Chapter II

BIOSPHERE AND THE ECOSYSTEM

Introduction to Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microbes)
interacting with each other and their physical environment (air, water, soil). These
interactions form a complex web of relationships, where energy flows from the sun
through plants and animals, and nutrients cycle through the system. Ecosystems
can vary in size and complexity, from small ponds to vast forests, and include both
natural and human-influenced environments. They are essential for supporting life
on Earth, maintaining biodiversity, and providing vital services like clean air, water,
and food
Studying the biosphere and ecosystems is crucial for several reasons:
1. Understanding Life Support Systems: The biosphere encompasses all life
on Earth, and ecosystems are the foundational units that sustain life. By
studying them, we learn how organisms interact with each other and their
environment, which is key to preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services
like clean air, water, and food.
2. Conservation and Sustainability: Knowledge of ecosystems helps us
protect endangered species and habitats, maintain biodiversity, and manage
natural resources sustainably to avoid over-exploitation and habitat
destruction.
3. Climate Change Insights: Ecosystems play a significant role in regulating
the Earth's climate by absorbing carbon dioxide and influencing weather
patterns. Studying them helps us understand climate change impacts and
develop strategies to mitigate and adapt to these changes.
4. Human Health and Well-being: Healthy ecosystems provide essential
services like clean water, air, pollination, and nutrient cycling, which directly
affect human health and livelihoods. By studying ecosystems, we can ensure
the continuation of these services.
5. Informed Environmental Policy: Ecosystem research provides the
scientific basis for making informed decisions and creating policies that
balance development with environmental conservation.
The levels of organization of life describe the hierarchy of biological structures,
from the simplest to the most complex. These levels help to understand how living
organisms are structured and how they interact with one another and their
environment.
Here are the main levels:
1. Molecule: The simplest level, consisting of chemical structures like proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids that form the foundation of life.
 2. Cell: The basic unit of life, where molecules come together to form a living
entity. Cells are either prokaryotic (without a nucleus) or eukaryotic (with a
nucleus).
3. Tissue: A group of similar cells that perform a specific function. Examples
include muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and epithelial tissue.
4. Organ: Different types of tissues that work together to perform a particular
function. For example, the heart, lungs, and liver are organs.
5. Organ System: A group of organs that work together to perform complex
functions in the body, like the circulatory system or digestive system.
6. Organism: An individual living entity that can carry out life processes
independently. Examples include animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms.
7. Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in a particular
area, interacting, and reproducing.
8. Community: All the populations of different species that live and interact in
a specific area.
9. Ecosystem: A community of living organisms (biotic factors) and their
physical environment (abiotic factors), interacting as a system.
10.Biome: A large area characterized by its climate, soil, plants, and animals.
Examples include deserts, forests, and grasslands.
11.Biosphere: The highest level, encompassing all ecosystems on Earth. It
includes all living beings and their interactions with the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
These levels reflect the complex interactions and dependencies in biological
systems, from the molecular to the planetary scale.
The levels of ecological organization describe how organisms interact with each
other and their environment, ranging from the smallest unit (individual organisms)
to the entire planet. These levels help ecologists study relationships within the
natural world.
Here are the main levels of ecological organization:
1. Organism: The individual living entity, such as a plant, animal, or
microorganism, that interacts with its environment and carries out life
processes.
2. Population: A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular
area and capable of interbreeding. They interact and compete for resources.
3. Community: All the populations of different species that live together in a
specific area and interact with each other. This includes predator-prey
relationships, competition, and symbiosis.
4. Ecosystem: A system formed by the interaction between a community of
living organisms (biotic factors) and their physical environment (abiotic
factors), such as air, water, and minerals. Ecosystems can vary in size, from a
small pond to an entire forest.
5. Biome: A large geographic area with distinct climate conditions, flora, and
fauna. Biomes include tundra, rainforest, desert, grasslands, and marine
environments, each characterized by specific environmental factors.
6. Biosphere: The global ecological system integrating all living beings and
their relationships with the atmosphere, hydrosphere (water bodies), and
lithosphere (earth's crust). The biosphere represents all ecosystems on Earth.
These levels highlight the different scales at which ecologists study interactions in
the natural world, from the local organism level to the global biosphere.
A terrestrial ecosystem refers to an ecosystem that exists on land, as opposed to
aquatic ecosystems found in water. These ecosystems are characterized by the
interactions between organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) and their
physical environment (soil, air, climate, and geography). Terrestrial ecosystems are
influenced by factors such as temperature, precipitation, altitude, and soil type,
which shape the types of organisms that can thrive there.
Types of Terrestrial Ecosystems:
1. Forest Ecosystem:
o Dominated by trees and other plant life.

o Includes tropical rainforests, temperate forests, and boreal forests

(taiga).
o High biodiversity, with a wide range of plants, animals, and
microorganisms.
2. Grassland Ecosystem:
o Characterized by vast open areas with grasses as the dominant
vegetation.
o Includes savannas and temperate grasslands (prairies, steppes).

o Supports herbivores like bison, zebras, and grazing animals, along with
their predators.
3. Desert Ecosystem:
o Receives very little rainfall and has sparse vegetation.

o Plants and animals are adapted to survive extreme temperatures and

water scarcity (e.g., cacti, camels, and reptiles).
o Includes hot deserts (Sahara) and cold deserts (Gobi).

4. Tundra Ecosystem:
o Found in polar regions and at high altitudes, with cold temperatures
and short growing seasons.
o Vegetation is limited to mosses, lichens, and small shrubs.

o Animal life includes migratory birds, arctic foxes, and caribou.

5. Mountain Ecosystem:
o Varies depending on altitude, with different zones of vegetation and
climate from base to peak.
o Supports a variety of organisms adapted to changing temperatures
and oxygen levels, such as mountain goats and alpine plants.
Key Components of Terrestrial Ecosystems:
 Biotic factors: These include plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms.
The composition of species depends on the type of terrestrial ecosystem.
 Abiotic factors: Include sunlight, temperature, soil type, air, and water
availability, all of which influence the ecosystem’s characteristics and the
survival of organisms.
 Energy Flow: Solar energy is the primary energy source, driving
photosynthesis in plants, which supports herbivores and carnivores.
 Nutrient Cycling: Elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycle
through organisms and the environment, sustaining life.
Terrestrial ecosystems play a crucial role in global climate regulation, carbon
storage, and supporting biodiversity.
An aquatic ecosystem is a water-based environment where living organisms
interact with one another and with their physical surroundings. Aquatic ecosystems
can be freshwater or marine, each supporting diverse life forms adapted to living in
water. These ecosystems are influenced by factors such as salinity, water depth,
temperature, light availability, and nutrient levels.
Types of Aquatic Ecosystems:
1. Freshwater Ecosystems:
 Lakes and Ponds:
o Standing bodies of freshwater, ranging in size from small ponds to
large lakes.
o Typically have distinct zones based on depth and sunlight penetration:
littoral (near shore), limnetic (open water), and benthic (bottom) zones.
o Support a wide variety of organisms, including fish, amphibians,
aquatic plants, and microorganisms.
 Rivers and Streams:
o Flowing freshwater ecosystems, characterized by the movement of
water from high to low elevation.
o Often support species adapted to currents, such as trout and aquatic
insects.
o Play a key role in nutrient cycling and water purification as they
transport nutrients and sediment.
 Wetlands:
o Ecosystems where the water level is close to the surface, either
permanently or seasonally.
o Include swamps, marshes, and bogs.

o High biodiversity, with species like amphibians, birds, and specialized

plants (e.g., reeds and cattails).
o Provide important ecosystem services such as flood control, water
filtration, and carbon storage.
2. Marine Ecosystems:
 Oceans:
o The largest and most diverse type of aquatic ecosystem, covering over
70% of Earth’s surface.
 o Divided into zones based on depth and distance from shore, such as
the intertidal zone (where land meets water), the pelagic zone (open
ocean), and the benthic zone (ocean floor).
o Supports a vast range of life, from microscopic plankton to whales, and
includes coral reefs, deep-sea ecosystems, and coastal regions.
 Coral Reefs:
o Shallow marine ecosystems found in tropical waters.

o Built by colonies of coral polyps, these ecosystems support immense

biodiversity, including fish, invertebrates, and algae.
o Often called the "rainforests of the sea" due to their rich species
diversity.
o Highly sensitive to environmental changes, particularly climate change
and ocean acidification.
 Estuaries:
o Coastal ecosystems where freshwater rivers meet the ocean, creating
a unique brackish environment (a mix of saltwater and freshwater).
o Rich in nutrients and highly productive, supporting a wide variety of
species like fish, shellfish, birds, and aquatic plants.
o Serve as important breeding grounds for many marine species.

 Mangrove Forests:
o Coastal ecosystems found in tropical and subtropical regions.

o Dominated by salt-tolerant mangrove trees that provide crucial habitat

for many species.
o Help protect coastlines from erosion and storm surges.

Key Components of Aquatic Ecosystems:

 Biotic Factors: Include a wide range of organisms like fish, algae, aquatic
plants, invertebrates (crustaceans, mollusks), and microorganisms.
 Abiotic Factors: Include the water's physical and chemical properties, such
as salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, light availability, pH, and nutrient
levels.
 Energy Flow: Sunlight is the primary energy source in aquatic ecosystems,
driving photosynthesis in aquatic plants and phytoplankton, which form the
base of the food chain. In deep-sea ecosystems, energy may come from
chemical sources (chemosynthesis).
  Nutrient Cycling: Elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycle
through the organisms and water, essential for sustaining life. Nutrients can
be recycled between different layers of the water and between water and
sediments.
Importance of Aquatic Ecosystems:
 Biodiversity: Aquatic ecosystems harbor a vast diversity of life, playing a
critical role in supporting global biodiversity.
 Climate Regulation: Oceans act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 from the
atmosphere and regulating Earth's climate.
 Water Purification: Wetlands and rivers filter pollutants, helping maintain
water quality.
 Economic Value: Aquatic ecosystems provide resources like fish, shellfish,
and tourism opportunities, crucial to many economies.
Aquatic ecosystems are vital for life on Earth, influencing climate, supporting
biodiversity, and providing essential resources for human societies.

Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans receive from nature and
ecosystems. These services are essential for human well-being, providing
everything from clean air and water to food and recreational opportunities.
Ecosystem services are generally classified into four categories: provisioning,
regulating, cultural, and supporting services.
Categories of Ecosystem Services:
1. Provisioning Services:
These are the products and materials obtained from ecosystems that people directly
use or consume.
 Food: Crops, livestock, fisheries, and wild plants that provide sustenance.
 Water: Freshwater used for drinking, irrigation, and industrial purposes.
 Raw Materials: Timber, fiber, and other materials used for construction,
manufacturing, and energy.
 Medicinal Resources: Plants and animals that provide ingredients for
pharmaceuticals and traditional medicines.
2. Regulating Services:
These are the benefits ecosystems provide by regulating natural processes, helping
to maintain environmental stability and balance.
  Climate Regulation: Forests, oceans, and other ecosystems store and
sequester carbon, helping to regulate global temperatures and mitigate
climate change.
 Water Purification: Wetlands, rivers, and forests filter pollutants from
water, improving water quality.
 Air Quality Regulation: Plants and trees absorb pollutants and release
oxygen, improving air quality.
 Erosion Control: Vegetation stabilizes soil and prevents erosion by holding
the ground together, especially in coastal and hilly areas.
 Pollination: Insects, birds, and other animals pollinate plants, ensuring the
reproduction of crops and wild plants.
 Pest and Disease Control: Natural predators and parasites regulate
populations of pests and disease-causing organisms.
3. Cultural Services:
These are the non-material benefits people derive from ecosystems, often
influencing mental, emotional, and spiritual well-being.
 Recreation and Tourism: Natural areas offer opportunities for outdoor
activities such as hiking, swimming, fishing, and ecotourism.
 Aesthetic Value: Landscapes, forests, mountains, and other natural features
provide aesthetic pleasure and inspiration.
 Cultural Heritage: Many cultures and societies have deep spiritual,
historical, or cultural connections to specific ecosystems or natural sites.
 Educational and Scientific Opportunities: Ecosystems provide
opportunities for learning, research, and the advancement of scientific
knowledge about the natural world.
4. Supporting Services:
These are the underlying processes that maintain the functioning of ecosystems
and ensure the availability of other ecosystem services.
 Nutrient Cycling: Ecosystems recycle essential nutrients like nitrogen and
phosphorus, which are crucial for plant growth.
 Soil Formation: Organic matter decomposition and weathering processes
create fertile soil, enabling plant growth and agriculture.
 Photosynthesis: Plants convert sunlight into energy, producing oxygen and
supporting the food chain.
 Habitat Provision: Ecosystems provide habitats for a wide range of species,
ensuring biodiversity and ecological balance.
Importance of Ecosystem Services:
 Human Well-being: Ecosystem services are fundamental to human health,
food security, and livelihoods.
 Economic Value: Ecosystem services contribute to economies by providing
resources, opportunities for tourism, and regulating conditions that support
industries like agriculture and fisheries.
 Environmental Sustainability: Healthy ecosystems provide resilience
against climate change, natural disasters, and environmental degradation.
Threats to Ecosystem Services:
Human activities like deforestation, pollution, urbanization, and climate change are
putting pressure on ecosystems, threatening their ability to provide these essential
services. Protecting and sustainably managing ecosystems is crucial to ensure the
continued availability of these services for future generations.
By understanding and preserving ecosystem services, we can maintain a balanced
relationship between human societies and nature.
Interrelationship, Food Chain, and Food Web
In ecosystems, interrelationships refer to the dynamic connections between living
organisms (biotic components) and their physical environment (abiotic
components). These interactions are essential for the flow of energy, the cycling of
nutrients, and the overall functioning of the ecosystem. Here’s an overview of the
key interrelationships:
1. Producer-Consumer Relationships: Plants (producers) capture energy
from the sun and convert it into food through photosynthesis. Herbivores
(primary consumers) eat plants, and carnivores (secondary or tertiary
consumers) feed on other animals. This forms the basis of the food chain,
with energy flowing from producers to consumers.
2. Decomposers and Nutrient Cycling: Decomposers like bacteria, fungi, and
certain insects break down dead organisms and waste, returning essential
nutrients (like nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon) to the soil. This nutrient
recycling supports plant growth and sustains the ecosystem.
3. Symbiotic Relationships:
o Mutualism: Both species benefit, such as bees pollinating flowers
while feeding on nectar.
o Commensalism: One organism benefits, and the other is unaffected,
such as birds nesting in trees.
o Parasitism: One organism benefits at the expense of another, like
ticks feeding on animals.
4. Predator-Prey Interactions: Predators control the population of prey
species, maintaining balance within the ecosystem. This interaction helps
prevent overpopulation and resource depletion.
5. Abiotic-Biotic Interactions: Non-living elements like water, sunlight,
temperature, and soil interact with living organisms. For example, plants
need sunlight, water, and nutrients from the soil for growth, while animals
rely on suitable habitats and climate conditions for survival.
6. Competition: Organisms often compete for resources such as food, water,
space, and mates. Competition can occur between individuals of the same
species (intraspecific) or different species (interspecific).
These interconnected relationships create a balance within ecosystems, ensuring
the survival of species and the flow of energy and matter. Disruptions to one part of
this system can impact the entire ecosystem.
Food Chain:
A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms where each organism is a food
source for the next in the line. It illustrates the flow of energy and nutrients from
one organism to another. It begins with producers (like plants) that create their own
food, followed by primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers
(carnivores), and often ends with tertiary consumers (top predators). For example:
Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk

Food Web:
A food web is a more complex and interconnected system of multiple food chains
within an ecosystem. It shows how different organisms interact through various
feeding relationships, as many organisms eat more than one type of food. A food
web better represents the complexity of an ecosystem compared to a simple food
chain, illustrating the interdependence of species.
For example, a hawk might eat not only snakes but also mice and other small
animals, showing the interconnectedness of species within the ecosystem.

Food chains and food webs play a crucial role in maintaining the stability and
balance of ecosystems. Their importance can be summarized as follows:
1. Energy Flow: Food chains and food webs represent the flow of energy from
one organism to another. They show how energy from the sun is captured by
plants (producers) and transferred to herbivores, carnivores, and
decomposers. This energy flow is essential for the survival of all living
organisms within an ecosystem.
 2. Nutrient Cycling: Food webs help recycle nutrients in ecosystems.
Decomposers break down dead organisms and return nutrients like nitrogen
and phosphorus to the soil, which plants then absorb. This nutrient cycling
sustains plant growth and supports the entire food chain.
3. Biodiversity Support: Complex food webs reflect a high level of
biodiversity, where multiple species interact. These diverse interactions make
ecosystems more resilient to changes, as the loss of one species may be
compensated for by others in the food web. This helps maintain overall
ecosystem health and stability.
4. Population Control: Food chains regulate populations within ecosystems.
Predators keep prey populations in check, preventing overpopulation and
resource depletion. This balance ensures that no single species dominates
the ecosystem, preserving biodiversity.
5. Ecosystem Resilience: In complex food webs, the interconnectedness of
species means ecosystems can better withstand environmental changes (like
droughts, disease, or human impact). If one species is removed, others can
fill its role, reducing the likelihood of ecosystem collapse.
6. Adaptation and Evolution: The relationships in food webs drive natural
selection and evolutionary processes. As species interact (as predator and
prey, for example), they adapt over time to survive, which promotes
biological diversity and the evolution of new species.
By understanding food chains and food webs, we gain insights into how ecosystems
function and how to manage them for long-term sustainability.