead of 12 thoracic vertebrae, but this has since been revised, and the specimen is now considered
to have exhibited a humanlike curvature of the spine (lordosis) and the same number of respective
vertebrae.[54]
It is largely unclear when human ancestors lost most of their body hair. Genetic analysis suggests that
high activity in the melanocortin 1 receptor, which would produce dark skin, dates back to 1.2 Mya.
This could indicate the evolution of hairlessness around this time, as a lack of body hair would have
left the skin exposed to harmful UV radiation.[55] Alternatively, human ancestors acquired pubic lice
from gorillas about 3 Mya, and speciation of human from gorilla pubic lice was potentially only
possible because human ancestors had lost most of their body hair by this early date. It is possible
that exposed skin only became maladaptive in the Pleistocene, because the increasing tilt of the Earth
(which also caused the ice ages) would have increased solar radiation bombardment. This would
mean australopithecines first evolved hairlessness.[56] However, australopithecines seem to have
lived at much higher, much colder elevations—typically 1,000–1,600 m (3,300–5,200 ft) where the
nighttime temperature can drop to 10 or 5 °C (50 or 41 °F)—so they may have required hair to stay
warm, unlike early Homo which inhabited lower, hotter elevations.[57] Populations in higher latitudes
potentially developed lighter skin to prevent vitamin D deficiency.[58] A 500–300 ka H. erectus
specimen from Turkey was diagnosed with the earliest known case of tuberculous meningitis, which
is typically exacerbated in dark-skinned people living in higher latitudes due to vitamin D

deficiency.[59] Hairlessness is generally thought to have facilitated sweating,[60] but reduction of
parasite load[61] and sexual selection[62] have also been proposed.
Metabolism
The 1.8 Ma Mojokerto child specimen from Java, who died at

about 1 year of age, presented 72–84% of the average adult brain
size, which is more similar to the faster brain growth trajectory of
great apes than modern humans. This indicates that H. erectus
was probably not cognitively comparable to modern humans, and
that secondary altriciality—an extended childhood and long
period of dependency due to the great amount of time required
for brain maturation—evolved much later in human evolution,
perhaps in the modern human/Neanderthal last common
Front view of the Mojokerto child ancestor.[63] It was previously believed that, based on the narrow
skull pelvis of Turkana boy, H. erectus could only safely deliver a baby
with a brain volume of about 230 cc (14 cu in), equating to a
similar brain growth rate as modern humans to achieve the
average adult brain size of 600–1,067 cc (36.6–65.1 cu in). However, a 1.8 Ma female pelvis from
Gona, Ethiopia, shows that H. erectus babies with a brain volume of 310 cc (19 cu in) could have been
safely delivered, which is 34–36% the mean adult size, compared to 40% in chimps and 28% in
modern humans. This more aligns with the conclusions drawn from the Mojokerto child.[49] A faster
development rate could indicate a lower expected lifespan.[64]
Based on an average mass of 63 kg (139 lb) for males and 52.3 kg (115 lb) for females, the total energy
expenditure (TEE)—the amount of calories consumed in one day—was estimated to be about 2271.8
and 1909.5 kcal, respectively. This is similar to that of earlier Homo, despite a marked increase in
activity and migratory capacity, likely because the longer legs of H. erectus were more energy-
efficient in long-distance movement. Nonetheless, the estimate for H. erectus females is 84% higher
than that for Australopithecus females, possibly due to an increased body size and a decreased
growth rate.[65] A 2011 study, assuming high energy or dietary fat requirements based on the
abundance of large game animals at H. erectus sites, calculated a TEE of 2,700–3,400 kcal of which
27–44% derived from fat, and 44–62% of the fat from animal sources. In comparison, modern
humans with a similar activity level have a DEE of 2,450 calories, of which 33% derives from fat, and
49% of the fat from animals.[66]
Culture
Social structure
The only fossil evidence regarding H. erectus group composition comes from 4 sites outside of Ileret,
Kenya, where 97 footprints made 1.5 Mya were likely left by a group of at least 20 individuals. One of
these trackways, based on the size of the footprints, may have been an entirely male group, which
could indicate they were some specialised task group, such as a hunting or foraging party, or a border
patrol. If correct, this would also indicate sexual division of labour, which distinguishes human
societies from those of other great apes and social mammalian carnivores. In modern hunter gatherer
societies who target large prey items, typically male parties are dispatched to bring down these high-
risk animals, and, due to the low success rate, female parties focus on more predictable foods.[52]
Based on modern day savanna chimp and baboon group composition and behaviour, H. e. ergaster
may have lived in large, multi-male groups in order to defend against large savanna predators in the
open and exposed environment.[67] However, dispersal patterns indicate that H. erectus generally
avoided areas with high carnivore density.[68] It is

possible that male–male bonding and male–female
friendships were important societal aspects.[67]
Because H. erectus children had faster brain growth

rates, H. erectus likely did not exhibit the same degree
of maternal investment or child-rearing behaviours as
modern humans.[49]
Because H. erectus men and women are thought to

have been about the same size compared to other great
apes (exhibit less size-specific sexual dimorphism), it is Diagram of fossil trackways from 2 sites near
generally hypothesised that they lived in a Ileret, Kenya
monogamous society, as reduced sexual dimorphism in
primates is typically correlated with this mating
system.[50] However, it is unclear if H. erectus did in fact exhibit humanlike rates of sexual
dimorphism.[12] If they did, then it would mean only female height increased from the ancestor
species, which could have been caused by a shift in female fertility or diet, and/or reduced pressure
on males for large size. This in turn could imply a shift in female behaviour which made it difficult for
males to maintain a harem.[69]
Food
Increasing brain size is often directly associated with a meatier diet and resultant higher caloric
intake. However, it is also possible that the energy-expensive guts decreased in size in H. erectus,
because the large ape gut is used to synthesize fat by fermenting plant matter which was replaced by
dietary animal fat, allowing more energy to be diverted to brain growth. This would have increased
brain size indirectly while maintaining the same caloric requirements of ancestor species. H. erectus
may have also been the first to use a hunting and gathering food collecting strategy as a response to
the increasing dependence on meat. With an emphasis on teamwork, division of labor, and food
sharing, hunting and gathering was a dramatically different subsistence strategy from previous
modes.[47][66]
H. erectus sites frequently are associated with assemblages of

medium- to large-sized game, namely elephants, rhinos, hippos,
bovine, and boar. H. erectus would have had considerable
leftovers, potentially pointing to food sharing or long-term food
preservation (such as by drying) if most of the kill was indeed
utilized. It is possible that H. erectus grew to become quite
dependent on large-animal meat, and the disappearance of H.
erectus from the Levant is correlated with the local extinction of
the straight-tusked elephant.[66] Nonetheless, H. erectus diet
likely varied widely depending upon location. For example, at the H. erectus ate primarily large game,
780 ka Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov site, Israel, the inhabitants such as the straight-tusked elephant
gathered and ate 55 different types of fruits, vegetables, seeds, (above)
nuts, and tubers, and it appears that they used fire to roast
certain plant materials that otherwise would have been inedible;
they also consumed amphibians, reptiles, birds, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, in addition to
the usual large creatures such as elephant and fallow deer.[70] At the 1.95 Ma FwJJ20 lakeside site in
the East Turkana Basin, Kenya, the inhabitants ate (alongside the usual bovids, hippos, and rhinos)
aquatic creatures such as turtles, crocodiles, and catfish. The large animals were likely scavenged at
this site, but the turtles and fish were possibly collected live.[71] At the 1.5 Ma Trinil H. K. site, Java,
H. erectus likely gathered fish and shellfish.[72]
Dentally, H. erectus mouths were not as versatile as those of ancestor species, capable of processing a
narrower range of foods. However, tools were likely used to process hard foods, thus affecting the
chewing apparatus, and this combination may have instead increased dietary flexibility (though this
does not equate to a highly varied diet). Such versatility may have permitted H. erectus to inhabit a
range of different environments, and migrate beyond Africa.[47]
In 1999, British anthropologist Richard Wrangham proposed the "cooking hypothesis" which states
that H. erectus speciated from the ancestral H. habilis because of fire usage and cooking 2 Mya to
explain the rapid doubling of brain size between these two species in only a 500,000 year timespan,
and the sudden appearance of the typical human body plan. Cooking makes protein more easily
digestible, speeds up nutrient absorption, and destroys food-borne pathogens, which would have
increased the environment's natural carrying capacity, allowing group size to expand, causing
selective pressure for sociality, requiring greater brain function.[73][74] However, the fossil record
does not associate the emergence of H. erectus with fire usage nor with any technological
breakthrough for that matter, and cooking likely did not become a common practice until after 400
kya.[47][66]
Technology
Tool production
H. erectus is credited with inventing the Acheulean stone tool

industry, succeeding the Oldowan industry,[75][76] and were the first
to make lithic flakes bigger than 10 cm (3.9 in), and hand axes
(which includes bifacial tools with only 2 sides, such as picks,
knives, and cleavers).[77] Though larger and heavier, these hand
axes had sharper, chiseled edges.[78] They were likely multi-purpose
tools, used in variety of activities such as cutting meat, wood, or
edible plants.[79] In 1979, American paleontologist Thomas Wynn
stated that Acheulean technology required operational intelligence
Oldowan choppers did not
(foresight and planning), being markedly more complex than become completely replaced
Oldowan technology which included lithics of unstandardized until about 1 Mya
shape, cross-sections, and symmetry. Based on this, he concluded
that there is not a significant disparity in intelligence between H.
erectus and modern humans and that, for the last 300,000 years,
increasing intelligence has not been a major influencer of cultural
evolution.[80] However, a 1 year old H. erectus specimen shows that
this species lacked an extended childhood required for greater brain
development, indicating lower cognitive capabilities.[63] A few sites, An Acheulean cordiform axe
likely due to occupation over several generations, features hand
axes en masse, such as at Melka Kunture, Ethiopia; Olorgesailie,
Kenya; Isimila, Tanzania; and Kalambo Falls, Zambia.[79]
The earliest record of Acheulean technology comes from West Turkana, Kenya 1.76 Mya. Oldowan
lithics are also known from the site, and the two seemed to coexist for some time. The earliest records
of Acheulean technology outside of Africa date to no older than 1 Mya, indicating it only became
widespread after some secondary H. erectus dispersal from Africa.[78]
On Java, H. erectus produced tools from shells at Sangiran[81] and Trinil.[82] A 65 cm (26 in) polished
ivory point from 350 kya Bilzingsleben, Germany, associated with H. erectus remains was possibly a
piece of a much longer lance. African modern humans have been known to use lances tied to staffs
and cause charging animals to impale themselves. Spherical stones, measuring 6–12 cm (2.4–4.7 in)
in diameter, are frequently found in African and Chinese Lower Paleolithic sites, and were potentially
used as bolas; if correct, this would indicate string and cordage technology.[83]
Fire
H. erectus is credited as the first human ancestor to have used fire, though the timing of this
invention is debated mainly because campfires very rarely and very poorly preserve over long periods
of time, let alone thousands or millions of years. The earliest claimed fire sites are in Kenya, FxJj20 at
Koobi Fora[84][73][85] and GnJi 1/6E in the Chemoigut Formation, as far back as 1.5 Mya,[73][85] and
in South Africa, Wonderwerk Cave, 1.7 Mya.[86] The first firekeepers are thought to have simply
transported to caves and maintained naturally occurring fires for extended periods of time or only
sporadically when the opportunity arose. Maintaining fires would require firekeepers to have
knowledge on slow-burning materials such as dung.[73] Fire becomes markedly more abundant in the
archaeological record after 400–300,000 years ago, including across the Old World, which can be
explained as some advancement in fire management techniques took place at this time[73] or human
ancestors only opportunistically used fire until this time.[85][87][47][66] It is possible that firestarting
was invented and lost and reinvented multiple times and independently by different communities
rather than being invented in one place and spreading throughout the world.[87] The earliest evidence
of hearths comes from Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, Israel, over 700,000 years ago, where fire is recorded
in multiple layers in an area close to water, both uncharacteristic of natural fires.[74]
Artificial lighting may have led to increased waking hours—modern humans have about a 16-hour
waking period, whereas other apes are generally awake from only sunup to sundown—and these
additional hours were probably used for socializing. Because of this, fire usage is probably also linked
to the origin of language.[73][74] Artificial lighting may have also made sleeping on the ground instead
of the trees possible by keeping terrestrial predators at bay.[74]
Migration into the frigid climate of Ice Age Europe may have only been possible because of fire, but
evidence of fire usage in Europe until about 400–300,000 years ago is notably absent.[85] If these
early European H. erectus did not have fire, it is largely unclear how they stayed warm, avoided
predators, and prepared animal fat and meat for consumption; and lightning is less common farther
north equating to a reduced availability of naturally occurring fires. It is possible that they only knew
how to maintain fires in certain settings in the landscapes and prepared food some distance away
from home, meaning evidence of fire and evidence of hominin activity are spaced far apart.[74]
Alternatively, H. erectus may have only pushed farther north during warmer interglacial periods—
thus not requiring fire, food storage, or clothing technology—[88] and their dispersal patterns indicate
they generally stayed in warmer lower-to-middle latitudes.[68] It is debated if the H. e. pekinensis
inhabitants of Zhoukoudian, Northern China, were capable of controlling fires as early as 770 kya to
stay warm in what may have been a relatively cold climate.[89]
Construction
In 1962, a 366 cm × 427 cm × 30 cm (12 ft × 14 ft × 1 ft) circle

made with volcanic rocks was discovered in Olduvai Gorge. At
61–76 cm (2–2.5 ft) intervals, rocks were piled up to 15–23 cm
(6–9 in) high. British palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey
suggested the rock piles were used to support poles stuck into the
ground, possibly to support a windbreak or a rough hut. Some
modern day nomadic tribes build similar low-lying rock walls to
build temporary shelters upon, bending upright branches as
poles and using grasses or animal hide as a screen.[90] Dating to
1.75 Mya, it is the oldest claimed evidence of architecture.[91] Reconstruction of a Terra Amata
dwelling
In Europe, evidence of constructed dwelling structures dating to
or following the Holstein Interglacial (which began 424 kya) has
been claimed in Bilzingsleben, Germany; Terra Amata, France; and Fermanville and Saint-Germain-
des-Vaux in Normandy. The oldest evidence of a dwelling (and a campfire) in Europe comes from
Přezletice, Czech Republic, 700 kya during the Cromerian Interglacial. This dwelling's base measured
about 3 m × 4 m (9.8 ft × 13.1 ft) on the exterior and 3 m × 2 m (9.8 ft × 6.6 ft) on the interior, and is
considered to have been a firm surface hut, probably with a vaulted roof made of thick branches or
thin poles, supported by a foundation of big rocks and earth, and likely functioned as a winter base
camp.[92]
The earliest evidence of cave habitation is Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, about 1.6 Mya, but
evidence of cave use globally is sporadic until about 600 kya.[93]
Clothing
It is largely unclear when clothing was invented, with

the earliest estimate stretching as far back as 3 Mya to
compensate for a lack of insulating body hair.[56] It is
known that head lice and body lice (the latter can only
inhabit clothed individuals) for modern humans
diverged about 170 kya, well before modern humans
left Africa, meaning clothes were already well in use
before encountering cold climates. One of the first uses
of animal hide is thought to have been for clothing, and
the oldest hide scrapers date to about 780 kya, though
this is not indicative of clothing.[94]
Seafaring
Reconstruction of Turkana boy with light
clothing by Adrie and Alfons Kennis at the
Acheulean artifacts discovered on isolated islands that
Neanderthal Museum
were never connected to land in the Pleistocene may
show seafaring by H. erectus as early as 1 Mya in
Indonesia. They had arrived on the islands of Flores,
Timor, and Roti, which would have necessitated crossing the Lombok Strait (the Wallace Line), at
least before 800 kya. It is also possible they were the first European mariners as well and crossed the
Strait of Gibraltar between North Africa and Spain. Seafaring capability would show H. erectus had a
great capacity for planning, likely months in advance of the trip.[95][96]
Healthcare
The earliest probable example of infirming sick group members is a 1.77

Ma H. e. georgicus specimen who had lost all but one tooth due to age
or gum disease, the earliest example of severe chewing impairment, yet
still survived for several years afterwards. However, it is possible
australopithecines were capable of caring for debilitated group
members.[97] Unable to chew, this H. e. georgicus individual probably
ate soft plant or animal foods possibly with assistance from other group
members. High-latitude groups are thought to have been predominantly
carnivorous, eating soft tissue such as bone marrow or brains, which
may have increased survival rates for toothless individuals.[98]
The 1.5 Ma Turkana boy was diagnosed with juvenile spinal disc
herniation, and, because this specimen was still growing, this caused
some scoliosis (abnormal curving of the spine). These usually cause Skull of a toothless H. e.
recurrent lower back pain and sciatica (pain running down the leg), and georgicus
likely restricted Turkana boy in walking, bending, and other daily
activities. The specimen appears to have survived into adolescence,
which evidences advanced group care.[99]
The 1,000–700 ka Java man specimen presents a noticeable osteocyte on the femur, likely Paget's
disease of bone, and osteopetrosis, thickening of the bone, likely resulting from skeletal fluorosis
caused by ingestion of food contaminated by fluorine-filled volcanic ash (as the specimen was found
in ash-filled strata). Livestock that grazes on volcanic ash ridden fields typically die of acute
intoxication within a few days or weeks.[100]
Art and rituals
An engraved shell with geometric markings could

possibly be evidence of the earliest art-making, dating
back to 546–436 kya. Art-making capabilities could
be considered evidence of symbolic thinking, which is
associated with modern cognition and Engraved shell from Trinil, Java
behavior. [82][101][102][103] In 1976, American
archeologist Alexander Marshack asserted that
engraved lines on an ox rib, associated with
Acheulean lithics, from Pech de l'Azé, France, are
similar to a meander design found in modern human
Upper Paleolithic cave art.[104] Three ostrich eggshell
beads associated with Achuelian lithics were found in
northwestern Africa, the earliest disc beads ever
found, and Acheulian disc beads have also been found
in France and Israel.[95] The Middle Pleistocene
"Venus of Tan-Tan" and "Venus of Berekhat Ram" are
Replicas of the "Venus of Tan-Tan" (left) and
postulated to been crafted by H. erectus to resemble a
"Venus of Berekhat Ram" (right)
human form. They were mostly formed by natural
weathering, but slightly modified to emphasize
certain grooves to suggest hairline, limbs, and
eyes.[105][106] The former has traces of pigments on
the front side, possibly indicating it was colored.[105] 370 ka incised bone from Bilzingsleben, Germany
H. erectus was also the earliest human to have

intentionally collected red-colored pigments, namely ochre, recorded as early as the Middle
Pleistocene. Ochre lumps at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania—associated with the 1.4 Ma Olduvai Hominid 9
—and Ambrona, Spain—which dates to 424–374 kya—were suggested to have been struck by a
hammerstone and purposefully shaped and trimmed.[107][104] At Terra Amata, France—which dates
to 425–400 or 355–325 kya—red, yellow, and brown ochres were recovered in association with pole
structures; ochre was probably heated to achieve such a wide color range.[107][108] As it is unclear if
H. erectus could have used ochre for any practical application, ochre collection might indicate that H.
erectus was the earliest human to have exhibited a sense of aesthetics and to think beyond simply
survival. Later human species are postulated to have used ochre as body paint, but in the case of H.
erectus, it is contested if body paint was used so early in time. Further, it is unclear if these few
examples are not simply isolated incidents of ochre use, as ochre is much more prevalent in Middle
and Upper Paleolithic sites attributed to Neanderthals and H. sapiens.[109][104]
In 1935, Jewish German anthropologist Franz Weidenreich speculated that the inhabitants of the
Chinese Zhoukoudian Peking Man site were members of some Lower Paleolithic Skull Cult because
the skulls all showed fatal blows to the head, breaking in of the foramen magnum at the base of the
skull, by-and-large lack of preserved facial aspects, an apparently consistent pattern of breaking on
the mandible, and a lack of post-cranial remains (elements that are not the skull). He believed that
the inhabitants were headhunters, and smashed open the skulls and ate the brains of their
victims.[110][104] However, scavenging animals and natural forces such as flooding can also inflict the
same kind of damage to skulls,[104] and there is not enough evidence to suggest manhunting or
cannibalism.[111]
In 1999, British science writers Marek Kohn and Steven Mithen said that many hand axes exhibit no
wear and were produced en masse, and concluded that these symmetrical, tear-drop shaped lithics
functioned primarily as display tools so males could prove their fitness to females in some courting
ritual, and were discarded afterwards.[112] However, an apparent lack of reported wearing is likely
due to a lack of use-wear studies, and only a few sites yield an exorbitant sum of hand axes likely due
to gradual accumulation over generations instead of mass production.[79]
Language
In 1984, the vertebral column of the 1.6 Ma adolescent Turkana boy indicated that this individual did
not have properly developed respiratory muscles in order to produce speech. In 2001, American
anthropologists Bruce Latimer and James Ohman concluded that Turkana boy was afflicted by
skeletal dysplasia and scoliosis.[113] In 2006, American anthropologist Marc Meyer and colleagues
described a 1.8 Ma H. e. georgicus specimen as having a spine within the range of variation of
modern human spines, contending that Turkana boy had spinal stenosis and was thus not
representative of the species. Also, because he considered H. e. georgicus ancestral to all non-African
H. erectus, Meyer concluded that the respiratory muscles of all H. erectus (at least non-ergaster)
would not have impeded vocalisation or speech production.[114] However, in 2013 and 2014,
anthropologist Regula Schiess and colleagues concluded that there is no evidence of any congenital
defects in Turkana boy, and considered the specimen representative of the species.[115][116]
Neurologically, all Homo have similarly configured brains, and, likewise, the Broca's and Wernicke's
areas (in charge of sentence formulation and speech production in modern humans) of H. erectus
were comparable to those of modern humans. However, this is not indicative of anything in terms of
speech capability as even large chimpanzees can have similarly expanded Broca's area, and it is
unclear if these areas served as language centers in archaic humans.[117] A 1 year old H. erectus
specimen shows that an extended childhood to allow for brain growth, which is a prerequisite in
language acquisition, was not exhibited in this species.[63]
The hyoid bone supports the tongue and makes possible modulation of the vocal tract to control pitch
and volume. A 400 ka H. erectus hyoid bone from Castel di Guido, Italy, is bar-shaped—more similar
to that of other Homo than to that of non-human apes and Australopithecus—but is devoid of muscle
impressions, has a shield-shaped body, and is implied to have had reduced greater horns, meaning H.
erectus lacked a humanlike vocal apparatus and thus anatomical prerequisites for a modern human
level of speech.[118] Increasing brain size and cultural complexity in tandem with technological
refinement, and the hypothesis that articulate Neanderthals and modern humans may have inherited
speech capabilities from the last common ancestor, could possibly indicate that H. erectus used some
proto-language and built the basic framework which fully fledged languages would eventually be built
around.[119] However, this ancestor may have instead been H. heidelbergensis, as a hyoid bone of a
530 ka H. heidelbergensis specimen from the Spanish Sima de los Huesos Cave is like that of modern
humans,[120] and another specimen from the same area shows an auditory capacity sensitive enough
to pick up human speech.[121]
Extinction
The last known occurrence of Homo erectus is 117,000–108,000 years ago in Ngandong, Java
according to a study published in 2019.[1]
In 2020 researchers reported that Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis lost more than half of
their climate niche – climate they were adapted to – space, with no corresponding reduction in
physical range, just before extinction and that climate change played a substantial role in extinctions
of past Homo species. [122][123][124]
Fossils
The lower cave of the Zhoukoudian cave, China, is one of the
most important archaeological sites worldwide.[125] There have
been remains of 45 homo erectus individuals found and
thousands of tools recovered.[125] Most of these remains were lost
during World War 2, with the exception of two postcranial
elements that were rediscovered in China in 1951 and four human
teeth from 'Dragon Bone Hill'.[125]
New evidence has shown that Homo erectus does not have
uniquely thick vault bones, as was previously thought.[126]
Testing showed that neither Asian or African Homo erectus had
uniquely large vault bones.[126]
Individual fossils
Some of the major Homo erectus fossils: Homo erectus KNM ER 3733 actual
skull
Indonesia (island of Java): Trinil 2 (holotype), Sangiran
collection, Sambungmachan collection,[127] Ngandong
collection
China ("Peking Man"): Lantian (Gongwangling and Chenjiawo), Yunxian, Zhoukoudian, Nanjing,
Hexian
Kenya: KNM ER 3883, KNM ER 3733
Vietnam: Northern, Tham Khuyen,[128] Hoa Binh
Republic of Georgia: Dmanisi collection ("Homo erectus georgicus")
Ethiopia: Daka calvaria
Eritrea: Buia cranium (possibly H. ergaster)[129]
Denizli Province, Turkey: Kocabas fossil[130]
Drimolen, South Africa: DNH 134[131]
Gallery
Homo erectus Replica of lower jaws of Calvaria "Sangiran II"

tautavelensis skull. Homo erectus from original, collection
Tautavel, France. Koenigswald, Senckenberg
Museum.
A reconstruction based Original fossils

on evidence from the of
Daka Member, Ethiopia Pithecanthropus
erectus (now
Homo erectus)
found in Java in
1891.
See also
Anthropopithecus
Kozarnika
Multiregional origin of modern humans
General:
List of fossil sites (with link directory)

List of human evolution fossils (with images)
References
1. Rizal, Yan; Westaway, Kira E.; Zaim, Yahdi; van den Bergh, Gerrit D.; Bettis, E. Arthur; Morwood,
Michael J.; Huffman, O. Frank; Grün, Rainer; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Bailey, Richard M.;
Sidarto (January 2020). "Last appearance of Homo erectus at Ngandong, Java, 117,000–108,000
years ago" (http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1863-2). Nature. 577 (7790): 381–385.
doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1863-2 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1863-2). ISSN 0028-
0836 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836). PMID 31853068 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go

v/31853068). S2CID 209410644 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209410644).
2. Herries, Andy I. R.; Martin, Jesse M.; Leece, A. B.; Adams, Justin W.; Boschian, Giovanni;
Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Edwards, Tara R.; Mallett, Tom; Massey, Jason; Murszewski, Ashleigh;
Neubauer, Simon (3 April 2020). "Contemporaneity of Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and early
Homo erectus in South Africa" (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaw7293). Science. 368
(6486): eaaw7293. doi:10.1126/science.aaw7293 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaw7293).
ISSN 0036-8075 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 32241925 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/32241925).
3. Klein, R. (1999). The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226439631.
4. Wood, Bernard (2011). "Did early Homo migrate "out of" or "in to" Africa?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127876). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (26):
10375–10376. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10810375W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..1
0810375W). doi:10.1073/pnas.1107724108 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1107724108).
PMC 3127876 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127876). PMID 21677194 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21677194).
5. Ho, K. K. (2016). "Hominin interbreeding and the evolution of human variation" (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4947341). Journal of Biological Research-Thessaloniki. 23: 17.
doi:10.1186/s40709-016-0054-7 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40709-016-0054-7). PMC 4947341
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4947341). PMID 27429943 (https://pubmed.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/27429943).
6. van den Bergh, Gerrit D.; Kaifu, Yousuke; Kurniawan, Iwan; Kono, Reiko T.; Brumm, Adam;
Setiyabudi, Erick; Aziz, Fachroel; Morwood, Michael J. (June 2016). "Homo floresiensis-like
fossils from the early Middle Pleistocene of Flores". Nature. 534 (7606): 245–248.
Bibcode:2016Natur.534..245V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016Natur.534..245V).
doi:10.1038/nature17999 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature17999). ISSN 0028-0836 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836). PMID 27279221 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27279221).
7. Détroit, Florent; Mijares, Armand Salvador; Corny, Julien; Daver, Guillaume; Zanolli, Clément;
Dizon, Eusebio; Robles, Emil; Grün, Rainer; Piper, Philip J. (April 2019). "A new species of Homo
from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines" (http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1067-9).
Nature. 568 (7751): 181–186. Bibcode:2019Natur.568..181D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
019Natur.568..181D). doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1067-9 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1
067-9). ISSN 0028-0836 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836). PMID 30971845 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30971845). S2CID 106411053 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
06411053).
8. Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000, p. 70.
9. "The First Knock at the Door". Peking Man Site Museum. "In the summer of 1921, Dr. J.G.
Andersson and his companions discovered this richly fossiliferous deposit through the local
quarry men's guide. During examination he was surprised to notice some fragments of white
quartz in tabus, a mineral normally foreign in that locality. The significance of this occurrence
immediately suggested itself to him and turning to his companions, he exclaimed dramatically
"Here is primitive man, now all we have to do is find him!""
10. "Review of the History". Peking Man Site Museum. "During 1927–1937, abundant human and
animal fossils as well as artefact were found at Peking Man Site, it made the site to be the most
productive one of the Homo erectus sites of the same age all over the world. Other localities in
the vicinity were also excavated almost at the same time."
11. Darwin, Charles R. (1871). The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (https://archive.
org/details/descentmanandse03darwgoog). John Murray. ISBN 978-0-8014-2085-6.
12. Spoor, F.; Leakey, M.; Gathogo, P.; et al. (2007). "Implications of new early Homo fossils from
Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 488 (7154): 688–691. Bibcode:2007Natur.448..688S
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.448..688S). doi:10.1038/nature05986 (https://doi.or
g/10.1038%2Fnature05986). PMID 17687323 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17687323).
S2CID 35845 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35845).
13. Zhu Zhaoyu (朱照宇); Dennell, Robin; Huang Weiwen (黄慰文); Wu Yi (吴翼); Qiu Shifan (邱世
藩); Yang Shixia (杨石霞); Rao Zhiguo (饶志国); Hou Yamei (侯亚梅); Xie Jiubing (谢久兵); Han
Jiangwei (韩江伟); Ouyang Tingping (欧阳婷萍) (2018). "Hominin occupation of the Chinese
Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago". Nature. 559 (7715): 608–612.
Bibcode:2018Natur.559..608Z (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.559..608Z).
0836 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836). PMID 29995848 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/29995848). S2CID 49670311 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49670311).
14. Barras, Colin (2018). "Tools from China are oldest hint of human lineage outside Africa" (https://w
ww.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05696-8). Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05696-8 (https://d
oi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-05696-8). ISSN 0028-0836 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0
836).
15. Denell, R. (11 July 2018). "Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1
million years ago". Nature. 559 (7715): 608–612. Bibcode:2018Natur.559..608Z (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.559..608Z). doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4 (https://doi.org/10.103
8%2Fs41586-018-0299-4). PMID 29995848 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29995848).
16. Hao, L; Chao Rong, L; Kuman, K (2017). "Longgudong, an Early Pleistocene site in Jianshi,
South China, with stratigraphic association of human teeth and lithics". Science China Earth. 60
(3): 452–462. Bibcode:2017ScChD..60..452L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ScChD..6
0..452L). doi:10.1007/s11430-016-0181-1 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11430-016-0181-1).
17. "Our direct human ancestor Homo erectus is older than we thought" (https://www.eurekalert.org/p
ub_releases/2020-04/uoj-odh040120.php). EurekAlert. AAAS.
18. Ferring, R.; Oms, O.; Agusti, J.; Berna, F.; Nioradze, M.; Shelia, T.; Tappen, M.; Vekua, A.;
Zhvania, D.; Lordkipanidze, D. (2011). "Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian
Caucasus) dated to 1.85-1.78 Ma" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127884).
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (26): 10432–10436.
Bibcode:2011PNAS..10810432F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..10810432F).
doi:10.1073/pnas.1106638108 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1106638108). PMC 3127884 (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127884). PMID 21646521 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/21646521).
19. Augusti, Jordi; Lordkipanidze, David (June 2011). "How "African" was the early human dispersal
out of Africa?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 30 (11–12): 1338–1342.
Bibcode:2011QSRv...30.1338A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011QSRv...30.1338A).
doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.04.012 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2010.04.012).
20. G. Philip Rightmire (1998). "Human Evolution in the Middle Pleistocene: The Role of Homo
heidelbergensis". Evolutionary Anthropology. 6 (6): 218–227. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-
6505(1998)6:6<218::aid-evan4>3.0.co;2-6 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28sici%291520-6505%2
81998%296%3A6%3C218%3A%3Aaid-evan4%3E3.0.co%3B2-6).
21. Asfaw B, Gilbert WH, Beyene Y, Hart WK, Renne PR, WoldeGabriel G, Vrba ES, White TD (June
2002). "Remains of Homo erectus from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia". Nature. 416 (6878): 317–
320. Bibcode:2002Natur.416..317A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.416..317A).
doi:10.1038/416317a (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F416317a). PMID 11907576 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/11907576). S2CID 4432263 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4432263).
22. Zaim, Y.; Ciochon, R. L.; et al. (2011). "New 1.5 million-year-old Homo erectus maxilla from
Sangiran (Central Java, Indonesia)". Journal of Human Evolution. 61 (4): 363–376.
doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.04.009 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2011.04.009).
PMID 21783226 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21783226).
23. Ciochon, RL (2009). "The mystery ape of Pleistocene Asia". Nature. 459 (7249): 910–911.
Bibcode:2009Natur.459..910C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.459..910C).
doi:10.1038/459910a (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F459910a). PMID 19536242 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/19536242). S2CID 205047272 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20504727
2).
24. Kaifu, Y.; et al. (2005). "Taxonomic affinities and evolutionary history of the Early Pleistocene
hominids of Java: dentognathic evidence". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 128 (4):
709–726. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10425 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.10425). PMID 15761880 (http
25. Perkins, Sid (2013). "Skull suggests three early human species were one". Nature.
doi:10.1038/nature.2013.13972 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature.2013.13972).
26. David Lordkipanidze, Marcia S. Ponce de Leòn, Ann Margvelashvili, Yoel Rak, G. Philip
Rightmire, Abesalom Vekua, Christoph P.E. Zollikofer (18 October 2013). "A Complete Skull from
Dmanisi, Georgia, and the Evolutionary Biology of Early Homo". Science. 342 (6156): 326–331.
Bibcode:2013Sci...342..326L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Sci...342..326L).
doi:10.1126/science.1238484 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1238484). PMID 24136960 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24136960). S2CID 20435482 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:20435482).
27. Switek, Brian (17 October 2013). "Beautiful Skull Spurs Debate on Human History" (http://news.n
ationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131017-skull-human-origins-dmanisi-georgia-erectus/).
National Geographic. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
28. Ian Sample (17 October 2013). "Skull of Homo erectus throws story of human evolution into
disarray" (https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/17/skull-homo-erectus-human-evolutio
n). The Guardian.
29. Giumares SW, Merino CL (September 2015). "Dmanisi hominin fossils and the problem of
multiple species in the early Homo genus" (https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0f43/cf9c1c394c7af0
1cf10160f164cdec6dd77b.pdf) (PDF). Nexus: The Canadian Student Journal of Anthropology. 23.
30. Argue, Debbie; Groves, Colin P.; Lee, Michael S.Y.; Jungers, William L. (23 February 2017). "The
affinities of Homo floresiensis based on phylogenetic analyses of cranial, dental, and postcranial
characters". Journal of Human Evolution. 107: 107–133. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.006 (https://
doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2017.02.006). PMID 28438318 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/284
38318).
31. Lordkipanidze, David (4 October 2018). "Dmanisi". In Trevathan, Wenda; Cartmill, Matt; Dufour,
Dana; Larsen, Clark (eds.). The International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–4. doi:10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0139 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F97
81118584538.ieba0139). ISBN 9781118584422.
32. Baab K (December 2015). "Defining Homo erectus" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/28
3477977). Handbook of Paleoanthropology (2 ed.): 2189–2219. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39979-
4_73 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-39979-4_73). ISBN 978-3-642-39978-7.
33. Tattersall, Ian and Jeffrey Schwartz (2001). Extinct Humans (https://archive.org/details/extincthum
ans00tatt). Boulder, Colorado: Westview/Perseus. ISBN 978-0-8133-3482-0.
34. Kaifu, Y.; Aziz, F.; et al. (2008). "Cranial morphology of Javanese Homo erectus: New evidence
for continuous evolution, specialization, and terminal extinction". Journal of Human Evolution. 55
(4): 551–80. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2008.05.002).
35. There was long-standing uncertainty whether H. floresiensis should be considered close to H.
erectus, close to H. sapiens, or an altogether separate species. In 2017, it was suggested on
morphological grounds that H. floresiensis is a sister species to either H. habilis or to a minimally
habilis-erectus-ergaster-sapiens clade, and its line much more ancient than Homo erectus itself.
Argue, Debbie; Groves, Colin P. (21 April 2017). "The affinities of Homo floresiensis based on
phylogenetic analyses of cranial, dental, and postcranial characters". Journal of Human Evolution.
107: 107–133. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.006
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2017.02.006). PMID 28438318 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/28438318).
36. Kennedy, Kenneth A.R.; Sonakia, Arun; Chiment, John; Verma, K.K. (1991). "Is the Narmada
hominid an Indian Homo erectus?". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 86 (4): 475–496.
doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330860404 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330860404). PMID 1776655 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1776655).
37. Dembo, Mana; Radovčić, Davorka; Garvin, Heather M.; Laird, Myra F.; Schroeder, Lauren; Scott,
Jill E.; Brophy, Juliet; Ackermann, Rebecca R.; Musiba, Chares M.; de Ruiter, Darryl J.; Mooers,
Arne Ø. (29 April 2016). "The evolutionary relationships and age of Homo naledi: An assessment
using dated Bayesian phylogenetic methods". Journal of Human Evolution. 97: 17–26.
hdl:2164/8796 (https://hdl.handle.net/2164%2F8796). PMID 27457542 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/27457542).
38. Lao, Oscar; Bertranpetit, Jaume; Mondal, Mayukh (16 January 2019). "Approximate Bayesian
computation with deep learning supports a third archaic introgression in Asia and Oceania" (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6335398). Nature Communications. 10 (1): 246.
Bibcode:2019NatCo..10..246M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatCo..10..246M).
1723 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723). PMC 6335398 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC6335398). PMID 30651539 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30651539).
39. Krantz, G.S. (1975). "An explanation for the diastema of Javan erectus Skull IV". In:
Paleoanthropology, Morphology and Paleoecology. La Hague: Mouton, 361–372.
40. Zanolli, Clément; Kullmer, Ottmar; Kelley, Jay; Bacon, Anne-Marie; Demeter, Fabrice; Dumoncel,
Jean; Fiorenza, Luca; Grine, Frederick E.; Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Nguyen, Anh Tuan; Nguyen,
Thi Mai Huong; Pan, Lei; Schillinger, Burkhard; Schrenk, Friedemann; Skinner, Matthew M.; Ji,
Xueping; MacChiarelli, Roberto (2019). "Evidence for increased hominid diversity in the Early to
Middle Pleistocene of Indonesia" (https://kar.kent.ac.uk/72814/1/01-Indonesian_hominid_paleobio
diversity_v2.pdf) (PDF). Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3 (5): 755–764. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-
0860-z (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-019-0860-z). PMID 30962558 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/30962558). S2CID 102353734 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:102353734).
41. Baba, H.; Aziz, F.; Kaifu, Y.; et al. (2003). "Homo erectus Calvarium from the Pleistocene of Java".
Science. 209 (5611): 1384–1388. doi:10.1126/science.1081676 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscien
ce.1081676). PMID 12610302 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12610302). S2CID 20437090 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20437090).
42. Balzeau, A. (2006). "Are thickened cranial bones and equal participation of the three structural
bone layers autapomorphic traits of Homo erectus?" (https://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/152
8). Bulletins et mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris. 18 (3–4): 145–163.
43. Copes, L. E.; Kimbel, W. H. (2016). "Cranial vault thickness in primates: Homo erectus does not
have uniquely thick vault bones" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2015.08.008). Journal of
Human Evolution. 90: 120–134. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.008 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhe
vol.2015.08.008). PMID 26767964 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26767964).
44. Franciscus, R. G.; Trinkaus, E. (1998). "Nasal morphology and the emergence of Homo erectus".
American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 75 (4): 517–527. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330750409 (http
s://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330750409). PMID 3133950 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3133
950).
45. Jacobs, L. F. (2019). "The navigational nose: a new hypothesis for the function of the human
external pyramid" (https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.186924). Journal of Experimental Biology. 222
(Pt Suppl 1): jeb186924. doi:10.1242/jeb.186924 (https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.186924).
46. Antón, S. C.; Taboada, H. G.; et al. (2016). "Morphological variation in Homo erectus and the
origins of developmental plasticity" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920293).
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 371 (1698): 20150236.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0236 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2015.0236). PMC 4920293 (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920293). PMID 27298467 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/27298467).
47. Ungar, P. S.; Grine, F. E. (2006). "Diet in Early Homo: A Review of the Evidence and a New
Model of Adaptive Versatility". Annual Review of Anthropology. 35: 208–228.
doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123153 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.35.08
1705.123153).
48. Migliano, A. B.; Guillon, M. (2012). "The Effects of Mortality, Subsistence, and Ecology on Human
Adult Height and Implications for Homo Evolution" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2339
05432). Current Anthropology. 53 (S6): 359–368. doi:10.1086/667694 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2
F667694).
49. Simpson, S. W.; Quade, J.; Levin, N. E.; et al. (2008). "A Female Homo erectus Pelvis from
Gona, Ethiopia". Science. 322 (5904): 1089–1092. Bibcode:2008Sci...322.1089S (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...322.1089S). doi:10.1126/science.1163592 (https://doi.org/10.1126%
2Fscience.1163592). PMID 19008443 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19008443).
50. Plavcan, J. M. (2012). "Body Size, Size Variation, and Sexual Size Dimorphism in Early Homo".
Current Anthropology. 53 (S6): 309–423. doi:10.1086/667605 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F66760
5).
51. Ruff, C. (2008). "Femoral/humeral strength in early African Homo erectus". Journal of Human
Evolution. 54 (3): 383–390. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.09.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.
2007.09.001). PMID 17977577 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17977577).
52. Hatala, K. G.; Roach, N. T.; et al. (2016). "Footprints reveal direct evidence of group behavior and
locomotion in Homo erectus" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4941528). Scientific
Reports. 6 (28766): 28766. Bibcode:2016NatSR...628766H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20
16NatSR...628766H). doi:10.1038/srep28766 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep28766).
53. Roach, & Richmond. (2015). "Clavicle length, throwing performance and the reconstruction of the
Homo erectus shoulder". Journal of Human Evolution, 80(C), 107–113.
54. Haeusler, M.; Schiess, R.; Boeni, T. (2011). "New vertebral and rib material point to modern
bauplan of the Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton" (https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/50126/6/H
aeusler_New_vertebral_and_rib_material_point_to_modern_bauplan.pdf) (PDF). Journal of
Human Evolution. 61 (5): 575–582. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.07.004 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F
j.jhevol.2011.07.004). PMID 21868059 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21868059).
55. Rogers, A. R.; Iltis, D.; Wooding, S. (2004). "Genetic Variation at the MC1R Locus and the Time
since Loss of Human Body Hair". Current Anthropology. 45 (1): 105–108. doi:10.1086/381006 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1086%2F381006).
56. Gilligan, I. (2010). "The Prehistoric Development of Clothing: Archaeological Implications of a
Thermal Model". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 15: 15–80. doi:10.1007/s10816-
009-9076-x (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10816-009-9076-x). S2CID 143004288 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:143004288).
57. Dávid-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R. I. M. (2016). "Bipedality and hair loss in human evolution revisited:
The impact of altitude and activity scheduling" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC48
74949). Journal of Human Evolution. 94: 72–82. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.006 (https://doi.org/
10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2016.02.006). PMC 4874949 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PM
C4874949). PMID 27178459 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27178459).
58. Jablonski, N. G. (2012). "Human Skin Pigmentation as an Example of Adaptive Evolution".
Proceedings of the Philosophical Society. 156 (1): 45–57. JSTOR 23558077 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/23558077). PMID 23035389 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23035389).
59. Kappelman, J.; Alçiçek, M. C.; et al. (2007). "First Homo erectus from Turkey and implications for
migrations into temperate Eurasia". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 135 (1): 110–
116. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20739 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.20739). PMID 18067194 (https://pu
bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18067194).
60. Best, A.; Kamilar, J. M. (2018). "The evolution of eccrine sweat glands in human and nonhuman
primates". Journal of Human Evolution. 117: 33–43. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.12.003 (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2017.12.003). PMID 29544622 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/295446
22).
61. Pagel, M.; Bodmer, W. (2004). "The Evolution of Human Hairlessness: Cultural Adaptations and
the Ectoparasite Hypothesis". Evolutionary Theory and Processes: Modern Horizons. Springer,
Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-0443-4_17 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-0443-4_1
7). ISBN 978-94-017-0443-4.
62. Gile, J. (2010). "Naked Love: The Evolution of Human Hairlessness". Biological Theory. 5 (4):
326–336. doi:10.1162/BIOT_a_00062 (https://doi.org/10.1162%2FBIOT_a_00062).
63. Coqueugniot, H.; Hublin, J.-J.; et al. (2004). "Early brain growth in Homo erectus and implications
for cognitive ability". Nature. 431 (7006): 299–302. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..299C (https://ui.adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Natur.431..299C). doi:10.1038/nature02852 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F
nature02852). PMID 15372030 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15372030). S2CID 4428043 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4428043).
64. Caspari, R.; Lee, S.-H. (2004). "Older age becomes common late in human evolution" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC503716). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
101 (30): 10895–10900. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402857101 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.040285
7101). PMC 503716 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC503716). PMID 15252198 (ht
tps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15252198).
65. Steudel-Numbers, K. L. (2006). "Energetics in Homo erectus and other early hominins: The
consequences of increased lower-limb length". Journal of Human Evolution. 51 (5): 445–453.
66. Ben-Dor, M.; Gopher, A.; Hershkovitz, I.; Barkai, R. (2011). "Man the Fat Hunter: The Demise of
Homo erectus and the Emergence of a New Hominin Lineage in the Middle Pleistocene (ca. 400
kyr) Levant" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3235142). PLOS ONE. 6 (12):
e28689. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...628689B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PLoSO...62868
9B). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0028689 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0028689).
67. Willems, E. P.; van Shaik, C. P. (2017). "The social organization of Homo ergaster: Inferences
from anti-predator responses in extant primates". Journal of Human Evolution. 109: 11–21.
68. Carotenuto, F.; et al. (2016). "Venturing out safely: The biogeography of Homo erectus dispersal
out of Africa". Journal of Human Evolution. 95: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.005 (https://do
i.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2016.02.005). PMID 27260171 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27260
171).
69. Plavcan, J. M. (2012). "Implications of Male and Female Contributions to Sexual Size Dimorphism
for Inferring Behavior in the Hominin Fossil Record". International Journal of Primatology. 33 (6):
1364–1381. doi:10.1007/s10764-012-9642-z (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10764-012-9642-z).
70. Melamed, Y.; Kislev, M. E.; Geffen, E.; Lev-Yadun, S.; et al. (2016). "The plant component of an
Acheulian diet at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5
187744). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (51): 14674–14679.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1607872113 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1607872113). PMC 5187744 (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5187744). PMID 27930293 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/27930293).
71. Steele, T. E. (2010). "A unique hominin menu dated to 1.95 million years ago" (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2890732). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107
(24): 10771–10772. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10710771S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PN
AS..10710771S). doi:10.1073/pnas.1005992107 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1005992107).
72. Joordens, J. C. A.; Wesselingh, F. P.; et al. (2009). "Relevance of aquatic environments for
hominins: a case study from Trinil (Java, Indonesia)". Journal of Human Evolution. 57 (6): 656–
671. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.06.003 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2009.06.003).
73. Gowlett, J. A. J. (2016). "The discovery of fire by humans: a long and convoluted process" (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4874402). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B. 371 (1696): 20150164. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0164 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.20
15.0164). PMC 4874402 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4874402).
74. Gowlett, J. A. J.; Wrangham, R. W. (2013). "Earliest fire in Africa: Towards the convergence of
archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2
71530765). Azania Archaeological Research in Africa. 48 (1): 5–30.
doi:10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0067270X.2012.756754).
75. Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999).
World History: Patterns of Interaction (https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck).
Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1.
76. Richards, M. P. (December 2002). "A brief review of the archaeological evidence for Palaeolithic
and Neolithic subsistence" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ejcn.1601646). European Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. 56 (12): 1270–1278. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601646 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.
ejcn.1601646). ISSN 1476-5640 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-5640). PMID 12494313 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12494313).
77. de la Torre, I. (2016). "The origins of the Acheulean: past and present perspectives on a major
transition in human evolution" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920301).
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 371 (1698): 20150245.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0245 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2015.0245). PMC 4920301 (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920301). PMID 27298475 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/27298475).
78. Lepre, C. J.; Roche, H.; Kent, D. V.; et al. (2011). "An earlier origin for the Achuelian". Nature. 477
(7362): 82–85. Bibcode:2011Natur.477...82L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.477...
82L). doi:10.1038/nature10372 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature10372). PMID 21886161 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21886161). S2CID 4419567 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:4419567).
79. Nowell, A.; Chang, M. L. (2009). "The Case Against Sexual Selection as an Explanation of
Handaxe Morphology" (http://paleoanthro.reedd.webfactional.com/static/journal/content/PA20090
077.pdf) (PDF). Paleoanthropology: 77–88.
80. Wynn, T. (1979). "The Intelligence of Later Acheulean Hominids". Man. 14 (3): 371–391.
doi:10.2307/2801865 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2801865). JSTOR 2801865 (https://www.jstor.o
rg/stable/2801865).
81. Choi, K.; Driwantoro, D. (2007). "Shell tool use by early members of Homo erectus in Sangiran,
central Java, Indonesia: cut mark evidence". Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (1): 48–58.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.03.013 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2006.03.013).
82. Joordens, Josephine C.A.; et al. (2015). "Homo erectus at Trinil on Java Used Shells for Tool
Production and Engraving". Nature. 518 (7538): 228–231. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..228J (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.518..228J). doi:10.1038/nature13962 (https://doi.org/10.103
8%2Fnature13962). PMID 25470048 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25470048).
83. Turner, J. C. (1996). History and Science of Knots (https://books.google.com/books?id=ODtqDQA
AQBAJ&pg=PA6). World Scientific. pp. 6–8. ISBN 9789810224691.
84. Hlubik, S.; Berna, F.; Feibel, C.; Braun, D. R. (2017). "Researching the Nature of Fire at 1.5 Mya
on the Site of FxJj20 AB, Koobi Fora, Kenya, Using High-Resolution Spatial Analysis and FTIR
Spectrometry". Current Anthropology. 58: S243–S257. doi:10.1086/692530 (https://doi.org/10.10
86%2F692530).
85. Roebroekes, W.; Villa, P. (2011). "On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe" (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3069174). Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. 108 (13): 5209–5214. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.5209R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/2011PNAS..108.5209R). doi:10.1073/pnas.1018116108 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.101
8116108). PMC 3069174 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3069174).
86. Beaumont, P. B. (2011). "The Edge: More on Fire-Making by about 1.7 Million Years Ago at
Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa". Current Anthropology. 52 (4): 585–595. doi:10.1086/660919
(https://doi.org/10.1086%2F660919).
87. Sandgathe, D. (2017). "Identifying and Describing Pattern and Process in the Evolution of
Hominin Use of Fire" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317042963). Current
Anthropology. 58: S360–S370. doi:10.1086/691459 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F691459).
hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-0141-3 (https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-002C-01
41-3).
88. Antón, S. C. (2003). "Natural history of Homo erectus". American Journal of Physical
Anthropology. 122 (S37): 132. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10399 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.10399).
89. Zhong, M.; Shi, C.; et al. (2013). "On the possible use of fire by Homo erectus at Zhoukoudian,
China" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272016716). Chinese Science Bulletin. 59 (3):
335–343. doi:10.1007/s11434-013-0061-0 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11434-013-0061-0).
90. Leakey, M. D. (1971). Olduvai Gorge: Volume 3, Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960-1963 (https://
books.google.com/books?id=eepULHufmF8C&pg=PA24). Cambridge University Press. p. 24.
ISBN 9780521077231.
91. Ingold, T. (2000). "Building, dwelling, living: how animals and people make themselves at home in
the world". The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=S3GakE5OT-kC&pg=PA184). Psychology Press. p. 184.
ISBN 9780415228329.
92. Sklenář, K. (1987). "The Lower Paleolithic Dwelling Structure at Přezletice and its Significance".
Anthropologie. 25 (2): 101–103. JSTOR 26294864 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/26294864).
93. Ullman, M.; Hovers, E.; Goren-Inbar, N.; Frumkin, A. (2013). "Levantine cave dwellers:
geographic and environmental aspects of early humans use of caves, case study from Wadi
Amud, northern Israel" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305589647). International
Congress of Speleology. 1.
94. Toups, M. A.; Kitchen, A.; Light, J. E.; Reed, D. L. (2011). "Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates Early
Clothing Use by Anatomically Modern Humans in Africa" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC3002236). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 28 (1): 29–32. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234
(https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsq234). PMC 3002236 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC3002236). PMID 20823373 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20823373).
95. Bednarik, R. G. (1999). "Pleistocene seafaring in the Mediterranean". Anthropologie. 37 (3): 275–
282. JSTOR 26294895 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/26294895).
96. Bednarik, R. G. (1998). "An experiment in Pleistocene seafaring" (http://www.ifrao.com/wp-conten
t/uploads/2015/03/98Nautuical.pdf) (PDF). The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 27
(2): 139–149. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1998.tb00797.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.19
98.tb00797.x).
97. Spikins, P.; Needham, A.; Wright, B. (2019). "Living to fight another day: The ecological and
evolutionary significance of Neanderthal healthcare" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2018.
08.011). Quaternary Science Review. 217: 98–118. Bibcode:2019QSRv..217...98S (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2019QSRv..217...98S). doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.08.011 (https://doi.org/
10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2018.08.011).
98. Lordkipanidze, D.; Vekua, A.; et al. (2005). "The earliest toothless hominin skull" (https://www.res
earchgate.net/publication/7920240). Nature. 434 (7034): 717–718. doi:10.1038/434717b (https://d
oi.org/10.1038%2F434717b). PMID 15815618 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15815618).
99. Haeusler, M.; Schiess, R.; Boeni, T. (2013). "Evidence for Juvenile Disc Herniation in a Homo
Erectus Boy Skeleton" (https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/76396/1/Haeusler_et_al_Evidence_for_j
uvenile_disc_herniation.pdf) (PDF). Spine. 38 (3): 123–128.
doi:10.1097/BRS.0b013e31827cd245 (https://doi.org/10.1097%2FBRS.0b013e31827cd245).
PMID 23154836 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23154836). S2CID 11534863 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:11534863).
00. Soriano, M. (1970). "The fluoric origin of the bone lesion in Pithecanthropus erectus femur".
American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 32 (1): 49–57. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330320107 (https://
doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330320107). PMID 4984453 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/498445
3).
01. Henshilwood, C.S.; d'Errico, F.; Watts, I. (2009). "Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age
levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa". J. Hum. Evol. 57 (1): 27–47.
02. d'Errico, F.; Garcıa Moreno, R.; Rifkin, R.F. (2012). "Technological, elemental and colorimetric
analysis of an engraved ochre fragment from the Middle Stone Age levels of Klasies River Cave
1, South Africa". J. Archaeol. Sci. 39 (4): 942–952. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.032 (https://doi.org/1
0.1016%2Fj.jas.2011.10.032).
03. Callaway, E. (2014). "Homo erectus made world's oldest doodle 500,000 years ago" (https://www.
nature.com/news/homo-erectus-made-world-s-oldest-doodle-500-000-years-ago-1.16477).
Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.16477 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature.2014.16477).
04. Dickson, D. B. (1992). The Dawn of Belief: Religion in the Upper Paleolithic of Southwestern
Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id=DNr5YIygjMMC&pg=PA40). University of Arizona
Press. pp. 40–46. ISBN 978-0-8165-1336-9.
05. Morriss-Kay, G. M. (2009). "The evolution of human artistic creativity" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/pmc/articles/PMC2815939). Journal of Anatomy. 216 (2): 158–176. doi:10.1111/j.1469-
7580.2009.01160.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-7580.2009.01160.x). PMC 2815939 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2815939). PMID 19900185 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/19900185).
06. d'Errico, F.; Nowell, A. (2000). "A New Look at the Berekhat Ram Figurine: Implications for the
Origins of Symbolism". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 10 (1): 123–167.
doi:10.1017/S0959774300000056 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0959774300000056).
07. Watts, I. (2014). "The red thread: pigment use and the evolution of collective ritual". The Social
Origins of Language (https://books.google.com/books?id=0HtYCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222). Oxford
University Press. pp. 222–223. ISBN 978-0-19-966533-4.
08. de Lumley, H.; Boone, Y. (1976). "Les structures d'habitat au Paléolithique moyen" [Housing
structures from the lower Paleolithic]. In de Lumley, H.; Guilaine, J. (eds.). La Préhistoire
française: Les civilisations paléolithiques et mésolithiques de la France [French prehistory: the
Paleolithic and Mesolithic civilizations of France]. Éditions du Centre national de la recherche
scientifique. ISBN 978-2-222-01968-8.
09. Wreschner, E. E.; Bolton, R.; et al. (1980). "Red Ochre and Human Evolution: A Case for
Discussion" (http://sites.utexas.edu/butzer/files/2017/03/Wreschner_Butzer-1980-RedOchre.pdf)
(PDF). Current Anthropology. 21 (5): 632–633. doi:10.1086/202541 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F2
02541). JSTOR 2741829 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2741829).
10. Weidenreich, F. (1935). "The Sinanthropus Population of Choukoutien (Locality 1) with a
Preliminary Report on New Discoveries". Bulletin of the Geological Society of China. 14 (4): 427–
468. doi:10.1111/j.1755-6724.1935.mp14004001.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1755-6724.1935.
mp14004001.x).
11. Binford, L. R.; Ho, C. K. (1985). "Taphonomy at a Distance: Zhoukoudian, 'The Cave Home of
Beijing Man'?". Current Anthropology. 26 (4): 413–442. doi:10.1086/203303 (https://doi.org/10.10
86%2F203303). JSTOR 2742759 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2742759).
12. Kohn, M.; Mithen, S. (1999). "Handaxes: products of sexual selection?". Antiquity. 73 (281): 518–
526. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00065078 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003598X00065078).
13. Latimer, B.; Ohman, J. (2001). "Axial dysplasia in Homo erectus". Journal of Human Evolution.
40.
14. Meyer, M. R.; Lordkipanidze, D. "Language and empathy in Homo erectus: behaviors suggested
by a modern spinal cord from Dmanisi, but not Nariokotome" (https://www.researchgate.net/public
ation/263198625).
15. Schiess, R.; Hausler, M. (2013). "No skeletal dysplasia in the Nariokotome boy KNM-WT 15000
(Homo erectus)--a reassessment of congenital pathologies of the vertebral column". American
Journal of Physical Anthropology. 150 (3): 365–374. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22211 (https://doi.org/10.10
02%2Fajpa.22211). PMID 23283736 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23283736).
16. Schiess, R.; Boeni, T.; Rühli, F.; Haeusler, M. (2014). "Revisiting scoliosis in the KNM-WT 15000
Homo erectus skeleton" (https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/92705/1/Schiess_et_al._-_Scoliosis_in
_WT15000_2013-10-24.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 67 (48–59): 48–59.
17. Luef, E. M. (2018). "Tracing the human brain's classical language areas in extant and extinct
hominids". The talking species: Perspectives on the evolutionary, neuronal and cultural
foundations of language (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327285824). Uni-Press Graz.
ISBN 978-3-902666-52-9.
18. Capasso, L.; Michetti, E.; D'Anastasio, R. (2008). "A Homo erectus hyoid bone: possible
implications for the origin of the human capability for speech". Collegium Anthropologicum. 32 (4):
1007–1011. PMID 19149203 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19149203).
19. Hillert, D. G. (2015). "On the Evolving Biology of Language" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art
icles/PMC4656830). Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 1796. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01796 (https://doi.
org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2015.01796). PMC 4656830 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC4656830). PMID 26635694 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26635694).
20. Martínez, I.; Arsuaga, J.-L.; Quam, R.; et al. (2008). "Human hyoid bones from the middle
Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain)" (https://eprints.ucm.es/2
6853/1/1-s2.0-S0047_1.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 54 (1): 118–124.
21. Martínez, I.; Arsuaga, J.-L.; Quam, R.; et al. (2004). "Auditory capacities in Middle Pleistocene
humans from the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4
54200). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (27): 9976–9981.
Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.9976M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..101.9976M).
doi:10.1073/pnas.0403595101 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0403595101). PMC 454200 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC454200). PMID 15213327 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/15213327).
22. Padmanaban, Deepa (6 November 2020). "Climate Change May Have Been a Major Driver of
Ancient Hominin Extinctions" (https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/hominin-extinctions/).
SAPIENS. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
23. "Climate change likely drove early human species to extinction, modeling study suggests" (https://
phys.org/news/2020-10-climate-drove-early-human-species.html). phys.org. Retrieved
9 November 2020.
24. Raia, Pasquale; Mondanaro, Alessandro; Melchionna, Marina; Febbraro, Mirko Di; Diniz-Filho,
Josè A. F.; Rangel, Thiago F.; Holden, Philip B.; Carotenuto, Francesco; Edwards, Neil R.; Lima-
Ribeiro, Matheus S.; Profico, Antonio; Maiorano, Luigi; Castiglione, Silvia; Serio, Carmela; Rook,
Lorenzo (23 October 2020). "Past Extinctions of Homo Species Coincided with Increased
Vulnerability to Climatic Change" (https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(20)30476-
0). One Earth. 3 (4): 480–490. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.09.007 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.on
eear.2020.09.007). ISSN 2590-3330 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2590-3330). Retrieved
9 November 2020.
25. Zanolli, Clément, et al. “Inner Tooth Morphology of Homo Erectus from Zhoukoudian. New
Evidence from an Old Collection Housed at Uppsala University, Sweden.” Journal of Human
Evolution, vol. 116, Mar. 2018, pp. 1–13.
26. Copes, Lynn E., and William H. Kimbel. “Cranial Vault Thickness in Primates: Homo Erectus
Does Not Have Uniquely Thick Vault Bones.” Journal of Human Evolution, vol. 90, Jan. 2016, pp.
120–134.
27. Delson E, Harvati K, Reddy D, et al. (April 2001). "The Sambungmacan 3 Homo erectus calvaria:
a comparative morphometric and morphological analysis" (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Far.1048).
The Anatomical Record. 262 (4): 380–397. doi:10.1002/ar.1048 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Far.10
48). PMID 11275970 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11275970). S2CID 25438682 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25438682).
28. Ciochon R, Long VT, Larick R, et al. (April 1996). "Dated co-occurrence of Homo erectus and
Gigantopithecus from Tham Khuyen Cave, Vietnam" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC39753). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93
(7): 3016–3020. Bibcode:1996PNAS...93.3016C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996PNAS...
93.3016C). doi:10.1073/pnas.93.7.3016 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.93.7.3016).
PMC 39753 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC39753). PMID 8610161 (https://pubm
ed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8610161).
29. Schuster, Angela M.H. (September–October 1998). "New Skull from Eritrea" (http://archive.archa
eology.org/9809/newsbriefs/eritrea.html). Archaeology. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
30. Kappelman J, Alçiçek MC, Kazanci N, Schultz M, Ozkul M, Sen S (January 2008). "First Homo
erectus from Turkey and implications for migrations into temperate Eurasia". American Journal of
Physical Anthropology. 135 (1): 110–116. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20739 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajp
a.20739). PMID 18067194 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18067194).
31. Herries, Andy I. R.; Martin, Jesse M.; Leece, A. B.; Adams, Justin W.; Boschian, Giovanni;
Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Edwards, Tara R.; Mallett, Tom; Massey, Jason; Murszewski, Ashleigh;
Neubauer, Simon; Pickering, Robyn; Strait, David S.; Armstrong, Brian J.; Baker, Stephanie;
Caruana, Matthew V.; Denham, Tim; Hellstrom, John; Moggi-Cecchi, Jacopo; Mokobane, Simon;
Penzo-Kajewski, Paul; Rovinsky, Douglass S.; Schwartz, Gary T.; Stammers, Rhiannon C.;
Wilson, Coen; Woodhead, Jon; Menter, Colin (2020). "Contemporaneity of Australopithecus,
Paranthropus, and early Homo erectus in South Africa". Science. 368 (6486): eaaw7293.
doi:10.1126/science.aaw7293 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaw7293). hdl:11568/1040368
(https://hdl.handle.net/11568%2F1040368). PMID 32241925 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32
241925). S2CID 214763272 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214763272).
Further reading
Leakey, Richard; Walker, Alan (November 1985). "Homo Erectus Unearthed". National
Geographic. Vol. 168 no. 5. pp. 624–629. ISSN 0027-9358 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-9
358). OCLC 643483454 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/643483454).
External links
Homo erectus (http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/origins/homo_erectus.php) Origins –
Exploring the Fossil Record – Bradshaw Foundation
Archaeology Info (http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/homoerectus.htm)
Homo erectus (http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-erectus) – The
Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program
Possible co-existence with Homo Habilis (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6937476.stm) – BBC
News
John Hawks's discussion of the Kocabas fossil (http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/middle/kocab
as/kappelman_2007_kocabas_tuberculosis.html)
Peter Brown's Australian and Asian Palaeoanthropology (https://web.archive.org/web/200805112
10522/http://www-personal.une.edu.au/~pbrown3/palaeo.html)
The Age of Homo erectus (http://atlasofhumanevolution.com/HomoErectus.asp) – Interactive Map
of the Journey of Homo erectus out of Africa
Human Timeline (Interactive) (http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-inter
active) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homo_erectus&oldid=1007526758"
This page was last edited on 18 February 2021, at 16:20 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Homo Erectus

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Homo Erectus

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Homo Erectus

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2/22/2021 Homo erectus - Wikipedia

Taxonomy Pithecanthropus erectus

The first remains, Java Man, were described by Dutch anatomist

It has been proposed that H. erectus evolved from

Because the earliest remains of H. erectus are

Homo erectus pekinensis (Peking Man, 0.7 Ma)

Descendents and synonyms

African H. erectus candidates

H. erectus featured a flat face compared to earlier hominins;

Like modern humans, H. erectus varied widely in size, ranging

is typically exacerbated in dark-skinned people living in higher latitudes due to vitamin D

The 1.8 Ma Mojokerto child specimen from Java, who died at

avoided areas with high carnivore density.[68] It is

Because H. erectus children had faster brain growth

Because H. erectus men and women are thought to

H. erectus sites frequently are associated with assemblages of

H. erectus is credited with inventing the Acheulean stone tool

In 1962, a 366 cm × 427 cm × 30 cm (12 ft × 14 ft × 1 ft) circle

It is largely unclear when clothing was invented, with

The earliest probable example of infirming sick group members is a 1.77

Art and rituals

An engraved shell with geometric markings could

H. erectus was also the earliest human to have

Homo erectus Replica of lower jaws of Calvaria "Sangiran II"

A reconstruction based Original fossils

List of fossil sites (with link directory)

0836 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836). PMID 31853068 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homo_erectus&oldid=1007526758"

This page was last edited on 18 February 2021, at 16:20 (UTC).

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.