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Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security in Ethiopia: Adaptation and

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Impacts of Climate Change on Food
Security in Ethiopia: Adaptation
and Mitigation Options: A Review

Tadesse Alemu and Alemayehu Mengistu

Abstract Climate change is happening and already affecting food security in

Africa. Ethiopia is vulnerable to climate change because our economies largely
depend on climate-sensitive agricultural production. Environmental changes, such
as changes in rainfall variability, drought, warmer or cooler temperature (lead to
change in growing seasons) and land cover change have increased concerns about
achieving food security. Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) recognized
Climate change as a threat and opportunity for Ethiopia. Both climate change
adaptation and mitigation issues considered; GTP stipulates the country’s ambition
to build a climate resilient green economy by 2030. Climate change impacts on
agriculture and livestock is depending on changes in temperature, precipitation and
climate variability (such as erratic rainfall, floods and droughts). The complex
interaction of these variables makes it difficult to predict how climate change will
impact at the regional level. Despite the relatively high knowledge of the subject
among policy-makers and the prominent role being played by Ethiopia in
International Climate Change Negotiations many factors, such as El Nlno, are
contributing to the deterioration of the local climate and making the population ever
more vulnerable to global and regional climate change. The Policies and imple-
mentation Strategies should emphasized on an integrated, evidence-based and cli-
mate smart approach to addressing food security at all levels, from the National to
local levels, from research to policies and investments, and across private, public
and civil society sectors to achieve the scale and rate of change required.

Keywords Adaptation Coping strategies
Climate change
Environmental


challenges Climate smart agriculture

T. Alemu (&)
Biology Department, College of Natural Science, Assosa University, Assosa, Ethiopia
e-mail: tadese07@yahoo.com
A. Mengistu
Pasture and Range Scientist, Urael Branch, P.O. Box 62291, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 397

P. Castro et al. (eds.), Climate Change-Resilient Agriculture and Agroforestry,
Climate Change Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75004-0_23
398 T. Alemu and A. Mengistu

1 Introduction

Growing consensus in the scientific community indicates that higher temperature

and changing precipitation levels resulting from climate change will reduce crop
yields in developing countries. Evidence from the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC 2007) is now overwhelmingly convincing that Green House
Gases (GHGs) induced climate change is a real and that the poorest and most
vulnerable people will be the worst affected. IPCC (2014a) also predicts that by
2100 the increase in global average surface temperature may be between 1.8 and
4.0 °C. With increases of 1.5–2.5 °C, approximately 20–30% of plant and animal
species are expected to be at risk of extinction (FAO 2007; IPCC 2014a, b) with
severe consequences for food security in developing countries (IPCC 2007;
Mekuriaw et al. 2014).
The links between climate change and food security have, to date, largely been
explored in relation to impacts on crop productivity and hence, food production.
For instance, Gregory et al. (2002) summarized experimental findings on wheat and
rice that indicated decreased crop duration (and hence yield) of wheat as a con-
sequence of warming and reductions in yields of rice of about 5% per °C rise above
32 °C (Gregory et al. 2008). Cline (2007) also estimates that global agricultural
productivity will be reduced by 15.9% and developing country experiencing a
disproportionally larger decline of 19.7%. Similarly, simulation of maize produc-
tion in Africa and Latin America for 2055 predicted an overall reduction of 10%
(Jones and Thornton 2003).
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from obser-
vations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread
melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level (IPCC 2007). The
average temperature rose by about 0.3 °C during the first half of the 20th century,
and by another 0.5 °C in the second half up to the beginning of the 21st century
(IPCC 2007) very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic GHG
concentrations. According to IPCC (2014a) report, there has been an increase in
seasonal mean temperature in many areas of Ethiopia. The average annual tem-
perature in Ethiopia increased by 1.1–3.1 °C by 2006, with an increase in the
average number of ‘hot’ days and ‘hot’ nights per year (McSweeney et al. 2010).
This has a severe impact on food production and animal health.
Climate change will act as a multiplier of existing threats to food security; it will
make natural disasters more frequent and intense, land and water more scarce and
difficult to access, and increases in productivity even harder to achieve. The
implications for people who are poor and already food insecure and malnourished
are immense (Gregory et al. 2008; UNFCCC 2009). Despite the uncertainty of
climate impacts, it is clear that the magnitude and rate of projected changes will
require adaptation. Actions towards adaptation fall into two broad overlapping
areas: (1) better management of agricultural risk associated with increasing climate
variability and extreme events, for example using climate smart agriculture,
improve climate information services and safety nets, and (2) accelerated adaptation
Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security … 399

to progressive climate change over decadal time scales, for example integrated
packages of technology, agronomy and policy options for smallholder farmer and
food systems (Leslie et al. 2015). Maximization of agriculture’s mitigation poten-
tial will require, among others, investments in technological innovation and agri-
cultural intensification linked to increased efficiency of inputs, and creation of
incentives and monitoring systems that are inclusive of smallholder farmers. More
than 45 published articles, policy documents and international climate change
reports were used and analyzed systematically. Therefore the objective of this paper
was to assess the impacts of Climate change on food security and adaptation and
mitigation options in Ethiopia.

2 Impacts of Climate Change in East Africa

The mean global combined land and ocean surface temperature appears to have
risen 0.65 to 1.06 °C over the period of 1880–2014 (IPCC 2014a). As a result snow
cover in the northern hemisphere decreases and the sea level rises. Africa is the
continent that will be hited hardest by climate change. Unpredictable rains and
floods, prolonged droughts, subsequent crop failures and rapid desertification,
among other signs of global warming, have in fact already begun to change the face
of Africa (Gregory et al. 2008; Thornton et al. 2008). Many climate scientists agree
that climate change is very real, it is happening and it is happening now. We can no
longer consider it a threat that is yet to hit us (Amsalu and Gebremichael 2009).
The impacts of climate change across Africa will vary: At mid- to high latitudes,
crop productivity may increase slightly for local mean temperature increases of up
to 1 to 3 °C, while at lower latitudes crop productivity is projected to decrease for
even relatively small local temperature increases (1–2 °C) (IPCC 2007). In the
tropics and subtropics in general, crop yields may fall by 10–20% by 2050 because
of warming and drying, but there are places where yield losses may be much more
severe (Thornton et al. 2008). The predictions showed that temperatures are
expected to increase across the continent (IPCC 2014a). Seasonal average tem-
peratures have risen in many part of eastern Africa, which will lead to increased
plant stress and increased risks of drought.
In East Africa large water bodies and varied topography gives rise to a range of
climatic conditions, from humid tropical climate along the coastal areas to arid
low-laying inland elevated plateau regions across Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and
Tanzania. The presence of Indian Ocean to the east, Regional lakes as well as high
mountains induce localized climatic pattern in this region. In most of these coun-
tries, there are places where rainfall means are likely to decrease in the coming
decades (Mario et al. 2010). Therefore rainfall in east Africa is very variable in time
and space. Several physical processes, including El Niño Southern Oscillation,
affect rainfall (IPCC 2014b). According to IPCC (2014b) warming of Indian Ocean
is the cause of less rainfall and/or drought over eastern Africa in the last 30 years.
400 T. Alemu and A. Mengistu

Nearly two thirds of Sub-Saharan Africans depend on livestock for some part of
their livelihood. Climate change will affect the productivity of agricultural products
as a result, major changes can be anticipated in livestock systems, related to live-
stock species mixes, crops grown, feed resources and feeding strategies (Anderson
et al. 2010). The challenges for development are already considerable for Africans,
and climate change will multiply the stresses. There are 300 million poor people in
sub-Saharan Africa. Projections indicate an increase of arid and semiarid lands, and,
in some countries, yield reductions in rain-fed agriculture of up to 50% by 2020
(Anderson et al. 2010). Therefore failure to manage agricultural climate change
adaptation will cause a sharp decline in food production, famine and unprecedented
setbacks in the fight against poverty in East Africa. Adapting agriculture to climate
change is the key to food security in the 21st century in Africa (Anderson et al.
2010).

3 Climate Change in the Context of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is highly affected by climate change due to three main reasons; (i) about
80% of the population is largely depend on rain fed agriculture (ii) low income
country (iii) varied geographical locations with different magnitude of climate
impacts. Climate change induced El-Nino increase the average temperature and
affect rainfall pattern in time and space leading to a recurrent drought which results
in food insecurity particularly in dry and semi dry areas of the country. The country
has experienced 16 major national droughts since the 1980s, along with dozens of
local droughts. Recently in 2015/15 10 million peoples, in 2017 5 million peoples
are food insecure, as a result of drought caused by climate change induced EL Nino.
In Ethiopia climate change is already taking place now, thus past and present
changes helps to indicate possible future changes. Over the last decades, the tem-
perature in Ethiopia increased at about 0.2–0.37 °C per decade (Kassahun 2008).
The increase in minimum temperatures is more pronounced with roughly 0.4 °C per
decade (Mengistu 2008; Kassahun 2008). The temperature will very likely continue
to increase for the next few decades with the rate of change as observed (Kassahun
2008; Mengistu 2008; Mengistu and Mekuriaw 2014; IPCC 2014a).
The average annual volume of rainfall over the past 50 years (from 1951–2000)
remained more or less constant for the whole country (NMSA 2001). Many authors
agreed that mean annual rainfall showed a slight decreasing trend and higher year to
year variation was observed in 1950–2010. However, rainfall distribution across the
country shows a marked difference. There is a tendency for less rain to fall in the
northern part of the country where there is already massive environmental degra-
dation. The same trend can be observed in the south east and north east of the
country which is both often affected by drought. However, in central Ethiopia
where most of the population and the country’s livestock are located, and where the
soil is severely depleted and degraded, more rain is falling. The western and
north-west parts of the country have also received more rain (Mengistu 2008;
Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security … 401

McSweeney et al. 2010). Farmers and pastoralists are experiencing that the rain is
becoming more unpredictable or is failing to appear at all. In some places the rain
falls more heavily and the degraded soil is unable to absorb this ran which falls over
a shorter period. According to Kassahun (2008), the farmers in the central part of
the country have lost up to 150 tons of soil per hectare.
The rise in temperature and fluctuations in rainfall crate many problems for the
pastoralists who live in the already drought stricken areas which are receiving less
and less rain. They have already switched from cattle to goats and camels, as they
are more able to endure the long periods of drought. In the central part of the
country more rain will mean further erosion of the soil and lower crop yields for
small holder farmers and lead to flooding in the more low lying areas. Climate
change is affecting how long the farmers have to grow their crops. In addition,
warmer weather provides better growing conditions for pests and other diseases that
attack crops and destroy the farmers’ harvests (Mengistu 2008; Kassahun 2008;
Deressa et al. 2008). Therefore, it is possible to conclude that not only the rainfall
distribution that has changed but it has also become warmer in the last 60 years.
Hence, there is already a great demand for improved seed which is more drought
and pest resistant, and for seeds which mature faster as the rains have become more
unpredictable and shorter in some places.
Today the forest covers is very low (less than 10%), so the soil has become more
vulnerable to erosion. People cut down the forest to create more farmland and to
harvest firewood for cooking. Population growth will put pressure on the already
degraded soil, and marginal plots will be brought into use which worsens the
situation (Mengistu 2008; Deressa et al. 2008; Mengistu and Mekuriaw 2014)
(Table 1).

4 Implications of Climate Change in Food Security

A large body of literature demonstrates negative impacts of climate change on the

agricultural sector in East Africa. Climate change affects agriculture and food
production in complex ways. It affects food production directly through changes in
agro-ecological conditions (e.g. changes in rainfall leading to drought or flooding,
or warmer or cooler temperatures leading to changes in the length of growing
season), and indirectly by affecting growth and distribution of incomes, and thus
demand for agricultural products (Gregory et al. 2008).
Climate change is likely intensified high temperature and low precipitation in
semi dry and dry areas, it is the most dramatic effects that will be felt by small
holder and subsistence farmers (Mendelson and Dinar 2009). According to IPCC
5th report Climate change impacts in East Africa will increase risk of food inse-
curity and the breakdown of food systems, increase risks of loss of rural livelihoods
and income due to insufficient access to drinking and irrigation water and reduced
agricultural productivity, particularly for farmers and pastoralists with minimal
capital in semi-arid regions. Risks due to extreme weather events leading to
402 T. Alemu and A. Mengistu

Table 1 Sectoral impacts of climate change in Ethiopia

Sector Potential impacts
Agriculture Shortening of maturity period, crop failure and expanding crop diseases
Livestock • Change in livestock feed availability and quality
• Effect on animal health, growth and reproduction
• Impact on forage crops quality and quantity
• Change in distribution of diseases, decomposition rate, income and price
• Contracting pastoral zones in many parts of the country
Forests • Expansion of tropical dry forests, desertification
• loss of indigenous species/expansion of toxic weeds
Water • Decrease in river run-off and energy production
resources • Flood and drought impacts
Health • Expansion of malaria to highland areas
• Threat from expanding endemic diseases and newly emerging varieties of
human, plant and livestock diseases
Wildlife • Shift in physiological response of individual organisms
• Shift in species distribution and Shift in biomass over decades/centuries
• Shift in genetic make-up of populations
• Loss of key wetland stopover and breeding sites for threatening birds species
• Out migration, of endemic and threatened species
Environment Reduced productive capacity from degradation of forests, range and water
recourses
Adapted from Mengistu and Mekuriaw (2014)

breakdown of infrastructure networks and critical services such as electricity, water

supply, and health and emergency services are also linked to these areas of concern
(IPCC 2013).
The overall effect of climate change on yields of major cereal crops in the
African region is very likely to be negative, with strong regional variation (Niang
et al. 2014). At even relatively low levels of warming of 1–2 °C, many unique
natural systems are threatened and food productivity, human health and water
resources could be negatively impacted in some regions. ‘‘Worst-case’’ projections
(5th percentile) indicate losses of 27–32% for maize, sorghum, millet and
groundnut for a warming of about 2 °C above pre-industrial levels by mid-century
(Schlenker and Lobell 2010). The IPCC concludes that large-scale warming, of
around 4 °C or above, will increase the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irre-
versible impacts to which it will be difficult to adapt.
Achieving food security and reducing poverty in the Ethiopia has been a major
challenge for both governments and development agencies due to the result of
many factors, some of which are: (1) land degradation or poor in nutrients; (2) the
rapid population growth (3) the low and inappropriate use of technologies such as
improved varieties, fertilizers, mechanization and irrigation that have stimulated
agricultural development elsewhere in the world (Mekuriaw et al. 2008; Kassahun
2008). The agricultural sector employs between 85% of the active population and
contributes close to 40 $ of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), generates about
Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security … 403

88% of the export earnings; and supplies around 73% of the raw material
requirement of agro-based domestic industries (Gebreegziabher et al. 2011).
Agriculture is a major source of food and plays a key role in generating surplus
capital to speed up the country’s socio-economic development and hence the prime
contributing sector to food security. Yet, agriculture in degraded and semi-arid
regions is a highly risky enterprise due to unreliable and variable rainfall.
According to Zenebe et al. (2011) as the effects of climate change on agriculture
become negative, incomes drop off considerably. At the end of 2050, because of
climate change, average incomes will be reduced. In the no-total factor productivity
-growth scenario model showed that, climate change a leads to a loss of some 30%
of income, compared with the no-climate-change baseline (Gebreegziabher et al.
2011).
According to World Bank (2006), droughts and floods are very common phe-
nomena in Ethiopia with significant events occurring every three to five years.
Climate change is expected to exacerbate the problem of rainfall variability and
associated drought and flood disasters in Ethiopia (Mesfin 1984; NMA 2006; World
Bank 2006; Amsalu and Adem 2009; UN-ISDR 2010).

5 National Response Towards Climate Change:

Adaptation and Mitigation Policies and Strategies

Ethiopian’s anthropogenic GHG emissions contribution is marginal (only 0.3% of

global total) (USAID 2015). Ethiopian’s GHG profile showed that the agriculture
sector contribute the highest (61%) followed by land use change (18%), energy
(17%); (waste 3%) and only 1% from industrial processes and product use (USAID
2015) (Fig. 1). In its climate resilient green economy (CRGE), Ethiopia plans to cut
its 2030 GHG emissions at 145 MtCO2e by 64% (225 MtCO2e) reduction from

86.56
Emissions (Mc CO2 e) & share (% )

61
Emission (Mc CO2 e) % share

25.4 23.39
18 17

3.75 3 2.03 1
Agriculture Land use change Energy Waste Industrial
processes

Fig. 1 Greenhouse gas emissions in Ethiopia; by sector. Adapted from (USAID 2015)
404 T. Alemu and A. Mengistu

projected business as usual emission level by 2030. The reduction includes 130
MtCO2e from forestry, 90 MtCO2e from agriculture, 20, 10 and 5 MtCO2e from
industry, transport and buildings, respectively(USAID 2015). Ethiopia has a
potential to mitigate an estimated 2.76 billion tons of carbon through protection and
sustainable management of forest resources (Moges et al. 2010).
To facilitate the country’s response to climate change a comprehensive adap-
tation and mitigation mechanisms have been developed such as: CRGE strategy,
GTP II, Sectoral GHGs Reduction Mechanism (SRM), National Disaster Risk
Management and Strategy, National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA, now
NAP), Sectoral/regional adaptation plans etc. Since 1992 many MEAs are signed
and/or ratified. Ethiopia leads least developing countries group in the international
climate negotiation agenda.

5.1 Current Policies on Environment and Climate Change

The Ethiopian government has recognized climate change as a threat to its national
development. The country has signed most of the international environment con-
ventions including those specifically focused on climate change: it ratified the
UNFCCC in May 1994, UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification in June 1997, and the Kyoto Protocol in February 2005. The country
prepared a National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to fight the impacts
of climate change and desertification (Amsalu and Gebremichael 2009). The pro-
gram clearly states the urgency of taking practical adaptation and mitigation actions
in many social and economic sectors (NMA 2006; Epsilon International 2011).
CRGE (Climate Resilient Green Economy) strategy recommends the use of low
carbon solutions to leapfrog other economic sectors while realizing the ambitions
set out in the country’s GTP. CRGE Present an overarching framework to marshal a
coherent response to climate change, to generate both innovative thinking and a
course of actions to meet the challenges associated with the transfer of
climate-friendly technologies and finance for the construction of a climate resilient
green economy in Ethiopia (NMA 2006; Epsilon International 2011).
GTP (Growth and Transformation Plan) recognized Climate change as a huge
threat. It stipulates the country’s ambitions to build a CRGE by 2030. The country
has formulated a number of policies, strategies and action plans aimed at promoting
Environmental protection, sustainable development and poverty reduction.
However, lack of local specific focused policies and legislation were a serious
impediment to deal with the adverse impacts of changes and variability in climate
(Sintayehun 2008). Kassahun (2008) also stated, it is important and high time to
take climate change issues into the country’s policies, program and guidelines.
However, the current policies, strategy and laws related to climate change and
sustainable agriculture are adequate. But still they are not adequately incorporated
into extension guidelines and manuals in a way that local farmers understand and
participate in the implementation processes. Therefore, creating awareness about
Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security … 405

policies, strategies and implementation guidelines at all levels including agricultural

extension workers and implementation of CSA (climate smart agriculture) is a key.
Despite the relatively high knowledge of the subject among policy-makers, and
the prominent role being played by Ethiopia in international climate change
negotiations, Ethiopia was still formulating its response in 2009 (Ayalew 2009).
Ethiopia, on behalf of African continent plays a great role in climate change
negotiations (COPs) which indicates that Africa as a whole and Ethiopians in
particular are aware of the climate change impacts on global, regional and national
scale. The efforts given to poverty alleviation and socio-economic development will
be challenged by the impacts of a changing climate unless such issues are well
integrated with adaptation plans (NMSA 2001). According to Deressa et al. (2008),
since vulnerability to climate change in Ethiopia is highly related to poverty
through loss of coping or adaptive capacity. Integrated rural development schemes
can play a great role in reducing poverty and increasing adaptive capacity for
dealing with climate change.
Yesuf et al. (2008) also suggested that farmers need timely information on
predicted changes in climate in a readily accessible form to empower them to take
appropriate steps to adjust their farming practices, such as adopting yield-enhancing
adaptation strategies. The early warning system in the country is based on crop
forecasts and assessments of food stocks, and deals mainly with preparedness for
food emergency relief. In addition, efforts should also be made to reduce the risks of
disasters, and extend access to credit markets and extension services in order to
facilitate adaptation (Amsalu and Gebremichael 2009). However, the Government’s
response has been challenged by shortage of funds and lack of institutional
capacity. Hence, the role of non-state actors and their contribution in enhancing
local adaptive capacities is very crucial need to be encouraging (Amsalu and Adem
2009; Amsalu and Gebremichael 2009) and included in the plan.

5.2 Ethiopia’s Program of Adaptation to Climate

Change (EPACC)

EPACC (Ethiopian Program of Adaptation to Climate Change) strategy adequately

understood climate change as a growing threat in Ethiopia and clearly elaborate the
need to mainstream climate change in all spheres of development policy making
and planning at all phases and stages of the planning and implementation process.
As a Party to the UNFCCC, Ethiopia is obliged by several articles of the con-
vention to address climate change through the preparation of a national adaptation
document and the integration of climate change into its sectoral development plans,
policies and strategies. The NAPA, prepared in 2007, represented the first step in
coordinating adaptation activities across government sectors, but was not intended
to be a long-term strategy in itself. Ethiopia’s NAPA projects are currently “on
hold” whilst international adaptation funding mechanisms are under negotiation
(Adem and Bewket 2011).
406 T. Alemu and A. Mengistu

The former Federal Environmental Protection Authority and the present Ministry
of Forest Environment and Climate Change (MFECC) of Ethiopia developed a sep-
arate work program for action on adaptation to climate change. The document inter-
links climate change adaptation strongly with the economic development and physical
survival of the country. The main objective of EPACC and CRGE is to create the
foundation for a carbon-neutral and climate-resilient path towards sustainable
development in the country. According to this programme, climate change will be
implemented by inhabitants and farmers at local and district levels (NMA 2006 and
Adem and Bewket 2011). The climate risks identified by EPACC are broadly in the
areas of human, animal and crop diseases, land degradation, loss of biodiversity,
decline in agricultural production, dwindling water supply, social inequality, urban
waste accumulation, and displacement due to environmental stress and insecurity. The
programme also identifies adaptation strategies and options in the various socioeco-
nomic sectors including cloud seeding, crop and livestock insurance mechanisms,
grain storage, societal reorganization, renewable energy, gender equality, factoring
disability, climate change adaptation education, capacity building, research and
development, and enhancing institutional capacity and the political momentum (NMA
2006). The program clearly explains the need to mainstream climate change in all
spheres of development policy making and planning at all phases and stages of the
planning and implementation process and the urgency of taking practical adaptation
and mitigation actions in the various social and economic sectors.

5.3 Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) of Ethiopia

Although international climate negotiations have made little progress, Ethiopia has
started the race towards low-carbon development (LCD). LCD Plans have been
developed and lay foundations for overall sustainable development planning of the
country. In fact aggregate climate change mitigation commitments are still far apart
from a level of ambition that effectively creates a realistic chance of limiting global
warming to a maximum of 2 °C or possibly even lower. Many developing countries
including Ethiopia seem to have already begun this process. In this regard, Ethiopia
can be an example and tried to implement a new national strategic framework for a
smooth transition to a climate resilient green economy by 2030. A climate resilient
green economy is a long-term ambition of Ethiopia. The mission statement
developed to facilitate the development of the Ethiopian CRGE strategy sets out a
five step roadmap for moving towards a climate resilient low carbon economy. The
roadmap identified the need for more work on Ethiopia’s climate change institu-
tions, monitoring and finance systems and sectorial and regional action plans. When
combined, the work is expected to enable the EPA to draft a CRGE Strategy which
will identify a clear path to the goal of a climate resilient green economy by 2030
(Adem and Bewket 2011). Building resilient means reducing the risk of becoming
food insecure and increasing the adaptive capacity to cope with risks and respond to
climate change (Gitz and Meybeck 2012).
Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security … 407

Priority challenges and constraints for Addressing climate change impacts

Ethiopia faces a number of cross-cutting challenges and constraints in regard to
climate change venerability assessment and adaptation and implementation. As
noted in NAPA, these challenges include:
• Weak policy implementation and limited awareness
• Lack of research and development capacity to assess the impacts and conse-
quences of climate change
• Lack of individuals with specialization in venerability and adaptation assess-
ment in agriculture, water resources and health
• Limited skill capacity, facility, and technologies to provide accurate and timely
weather and climate forecasts
• Weak institutional framework for dealing with climate change
• lack of coordination between research institutions and policy makers.
Addressing these capacity, institutional and coordination and needs will contribute
to Ethiopians ability to continue to move forward effectively on implementation of
adaptation that support long term climate-resilient green development.

5.4 Improving Smallholder Livelihood and Resilience

Through Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)

Climate-smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach that helps to guide actions needed to

transform reorient agricultural system to effectively support development and ensure
food security in the changing climate. CSA aims to tackle three main objectives:
(1) increase agricultural production and income sustainability, (2) adapting and
building resilience to climate change and (3) reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas
emissions, where possible (IPCC 2013). CSA practices aimed at promoting efficient
use of land, water and soil and other environmental resources. CSA promotes coor-
dinated actions by farmers, researchers, private sectors, civil society and policy
makers towards climate-resilient pathways through four main action areas:
(1) Building evidence (2) increasing local institutional capacity and effectiveness
(3) fostering coherence between climate and agricultural policies and (4) linking
climate and agricultural financing (Fig. 2). CSA differs from ‘business-as-usual’
approaches by emphasizing the capacity to implement flexible, context-specific
solution, supported by innovative policy and financing actions (Leslie et al. 2015;
FAO 2016).
CSA emphasizes utilization of ecosystem service for agricultural systems to
support productivity, adaptation and mitigation of climate change. CSA encourages
integrated approaches (Leslie et al. 2015) for example:
• integrated crop, livestock, aquaculture and agroforestry systems;
• improved pest, water and nutrient management;
408 T. Alemu and A. Mengistu

Agriculture Opportunity space Possible future

Multiple stressors including

Climate Change

Fig. 2 Climate-resilient transformation pathways for agriculture. Adapted from ref. 4, © IPCC

• landscape approaches;
• improved grassland and forestry management;
• practices such as reduced tillage and use of adverse verities and breeds;
• integrating trees into agricultural systems;
• restoring degraded lands; improving the efficiency of water and nitrogen fer-
tilizer use; and manure management, including the use of anaerobic
bio-digesters.
All these integrated activities enhance soil quality and can generate high produc-
tion. It also Enhances adaptation and mitigation benefits by regulating carbon
oxygen and plant nutrient cycles leading to enhanced resilient to drought and
flooding and to carbon sequestration (Leslie et al. 2015). Transformative change in
agriculture can involve shifts in agricultural production (for example from crop to
livestock) or source of livelihoods (increase resilient on non-farm income) (Leslie
et al. 2015).
Transforming the current agricultural practice into CSA approach urgent actions
from policy makers, public, private and civil society stakeholders at all levels is
required in four areas: (i) building research based evidence and assessment tools;
(ii) strengthening national, regional and local institutions (iii) developing coordi-
nated and evidence- based policies and (iv) increasing finance institutional capacity
and its effectiveness. The current evidence based research findings are inadequate,
inaccessible to decision makers support effective decision making at the national,
regional and local levels. Therefore the current research addressing climate change
impacts on agriculture are not sufficient for national and local level planning.
Research institutions should be coordinated to develop tools needed for evaluating
Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security … 409

the impact of climate change (both extreme events), adaptation and mitigation
potential of different policies and technologies.
Challenges and opportunities for effective implementation of CSA in Ethiopia
The key challenges to implement CSA in Ethiopia are: weak implementing
capacity on climate change adaptation and mitigation, lack of integration or coor-
dination between federal and regional levels, public sector and civil society orga-
nizations, private sectors, and impacts of conventional agricultural practices such as
open grazing and frequent ploughing. In spite of the above challenges the country
has untapped opportunities to support the scale up of CSA in Ethiopia. These
includes; Climate Resilient green economy (CRGE) strategy of Ethiopia, promotion
of avoiding open and uncontrolled grazing by regional states, promotion of inte-
grated watershed management to improve agricultural productivity, existence of
extension and development agents to create climate related awareness and provide
capacity building tanning at the local level. All these opportunities, in addition to
NGOs, at the grass root level can promote climate smart agriculture activities in the
country.
Improving smallholder livelihood and resilience, in the context of climate change,
through climate-smart agriculture (CSA) includes improving farm level food security
and productivity through the development of profitable and sustainable farming
systems. This can be achieved through integrated and sustainable land and forest
management program, integrated soil fertility management, small scale irrigation
scams, integrating tree-food-crop livestock system, poultry, bee farming and animal
fattening, soil and water conservation measures, rain and ground water harvesting
practices. The existence of development agents and extension workers can start CSA
practices if appropriate strategy, action plans and manuals are set in place.

6 Conclusion

Many studies convincing that climate change is real, that it will become worse, and
that the poorest and most vulnerable people will be the worst affected. Agriculture
completely dominates Ethiopia’s economy and any climate-change impacts on
agriculture will be considerable in the coming decades. Climate change affects
agriculture and hence food security directly through changing agro-ecological con-
ditions and indirectly by affecting growth and distribution of incomes. Environmental
changes, such as changes in water availability and land cover, altered nitrogen
availability and nutrient cycling, has increased concerns about achieving food
security. These problems are further intensified by climate change. Shifts in rainfall
and rise in temperature will bring major impacts in terms of crop and livestock feed
yields, water availability, disease incidence and flood damage. CSA strategies for
adaptation and mitigation options should be strengthen such as carbon-sequestration
practices involving reduced tillage, increased crop cover, including agro-forestry,
410 T. Alemu and A. Mengistu

and use of improved rotation systems are needed. This transition to CSA will have to
be improved by active adaptation policies on the part of the government and will
surely need outside support. The countries Green Economy Policies and Strategies
integrate the different sectors depending on water-rain fed and irrigated agriculture,
livestock, fisheries, forestry, water and soil conservation and biodiversity protection
activities. An integrated, evidence based and transformative approaches to addressing
food and climate insecurity at all levels require coordination actions from national to
local levels, from research to policies and investment and across private, public and
civil society sectors to achieve the sale and rate of change required. With the right site
specific practices, policies and investment’s, the agriculture sector can move on to
CSA pathways result in improved food security and decrease in poverty in the in the
short term while contributing to reduce climate change as a treat to food security over
a longer term.

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