Environment

▪ Shankar IAS.

Kunalsinh L. Parmar
GPSC Rank 2 – DySP

Click on links below:

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KunalSinh L. Parmar (klp5565@gmail.com)
 Environment
▪ Ch-1: Ecology
• Ecology:
→ Oikos: meaning home or place to live – logos: study.
• Environment:
→ Defined as the sum total of living, non-living components; influences and events,
surrounding an organism.
• Components of Environment:
→ Abiotic: Energy – Radiation – Temperature & heat flow Water – Atmospheric gases and
wind – Fire – Gravity – Topography – Soil – Geologic substratum.
→ Biotic: Green Plants – Non-green plants – Decomposers – Parasites – Symbionts – Animals
– Man.

▪ Levels of Organisations in Ecology

• Individual:
• Population:
→ Group of organisms usually of the same species, occupying a defined area during a specific
time.
→ Factor: (+) by birth and Immigration – (–) by death and Emigration.
• Community:
→ named after the dominant plant species – ex: grassland community.
→ Types:
→ Major Community: large-sized, well organized and relatively independent – depend only
on the sun’s energy from outside – ex: tropical evergreen forest in the North-East.
→ Minor Community: dependent on neighbouring communities and are often called
societies – ex: mat of lichen on a cow dung.
→ Structure:
→ characteristic pattern of the community is termed as structure.

▪ Ecosystem
• Define: structural and functional unit of biosphere – consisting of community and the
physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them – includes:
plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil, and people – ecosystem is healthy:
means all balance and are capable of reproducing themselves – Ecosystem can be as small as a single tree or as large as entire
forest.
• Components of Ecosystem:
→ Abiotic: [MASTREL]
→ Materials: Organic and Inorganic compounds. → Atmosphere:
→ Substratum: → Temperature:
→ Rainfall: Majority of biochemical reactions take place in an aqueous medium.
→ Energy: → Latitude and Altitude: As the
altitude increases, the air becomes colder and drier, affecting wild life.
→ Also includes: physical processes including volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, forest fires,
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 climates, and weather conditions.
→ Biotic:
→ Autotrophs: primary producers – self-nourishing – synthesise carbohydrate from simple inorganic raw
materials like CO2 and water in the presence of sunlight by photosynthesis for themselves, and supply indirectly to other non-
producers – ex: herbaceous plant, microscopic algae.
→ Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs: Consumers.
→ Macro Consumers:
1. Herbivores: primary consumers which feed mainly on plants.
2. Secondary Consumers: feed on primary – ex: wolves.
3. Carnivores: feed on secondary consumers called tertiary consumers – ex: lion.
4. Omnivores: consume both plant and animals – ex: man, monkey.
→ Micro Consumers – Saprotrophs – Osmotrophs: decomposers – are bacteria and fungi –
obtain energy and nutrients by decomposing dead organic substances (detritus) of plant and animal origin – products of
decomposition such as inorganic nutrients which are released in the ecosystem are reused by producers and thus recycled – Soil
organism such as Earthworm, nematodes, arthropods are detritus feeders and help in the
decomposition of organic matter and are called detrivores.
• Classification of Ecosystem:
→ Terrestrial: Forest, Grassland and Desert.
→ Aquatic: Fresh water, saline and marine.
• Homeostasis: Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state of equilibrium – can regulate
their own species structure and functional processes – this capacity of ecosystem of self-
regulation is known as homeostasis.
• Goods and Services by Ecosystem:
→ food, fuel, shelter, air purification, detoxification and decomposition of wastes, stabilization of earth’s climate, soil fertility,
pollination of plants, etc.
• Ecotone:
→ zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems – ex: mangrove.
→ Characteristics: narrow or wide – zone of tension: due to intermediate conditions to the
adjacent ecosystem – linear: one species progressively increase, one decrease – well
developed ecotone: species entirely different from adjoining communities – edge effect:
number of species and the population density of some of the species is much greater in this
zone than either community – edge species: occur primarily or abundantly in this zone – in
terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
• Niche:
→ unique functional role or place of a species in an ecosystem – description of all the
biological, physical and chemical factors that a species needs to survive, stay healthy and
reproduce – niche unique for species – no two species have exact identical niches – plays an
important role in conservation of organisms.
→ Types: 1. Habitat niche: where it lives 2. Food niche: what is eats or decomposes & what species it competes 3. Reproductive
niche: how and when it reproduces 4. Physical & chemical niche: temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & other
requirement.
• Nagar Vana Udyan Yojana: to create at least one city forest in each city – objective: to create
200 city forests in India.

▪ Biome
• Regions divisible into enormous regions – character: climate, vegetation, animal life and soil
Kunalsinh L. Parmar (klp5565@gmail.com)
 type.
▪ Terrestrial
• Tundra:
→ Northern and Southern most region – devoid of trees except shrubs – flora: lichen, mosses
and sedges – reptiles and amphibians: absent – animal: polar bear, etc.
• Taiga:
→ Known as Boreal Forest – northern Europe, Asia – moderate temperate than tundra –
coniferous evergreen ex: spruce, pine, firs – fauna: found.
• Temperate Deciduous Forest:
→ Central and Southern Europe, Eastern North America, Western China, Japan, New Zealand.
→ abundant rainfall – flora: oak, maple, cherry – fauna: mostly all – most productive
agricultural areas of the earth.
• Tropical Rain Forest:
→ Equatorial – high: temperature and rainfall – cover: 7% of earth – 40% plant and animal
species – multiple storey broad-leafed evergreen trees.
• Savannah:
→ Africa – grasses with scattered trees – fire resisting thorny shrubs – diversity of grazers.
• Grassland:
→ temperate condition with low rainfall – dominated by grass – herbivores.
• Desert:
→ low and sporadic rainfall – low humidity – hot day and cold nights – flora: drought resistant,
ex: cactus – fauna: reptiles, small mammals and birds.
▪ Aquatic Zone
• Fresh Water Ecosystem:
→ 1. Lotic: Moving water.
→ 2. Lentic: Still or stagnant water.
• Marine Ecosystem:
• Estuaries:
→ Coastal bays, river mouths and tidal marshes form the estuaries – by tides mix of fresh and
ocean water – highly productive.

▪ Biosphere
• Comprise: Atmosphere (air), Hydrosphere (water) and Lithosphere (land).
• Life in biosphere abundant b/w 200 metres below surface of ocean and 6,000 metres above sea level.
• Biosphere absent at extremes of North and South poles, highest mountains and deepest
oceans – Occasionally spores of fungi and bacteria do occur at great height beyond 8,000 metres, but they are not metabolically
active, and hence represent only dormant life.

▪ Ch-2 Functions of an Ecosystem

• The function of an ecosystem: 1. Energy flow 2. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) 3.
Ecological succession or ecosystem development.

▪ Energy Flow
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• Flow of energy from producer to top consumers is called energy flow which is unidirectional.
▪ Trophic Level Interaction
• Autotrophs (Green plant producers) → Heterotrophs: Herbivore (primary), Carnivore
(secondary), Carnivore (tertiary consumer), Top Carnivore (Quaternary).
• It never flows in the reverse direction that is from carnivores to herbivores to producers.
• There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable heat at each trophic level so that energy level decreases from the first
trophic level upwards.
• As a result, there are usually four or five trophic levels and seldom more than six as beyond that very little energy is left to support
any organism.
• Trophic level interaction involves three concepts: 1. Food Chain 2. Food Web 3. Ecological Pyramids.

▪ Food Chain
• One organism becomes food for the other – starts with producers and ends with top carnivores.
• Bear hibernation is different than most hibernating animals – bear ‘hibernates’ it is really in a deep sleep. It’s body temperature
drops but not drastically and it does not wake up. The one exception is that a mother bear will wake up to give birth in January or
February.

▪ Types of Food Chain

• Grazing Food Chain:
→ Terrestrial: plant → caterpillar → lizard → snake.
→ Aquatic: Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Fish → Pelican.
• Detritus Food Chain:
→ Chain: Litter → Earthworm → chicken → hawk.
→ starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and plant bodies consumed by the micro-organisms.
• The distinction between these two food chains is the source of energy for the first level consumers – both food chains are linked.

▪ Food Web
• Food chain: represents only one part of the food or energy flow through an ecosystem and
implies a simple, isolated relationship, which seldom occurs in the ecosystems – If any of the
intermediate food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the chain will be affected largely.
• Food Web: illustrates, all possible transfers of energy and nutrients among the organisms in
an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces only one pathway of the food – provides more
than one alternative for food – therefore increases their chance of survival.
• Dolphins, Porpoises and whales are called cetaceans – mammals that have no hind limbs – blowhole for breathing. They are not
fish!

▪ Ecological Pyramids
• The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic way are referred as ecological pyramids. The food producer forms the base
of the pyramid and the top carnivore forms the tip.
• The length of each bar represents the total number of individuals at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
• The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually decrease with each step.
• Ecological pyramids categories: 1. Pyramid of numbers 2. Pyramid of biomass 3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.

▪ Pyramid of Numbers
• Upright:
→ Number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher trophic level – ex: grassland ecosystem.
• Inverted:
→ number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher trophic level – ex: Tree → herbivores → parasites → hyperparasites.
• It is very difficult to count all the organisms – so the pyramid of number does not completely
define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.

Kunalsinh L. Parmar (klp5565@gmail.com)

 ▪ Pyramid of Biomass
• Individuals in each trophic level are weighed instead of being counted – total dry weight of
all organisms at each trophic level at a particular time – Biomass is measured in g/m2.
• Upward:
→ Ex: grass → deer → fox → lion.
• Inverted:
→ Phytoplankton (grow and reproduce rapidly) → fish → big fish.

▪ Pyramid of Energy
• Reflects the laws of thermodynamics, with conversion of solar energy to chemical energy and heat energy at each trophic level
and with loss of energy being depicted at each transfer to another trophic level.
• Pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.
• Energy pyramid concept helps to explain biological magnification.
• All snakes smell with their tongues – special sensory spot called the Jacobson’s organ on the
roof of the mouth and tells the snake what it smells – some snakes can smell with their noses.

▪ Pollutants and Trophic Level

• Pollutants especially nondegradable ones move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem.
• Nondegradable pollutants: materials, which cannot be metabolized by the living organisms –
Example: chlorinated hydrocarbons.
• Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes: 1. Bioaccumulation 2. Biomagnification.

▪ Bioaccumulation
• In bioaccumulation: means: how pollutants enter a food chain – there is an increase in
concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain.
▪ Biomagnification
• Biomagnification: tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic level
to the next – increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another.
• In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in
fats, biologically active.
• If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down before it can become dangerous. If it is not mobile, it will stay in one place and
is unlikely to be taken up by organisms. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants that
dissolve in fats, however, may be retained for a long time.
• It is traditional to measure the number of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. In mammals, we often test the milk
produced by females, since the milk has a lot of fat in it are often more susceptible to damage from toxins (poisons). If a pollutant
is not active biologically, it may biomagnify, but we really don’t worry about it much, since it probably won’t cause any problems
Examples: DDT.

▪ Biotic Interaction
• Biotic Interaction: Species-1 Species-2 Example
→ Mutualism: + + Pollinator food (pollen, nectar), Plant
→ Commensalism: + 0 Cow dung: food and shelter for beetles
→ Amensalism: – 0 Large tree shades a small plant
→ Competition: – – Same species eat the same food
→ Predation: + – Lion-Deer
→ Parasitism: + – Mosquito-Man
→ Neutralism: 0 0 No interaction b/w species.
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 ▪ Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycle
▪ Nutrient Cycling
• The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes how nutrients move from the physical environment to the living organisms, and
subsequently recycled back to the physical environment.
• Types:
→ Based on replacement period: 1. Perfect: replaced as fast as they are utilised, most gaseous
cycles 2. Imperfect: sedimentary cycles.
→ Based on nature of reservoir: 1. Gaseous: atmosphere, hydrosphere 2. Sedimentary.
• Spiders can’t chew or swallow inject their prey with poison using their fangs. The poison turns
the insides of insect to a watery goop and the spider just sucks it up.
▪ Gaseous Cycle
• These cycles usually do not operate independently but interact with each other at some point
or the other.
▪ Water Cycle (Hydrologic)
• Cycling of all other nutrients is also dependent upon water as it provides their transportation during the various steps.
• The hydrologic cycle is the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system which is driven by solar energy.
• Water moves from one reservoir to another by the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation,
deposition, runoff, infiltration, and groundwater flow.

▪ Carbon Cycle
• Carbon is a minor constituent of the atmosphere as
compared to oxygen and nitrogen. However, without
carbon dioxide life could not exist, because it is vital for the
production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis by
plants. It is the element that anchors all organic substances
from coal and oil to DNA. Carbon is present in the
atmosphere, mainly in the form of CO2. Some carbon also
enters a long-term cycle. It accumulates as un-decomposed
organic matter in the peaty layers of marshy soil or as
insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments of aquatic
systems which take a long time to be released. In deep
oceans such carbon can remained buried for millions of
years till geological movement may lift these rocks above
sea level. These rocks may be exposed to erosion, releasing
their CO2, carbonates and bicarbonates into streams and
rivers. Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are
organic compounds that were buried before they could be
decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time
and geological processes into fossil fuels. When they are
burned the carbon stored in them is released back into the
atmosphere as CO2.

▪ Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen fixation in 3-ways:
→ 1. By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae).
→ 2. By man using industrial processes (fertilizer factories).
→ 3. To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomenon such as thunder and lighting.
• Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein and is a basic building block of all living tissue. It constitutes nearly 16% by weight
of all the proteins.
• The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man has far exceeded the amount fixed by the Natural Cycle – as a result Nitrogen has become
a pollutant which can disrupt the balance of nitrogen – It may lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and Harmful Algal Blooms.
Kunalsinh L. Parmar (klp5565@gmail.com)
• Certain microorganisms
are capable of fixing
atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonium ions. These
include free living nitrifying
bacteria (e.g. aerobic
Azotobacter and anaerobic
Clostridium) and symbiotic
nitrifying bacteria living in
association with
leguminous plants and
symbiotic bacteria living in
non-leguminous root
nodule plants (e.g.
Rhizobium) as well as blue
green algae (e.g.
Anabaena, Spirulina).
Ammonium ions can be
directly taken up as a
source of nitrogen by some
plants, or are oxidized to
nitrites or nitrates by two
groups of specialised
bacteria: Nitrosomonas bacteria promote transformation of ammonia into nitrite. Nitrite is then further transformed into nitrate
by the bacteria Nitrobacter. The nitrates synthesised by bacteria in the soil are taken up by plants and converted into amino acids,
which are the building blocks of proteins. These then go through higher trophic levels of the ecosystem. During excretion and upon
the death of all organism’s nitrogen is returned to the soil in the form of ammonia. In the soil as well as oceans there are special
denitrifying bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas), which convert the nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen. The periodic thunderstorms
convert the gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates which eventually reach the earth’s surface through
precipitation and then into the soil to be utilized by plants.
• Pythons are constrictors, which mean that they will ‘squeeze’ the life out of their prey. Once
the heart stops the prey is swallowed whole. The entire animal is digested in the snake’s
stomach except for fur or feathers.
▪ Sedimentary Cycle
• The element involved in the sedimentary cycle normally does not cycle through the atmosphere but follows a basic pattern of flow
through erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activity and biological transport through the excreta of marine birds.

▪ Phosphorus Cycle
• Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic
ecosystems and water quality. Phosphorus
occurs in large amounts as a mineral in
phosphate rocks and enters the cycle from
erosion and mining activities. This is the
nutrient considered to be the main cause of
excessive growth of rooted and free-
floating microscopic plants in lakes. The
main storage for phosphorus is in the
earth’s crust. On land phosphorus is usually
found in the form of phosphates. By the
process of weathering and erosion
phosphates enter rivers and streams that
transport them to the ocean.

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 ▪ Sulphur Cycle
• The sulphur reservoir is in
the soil and sediments
where it is locked in
organic (coal, oil and peat)
and inorganic deposits
(pyrite rock and sulphur
rock) in the form of
sulphates, sulphides and
organic sulphur. The
sulphur cycle is mostly
sedimentary except two of
its compounds hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) and sulphur
dioxide (SO2) add a
gaseous component to its
normal sedimentary cycle.
Sulphur enters the
atmosphere from several
sources like volcanic
eruptions, combustion of
fossil fuels, from surface of
ocean and from gases
released by
decomposition.
Atmospheric hydrogen
sulphide also gets oxidised into sulphur dioxide. Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back to the earth after being dissolved in
rainwater as weak sulphuric acid. Sulphates is taken up by plants and incorporated through a series of metabolic processes into
sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the proteins of autotroph tissues. Sulphur bound in living organism is carried
back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
• Fur-picking’, the universal habit among the apes and monkeys is not a hunt for lice or fleas.
They are naturally remarkably free from these vermin. On the contrary it is a means of social
communication between members of the troop (a group of monkeys) and to develop strong
social bond.

▪ Ecological Succession
• Succession:
→ is a universal process of directional change in vegetation, on an ecological time scale.
→ Series of communities replace one another – due to: large scale destruction either natural
or manmade – process continue until stable and mature climax community develops.
→ The 1st plant to colonise an area is called the pioneer community – final stage of succession
is called the climax community – stage leading to the climax community are called
successional stages or seres.
→ Succession characteristics: increased productivity, shift of nutrients from’ the reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms with
increased niche development, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food webs.

▪ Primary Succession
• In primary succession on a terrestrial site the new site is first colonized by a few hardy pioneer species that are often microbes,
lichens and mosses.
• The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions change and invasion of new species progresses, leading to the replacement
of the preceding community.

Kunalsinh L. Parmar (klp5565@gmail.com)

 ▪ Secondary Succession
• Secondary succession is the sequential development of biotic communities after the complete or partial destruction of the existing
community. An intermediate community may be destroyed by natural events such as floods, droughts, fires, or storms or by human
interventions such as deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc.
• This abandoned farmland is first invaded by hardy species of grasses that can survive in bare, sun-baked soil. These grasses may
be soon joined by tall grasses and herbaceous plants.
• Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals. And over the years, a forest
community develops. Thus, an abandoned farmland over a period becomes dominated by trees and is transformed into a forest.
• The differences between primary and secondary succession, the secondary succession starts
on a well-developed soil already formed at the site. Thus, secondary succession is relatively
faster as compared to primary succession which may often require hundreds of years.
▪ Succession Types
• Autogenic:
→ Succession by living inhabitants of that community itself.
• Allogenic:
→ change brought about by outside forces.
• Autotrophic:
→ initially green plants are much greater in quantity.
• Heterotrophic:
→ heterotrophs are greater in quantity.
• Succession:
→ Fast in middle and large continent – because all propagules or seeds of plants of different
seres would reach must faster – results in climax community.
•
End