Received: 9 September 2020

| Revised: 13 November 2020

| Accepted: 17 November 2020

DOI: 10.1002/fes3.266

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Climate change impacts on household food security and

adaptation strategies in southern Ethiopia

Adisu Mekonnen1 | Ayele Tessema2 | Zerhun Ganewo2 | Ashenafi Haile3

1
Food Security and Early Warning Expert,
Aleta Chuko District, Ethiopia
Abstract
2
Faculty of Environment, Gender and Climate change is predicted to adversely affect agricultural yields, particularly in
Development Studies, Hawassa University, African countries such as Ethiopia, where crop production relies heavily on envi-
Hawassa, Ethiopia
ronmental factors such as rainfall and temperature. However, there have only been a
3
School of Plant and Horticultural Sciences,
limited number of studies on the effects of climate change dynamics on food security
Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia
in Africa, particularly at the household level. We therefore analyzed local climatic
Correspondence changes, the status of household food security, climate-related causes of food in-
Ashenafi Haile, School of Plant and
Horticultural Sciences, Hawassa University,
security, food security determinants, and the adaptation strategies of local farmers.
P.O.Box 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia. Three decades meteorological data were analyzed. A total of 185 farmers were se-
Email: ashenafihaileg@gmail.com lected using simple random sampling and interviewed, together with focus groups.
[Correction added on 10 December 2020, Data were analyzed using the descriptive and inferential statistics together with the
after first online publication: Abstract logit regression model. Climate change over the last three decades was found to
section has been updated.]
have a negative impact on the food security status of households. Crop production
[The copyright line for this article was was constrained by poor rainfall, severe erosion, and increases in temperature. The
changed on 8 January 2021, after original unpredictability of rainfall, pests, and diseases were also contributing factors. Using
online publication]
the calorie intake approach, 60.5% of sampled respondents were found to be food
insecure. Analysis using the logistic regression model showed that age and fam-
ily size, as well as the amount of cultivated land and rainfall, were the significant
(p < .05) factors influencing household food security status. A large proportion
(69.8%) of farmers were incorporating adapting strategies into farm management
including improved use of crop varieties and livestock production, in addition to
income diversification. Taken together, these findings show that improving climate
change awareness, facilitating the participation of female-led households in income
generation, and strengthening existing adaptation measures have positive impacts
on food security.

KEYWORDS
adaptation strategies, climate change impact, food insecurity, Southern Ethiopia

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
work is properly cited.
© 2020 The Authors. Food and Energy Security published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Food Energy Secur. 2021;10:e266.  wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/fes3 | 1 of 14

https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.266
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 of 14    MEKONEN et al.

1 | IN TRO D U C T ION development of the country, accounting for about 42% of the
gross domestic product (CSA, 2018). Moreover, the country
Agricultural yield is negatively affected by the change in is highly affected by climate change due to three main rea-
climate due to its effect on the reduction of soil moisture, sons: (a) about 80% of the population is largely depending on
faster depletion of soil organic matter, premature drying of rain fed agriculture, (b) low-income country, and (c) varied
grains, and increased heat stress (Da Cunha et al., 2015; Rajib geographical locations with different magnitude of climate
et al., 2016). Climate is an important resource both for crop impacts (Alemu & Mengistu, 2019). The nature-dependent
and livestock productions in developing regions as farmers agricultural sector associated with the country's geographi-
depend largely on rain fed agriculture (Birara et al., 2015; cal location, topography, and low adaptive capacity made the
Coulibaly, 2015). However, keeping all other factors constant, country highly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate
climatic change could decline yield and reducing the avail- change (Negash, 2013). Thus, a large portion of the Ethiopian
ability of foods which aggravates household food insecurity population are affected by chronic and transitory food insecu-
(Butt et al., 2005; Weldearegay & Tedla, 2018). Growing con- rity which is highly linked up to severe, recurring food short-
sensus in the scientific community also indicates that higher age and famine, which is associated with recurrent drought
temperature and changing precipitation levels resulting from (climate change) (Mota et al., 2019).
climate change which reduces crop yields in developing coun- In rural Ethiopia, food insecurity patterns are seasonal
tries (Alemu & Mengistu, 2019). Intergovernmental Panel on and linked to rainfall patterns (hunger trends declining sig-
Climate Change (IPCC) (2014a) predicts that with increases nificantly after the rainy seasons) and this makes them highly
of 1.5–2.5°C, approximately 20%–30% of plant and animal venerable to the change in climatic conditions (WFP, 2014).
species are expected to be at risk of extinction (FAO, 2007; In southern parts of Ethiopia, most of food insecure house-
IPCC, 2014a,2014b) with severe consequences for food se- holds are concentrated in the central part, generally described
curity in the developing countries (Mekuriaw et al., 2014). as drought- and famine-prone areas (Mota et al., 2019).
Due to the recently emerging climate change-induced Climate is an important factor in agricultural productivity
phenomena, food security is to be threatening everywhere but its change affects all dimensions of food security (i.e.,
(Nelson et al., 2009). Global environmental changes and in- food availability, food accessibility, food utilization, and food
creased climatic variability could demand the adaptation op- systems stability) (Adugna et al., 2016). More importantly,
tions and ways to minimize its risks (Getachew, 2010). Up to climate-related shocks could affect productivity, hamper eco-
date, the links of climate change impacts and food security nomic progress, and exacerbate existing social and economic
is largely been explored in relation to crop productivity and, problems (Anderson & Farmer, 2015).
hence, food production. As illustration, Gregory et al. (2002) Like in most rural areas of Ethiopia, the study district is
summarized experimental findings on wheat and rice that characterized by a heavily fragile natural resource base, short-
decreased in yield as a consequence of warming about 5% age of agricultural land, and speedy deforestation which re-
per °C rise above 32°C (Gregory et al., 2008). Cline (2007) sulted in land degradation, and migration from rural to urban
also estimates that global agricultural productivity will be areas (CSA, 2010). According to the Disaster Prevention and
reduced by 15.9% and developing country experiencing a Food Security office, more than 14,949 people in the district
disproportionally larger decline of 19.7%. Similarly, sim- were identified to be food insecure. It is reported that, since
ulation of maize production in Africa and Latin America the year 2010, a series of food shortages have occurred in the
for 2055 predicted an overall reduction of 10% (Jones & rural kebeles1 of the study district because of the prolonged
Thornton, 2003). Increased impacts of climate change make shortage of rainfall-induced crop losses.
the agricultural dependent people practice various adaptation Sustaining good coping and adaptive mechanisms of local
and coping strategies (Akinnagbe & Irohibe, 2014). This farmers through participatory researches, designing appro-
mainly includes indigenous knowledge and skills outside the priate public policy, credit, saving, and market strategies can
formal education over a long period of time in the rural com- help them to boost their food security statuses (Chalachew
munities (Mongi et al., 2010). et al., 2014). Little efforts have been done in southern
Developing nations, especially those in sub-Saharan Ethiopia in the issues of food security risk factors linked with
Africa are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change climate change effects.
(Akinnagbe & Irohibe, 2014), this is because of their geo- Until recently, most assessments of the impact of climate
graphical location and climatic conditions, high depen- change on the food and agriculture sector have focused on
dence on agriculture, natural resources-driven activities, and the implications for production and food supply, with less
weak adaptive capacity to the change in climate (Eriksen consideration of other components of the food chain. This
et al., 2008). study takes a broader view and explores the multiple effects
Ethiopia's economy is dominated by subsistence agri- that variability of temperature and rainfall (climate change)
cultural sector that plays the dominant role in the economic could have on food security. It also suggests strategies for
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
MEKONEN et al.    3 of 14

mitigating and adapting to climate change in several key pol- potato are grown. Mixed farming is the dominant farming
icy domains of importance for food security. Therefore, the system in the area with the main food crops of maize, hari-
study was performed to the following: cot beans, and enset, whereas coffee, khat, and pineapple are
the main cash crops. Cattle, sheep, poultry, and donkey are
• Examine the pattern of rainfall and temperature for the last the main livestock types. Farmers use enset as multi-purpose
three decades in the study area. crops such as for food, animal feed, to construct traditional
• Assess the impacts of climate change on household food houses and for other purposes.
security and to identify farmers adaptation strategies.

2.2 | Sampling procedures and sample size

2 | M ATE R IA L S A N D ME T HODS
Among the total 31 kebeles in Aleta Chuko district, the 3
2.1 | Study area description (Gelma from midland, and Cicowoyama and Miricha from
lowland) were used for this study. The kebeles were selected
The study was conducted in Aleta chuko district (Figure 1) by using simple random sampling techniques with the con-
during 2017/2018 growing season. It is located between sideration of probability proportion to its size. The total of
6°46′N–7°01′N and 38°04′E–38°24′E. The population of 185 households was taken into consideration for investiga-
the district is 209,886, of which 102,215 (48.7%) are male tion (Indris & Adem, 2013; Shiferaw et al., 2005). In order
and 107,671(51.3%) are female. The district has an esti- to represent the study population, Yamane (1967) simplified
mated land area of 32.2 square kilometers. The altitude of formula were used at 7% margin of error.
the district is situated in between 1400 and 2000 m above sea
level and characterized by having a bimodal rainfall: belg2 n=
N
=
1980
= 185 households
(March–May) and meher3 growing season (June–August) 1 + N(e) 2 1 + 1980(0.07) 2
(CSA, 2018).
Mean Belg and Meher rainfall of the last three decades where n is sample size, N is the total number of households in
(1983–2016) were 318.65 and 757.97 mm, respectively, the three selected kebeles, and e is the margin of error.
whereas the average minimum and maximum temperatures Primary data were collected by using structured and
were 10.99°C and 24.62°C, respectively. Belg is the major semi-structured questionnaires. The pilot survey was conducted
growing season and a period of land preparation and planting with the development agents to find out the general informa-
of crops like coffee, maize, enset, Khat, and potato. During tion about the kebeles and the districts before the actual survey.
Meher season, crops such as haricot bean, potato, and sweet The second stage was the basic data collection which includes

FIGURE 1 Map of the study area

 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 of 14    MEKONEN et al.

household information on demographic characteristics like crop Ahmed et al., 2018; Idris & Adem, 2013; Maksuda &
and animal production, household food security status, changes Taj, 2012; Meles et al., 2016). The sources of food was from
in rainfall and temperature patterns, climate change perception, their own production and purchased items. The energy re-
and household adaptation strategies (Lema & Majule, 2009). quirement of each household member is different based on
Secondary data were obtained from various agriculture age, sex and other related factors. The member of each re-
offices at different levels. To confirm the real existence spondent household was converted to adult equivalent based
of climate change, 30 year's data were also accessed from on their age and sex by using adult equivalent conversation
Ethiopian Meteorological Institute. As a parameter, trends in factor (Storck et al., 1991). Therefore, the consumption data
rainfall and temperature were analyzed in annual (Belg and collected on the basis of 7 days recall method (Bouis, 1993)
Meher) bases (Feleke et al., 2016). were converted into kilocalorie using the food composition
To triangulate the information obtained from the house- table manual adopted from Ethiopian Health and Nutrition
hold survey and meteorological data, a focus group discussion Research Institute (EHNRI, 1997). Then, in order to cal-
was carried out on the group of seven discussants. The main culate the households’ daily caloric intake, the total house-
issues covered was a change in temperature, precipitation, holds’ caloric intake for the last 7 days, which was adjusted
crop and livestock diseases, food security status, and adapta- for most recurring seasonal variations, was divided by seven.
tion strategies developed in response to climate at the house- The household's daily caloric intake per adult equivalent was
hold and community level. Basically, the group members calculated by dividing the household's daily caloric intake by
were selected from elders, community leaders, and women the family size after adjusting for adult equivalent using the
leaders to intensively gather their views. Furthermore, key consumption factor for age–sex categories (Zegeye, 2009).
informants composing experts from different departments Subsequently, the calculated daily calorie intake was com-
(development agents, food security and natural resource man- pared with the minimum daily subsistence requirement in
agement groups) were interviewed. The idea of comparing adult equivalent of 2200 kcal which is set by the Ethiopian
main triangulate source of information with the data obtained Government (FSS, 2002) to establish food security status of
with the household survey were to determine how the climate households. As all members of the household are converted
change is impacting on the life of those households merely to adult equivalent, the total calorie intake of the household
dependent on natural rainfall, how the food security problem was divided in to adult equivalent. Accordingly, this value of
is severed, and what adaptations strategies are developed at minimum subsistence requirement was used as a cutoff point
farm and community level in the response. between food secure and insecure households. Finally, the dif-
The questioner was divided into four sections. The first ference between calorie availability and calorie demand for
section included socio-demographic information and descrip- households was used to determine a household's food security.
tion of the participants, including their age, sex, Active labor
and family size, educational status, farm land and Tropical
Livestock Unit (TLU). This section contained two additional 2.4 | Data analysis
questions aimed for those participants employed in governmen-
tal institutions. The second section provided the potential threats Based on the objectives of the study, descriptive, inferential
to the society in relation of climate change effects (temperature statistics and econometric model were applied. All statistical
and rainfall). It further investigated and analyzed farmer's per- analyses were carried out by using STATA version 14.0. By
ception to the change in climate in the past three decade and applying descriptive statistics, comparing and contrasting dif-
their adaptation strategies in response. The third section of the ferent situations existing in the sample units with the desired
questionnaire looked into secondary information sources. The characteristics were carried. Descriptive statistics such as fre-
fourth section analyzed food security status of the households quency distribution, mean, maximum and minimum, percent-
and its link with climate change effects. It obtained answers re- age distribution, and the standard deviation were employed to
garding the participants’ level of awareness of climate change analyze the quantitative data. Simple linear regression model
(perception), the sources of the information they acquired, their was used to analyze the effects of rainfall and temperature
adaptation strategies and observations related to a possible in- on maize yield. The R-squared value of the model has used
crease of the climate change-related topics in the media. as an indicator for how much portion of yield reduction is
explained by the rainfall and temperature.
For the econometric logistic regression model, household
2.3 | Measuring household food food security status was used as the dependent variable (1 is
security status for food secured, and 0 is for non-secured).
The logistic regression model was used to determine
The households’ food security status was measured by di- the determinants of food security at the household level.
rect survey of household consumption (Abu & Soom, 2016; According to Gujrati (2004) during the estimation of logit
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
MEKONEN et al.    5 of 14

TABLE 1 Socio-demographic profile of the respondent Zi = 𝛽 0 + 𝛽 1 X1 + 𝛽 2 X2 + … + 𝛽 n Xn + ui (5)

households

Continuous variables Min. Max. Mean SD Before fitting variables in to logistic regression model,
variance inflation factor (VIF) and contingency coefficient
Age 26 72 50.13 11.5
(CC) were employed to check multicollinearity among con-
Family size 3 11 6.8 2.36
tinuous and dummy variables, respectively.
Active labor size 2 6 3.10 1.14
Farm land 0.32 3.6 1.09 0.81
Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) 0 8.5 3.33 2.07 3 | RESULTS
Dummy variables Freq. %
Education status
3.1 | Socio-demographic profile of the
respondents
Able to read and write 86 46.5
Unable to read and write 99 53.5
A total of 185 households were assessed in this study. Basic
Sex of household head profile of the household heads that could have a potential im-
Male headed 140 75.7 plication on food security and developing adaptation strategies
Female headed 45 24.3 was analyzed. Majority (75.7%) of the household heads were
male, and the rest are females. The focus group discussion re-
sults also depicted that female-headed households were more
model, the dependent variable should be dummy. Therefore, susceptible to food insecurity factors than male headed house-
in this case, food security was measured as a dummy that holds due to the lack of productive assets such as land and ag-
takes the value of 1 for household calorie intake of greater or ricultural inputs like chemical fertilizer, and the improved seed
equal to 2200 kcal per day and 0 for less than 2200 kcal/adult which resist drought season. The education status profile of
equivalent/day. Mathematical expressed as: the respondents revealed that about 53.5% were unable to read
and write. This could have an implication of less willingness to
ezi adopt new technologies and practices in agriculture in general
Pi = (1)
1 + ezi and adapting climate change options in particular. The mean
age of the household head was 50.13 years across the three ke-
Then, 1−Pi represents the probability of being food se- bele in the study district (Table 1). The family size was found to
cured and can be written as: be 6.8 on average. According to participants of FGDs, “house-
holds with the large family size are found to be food insecure
1 than the households having small family size.”
1 − Pi = (2)
1 + ezi Among other resources endowed to the households, land
size is a great implication on how much, when and how to pro-
Dividing Equation (1) by Equation (2) and simplifying duce crops. Regardless of the size, all the respondents have
gives: reported that they own the land. The average land ownership
of the households was 0.91 ha. The households in the study
pi 1 + ezi area is better in livestock ownership. On average, the respon-
= = ezi (3)
1 − pi 1 + e − zi dent's households owned about 3.33 Tropical Livestock Unit.

Equation (3) indicates the odds ratio in favor of being se-

cured. It is the ratio of the probability that the farmer being 3.2 | Household food security status
food secured to the probability of not secured.
Finally, the logit model is obtained by taking the loga- Climate change results in yield reduction which affects farm-
rithm of Equation (3) as follows: ers food availability and accessibility. This has also an impli-
cation on food security status of the household. Assessment
of household food security status was done depending on
( ) ( n
)
pi
(4)
∑
Ln = Ln e + 𝛽0
𝛽 j Xij = Ln(ezi ) current consumption (recall of 1 week). The survey result re-
1 − pi j=1 vealed that from 185 interviewed households, about 60.5%
of them were consumed less than the minimum standard
where Ln is log of the odds ratio, which is not only linear in X of adult equivalent calorie intake per day (2200 kcal/day),
but also linear in the parameter. Thus, when the stochastic dis- whereas 39.5% were consumed more than 2201–2500 kcal/
turbance term ui is included, day which is reccomended for healthy life (Figure 2).
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
6 of 14    MEKONEN et al.

3.3 | Identification of Trends in local climate who had heard about climate change in study areas, more than two
(Rainfall and Temperature) from 1983 to 2016 thirds were aware of the term “climate change” and interpreted it
as soil drying, high temperature and long heat waves. The impact
As it is indicated in Figure 3, the maximum average tem- of climate change most often mentioned by the respondent was
perature has been increased at the rate of 0.077°C for the past the impact on crop and live stalk production.
three decades from 1983 to 2016. The average yearly mini-
mum temperature of the district was 10.90°C. The average
minimum temperature of the district for the past three dec- 3.5 | Household source of climate
ades was increased by about 0.087°C annually. The statistical information
record of temperature from the Meteorological station was
similar to the farmers’ perception that both maximum and Farmers could adapt the change in climate, only if it is sup-
minimum temperature has increased (Figure 3). ported with timely information. With this regard, respondent's
Opposite to increasing temperature, the rainfall distribu- revealed that they were accessed climate-related information
tion from 1983 to 2016 has been decreasing in a fast rate. As from several sources. Among the main information sources
shown in Figure 4, the average rainfall of the district for the in the study area which was mentioned by the respondents,
past three decades was 1543.9 mm and it has declined at the development agents (44.6%), radio (30.6%), their fellow
same period by the 3.91 mm. farmers (20.4%), and television (3.8%) were the dominant
According to the data obtained from Ethiopia Metrological ones. From this survey result, only a few the respondents
Agency, the coefficient of variation of annual rainfall in the were owned visual aids, and timely climate change informa-
study area was 25%, 23.1%, and 16.23% for Belg, kiremt tion majorly accessed from development agents and radio.
season, respectively. This indicates that there was a high in-
ter-annual variability of rainfall between 1983 and 2016. It
further explained that the degree of variation in the amount 3.6 | Impact of climate change on
of rainfall was higher for belg season than kiremt (Table 2). crop production

The dominant crops grown in the study area are maize (Zea
3.4 | Perception of respondents on mays L.), enset [Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman],
climate change coffee (Coffea arabica L.), and khat (Catha edulis Forsk).
Trends of maize production were used as an indicator on the
Majority (83.8%) of the respondents in the study area had heard impact of climate change on the food security of the house-
about climate change and its impacts. The also perceived that there holds given that it is a major food security crop in the study
was a decrease in the amount of annual rainfall, whereas 50.8% of area. It is evident from Figure 5, the changes in yield were
them responded that rainfall is late during the onsets and ends up highly correlated with rainfall. The descriptive analysis also
early, and 84.3% of the respondents perceived that there was a confirms that, with keeping other agricultural inputs con-
significant increase in temperature. The percentage of evidence in stant, productivity of maize is changed from year to year due
the data confirmed that there was a change in climate. The propor- to climate change and variability. The average productivity
tion of people having heard about climate change and its impact of maize was 40.10 quintal/ha from the year of 2007–2016
on people was significantly higher in the study area. Among those with the standard deviation of 42.1 quintal4/ha.
Figure 6 reveals that there is a negative correlation be-
tween maize yield and the change in temperature over years.
This shows that as the temperature increases, the maize yield
decreases. The effects of temperature changes on maize yield
can be seen especially in figure from the year 2012 to 2014.
Again as the temperatures rises high from the year 2015 to
2018, the maize yield declined abruptly.

3.7 | Relationship between rainfall,

temperature, and maize yield

It was computed to identify the effects of change of rainfall

and temperature on the maize productivity. Keeping other vari-
FIGURE 2 Food security status of households ables constant, the increase in rainfall amount in mm has showed
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
MEKONEN et al.    7 of 14

FIGURE 3 Trend of maximum and minimum temperature in the study area (1983–2016)

FIGURE 4 Average rainfall of the district from 1983 to 2016

positive effects on maize yield from the year 2007 to 2016. The temperature and yield is insignificant. The R-squared value
coefficient value shows that as the rainfall amount increases by also magnifies that only 13% of maize yield is explained by
1 mm, the average yield per hectare of the crop has increased by the change in temperature (Table 4).
2.4 kg. The R-squared value was found to be 0.81 which implied
that 81% variations in maize productivity is explained by change in TABLE 2 Coefficient variation (CV %) of annual rainfall in the
rainfall. The result is significant at p-value less than 1% (Table 3). study area
Change in temperature has negatively influenced the Rainfall CV (%)
maize yield at the stated time period. The linear regression
Annual rainfall 16.23
model result shows that as the temperature increases by one
Belg rainfall 25
degree, the maize yield has showed a 2. 22 quintal reduc-
Kiremit rainfall 23.1
tions. The p-value also shows that the relationship between
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
8 of 14    MEKONEN et al.

FIGURE 5 Relationship between RF and maize productivity

FIGURE 6 Relationship between temperature and maize productivity in the study area

TABLE 3 The relationship between rainfall and maize yield TABLE 4 The relationship between temperature and maize yield
(quintal)
Maize R-squared
yield Coefficient SE t-Value p-Value value t- p- R-squared
Maize yield Coefficient SE Value Value value
Rainfall 0.02 0.004 5.87 .000 0.81
Constant 4.53 6.09 0.74 .48 Temperature −2.22 2.06 −1.08 .31 0.13
Constant 84.98 41.57 2.04 .08

3.8 | Climate changes adaptation measures for climate change impacts. The focus group discussion re-
sults also confirmed that in the area every farmer is expected
As depicted in Table 5, in response in changing climate, farm- to involve in soil and water conservation on both private and
ers employed. Among others, soil and water conservation communal land. Other adaptation measures employed were
measure has been used by 69% of respondents as mitigation included in Table 5.
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
MEKONEN et al.    9 of 14

TABLE 5 Climate change adaptation measures employed by Family size: It is significantly different at 5% probability
households level, and it has a negative relationship with the household
Percentages food security. The negative sign of model output is an in-
Adaptation strategy Observation (%) dication of the probability of being food insecure with an
Use of improved crop variety(yes) 52 28 increase in family size. As depicted in Table 6, the odds
ratio value confirms that the probability of the household
Growing short maturing variety 31 17
(yes) being food secured decreases by the factor of 0.33 as the
household size increases by one person, keeping other
Livestock diversification (yes) 46 25
factor constant.
Reduce livestock number (yes) 54 29
Age of household head: As age of the household head in-
Soil and water conservation (yes) 128 69
creases, one can acquire more knowledge and experience
Changing the planting and 33 18 and become effective in exploiting these experiences.
harvesting date (yes)
This variable affects food security status positively and
Income source diversification (yes) 47 25 significantly at 5% probability level.
Irrigation (yes) 5 3 Cultivated land size: The major source of household foods
in the study area was from their own production, and there
was limited access to other means of income-generating
3.9 | Analysis of household food security activities. Thus, the household who has large land size
determinants has better production which gives a better chance for the
household to be food secured. The odds ratio values for
The result obtained from the calculated household avail- farm size indicate that with other things being constant,
able energy was compared with the minimum subsistence food security status of the farmer increases by a factor of
requirement per adult equivalent per day (2200 kcal). Thus, 39.02 as the farm size increases by one hectare.
the result showed that, out of the total (185) sample house- Change in rainfall: The respondents reported that there
holds, 112 (60.5%) were consumed less than the recom- was a minimum increment in rainfall. Farmers perceived
mended kilo calories, that is, 2200 kcal, whereas 39.5% (73) that food security increase as an increase in rainfall
of the respondents were above the minimum requirements. (Table 6). Moreover, across the location, food security in-
Accordingly, the significant variables are discussed individu- creases by 142.5% as households received a better rainfall.
ally as follows: During the focus group discussion, it was also confirmed

TABLE 6 Determinants of household food insecurity

Predictors Coefficients Odds ratio z-Value p>z

Constant −23.82 4.49e-11 −2.73 .006
Sex of head 2.652 14.191 1.33 .182
**
Age of head 0.271 1.312 2.47 .014
Education status 2.3608 10.600 1.91 .056
**
Family size −1.108 0.330 −2.08 .038
Active labor force 0.448 1.566 0.69 .488
Cultivated land size 3.664** 39.025 2.47 .014
Livestock owned 0.321 1.378 0.82 .411
Total annual income 1.110 3.034 1.84 .066
Distance from market −0.144 0.865 −1.03 .304
Credit access −0.286 0.750 −0.16 .869
Extension services 3.973 53.167 1.37 .170
Climate information 3.330 27.961 1.07 .282
Change in temperature −2.152 0.116 −1.25 .211
**
Change in rainfall 4.959 142.579 2.20 .028
2 2
n = 185 LR chi (14) = 218.51 Pseudo R = 88.04%
**Significant at 5% level of significance.
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 of 14    MEKONEN et al.

that, even within the same kebele administrations, the more likely to be food security by using their accumulated
rainfall distribution is determined by the topography and adaptation strategies (Frehiwot, 2007).
these changes affect residents differently. The study revealed that age of household heads influ-
enced the food security status and adaptation strategies of
the respondents through the lesson learned from past extreme
weather events. Thus, through experiences households were
4 | D IS C U SS ION adapted strategies like improving crop and livestock produc-
tion, changing the date of planting and harvesting, soil and
Both minimum and maximum temperature has showed an water conservation practices, income source diversification,
increasing trends while rainfall decreased for the past three and irrigation as adaptation strategies to cope up with the
decades. These changes in temperature resulted in failure of change in climate. Therefore, farming experience than living
similarity; there was a 25% variation of rainfall during belg longer is determining the climate change adaptation choices
season. In southern Ethiopia, including the study area, belg of farmers. Similar result was also reported by Mulatu (2014)
season is known for the mass production of staple crops. found that the experience rather than age matters the adapta-
However, about 83% of the respondents were reported the tion of climate change impacts.
reduction of rainfall. Thus, the high variation of rainfall due Education level of farmers influenced adaptation using
to the change in climate has expected in significant reduction enhancing livestock productivity and agro-ecological prac-
of crop and livestock yield. Similarly, Thobei et al. (2014) tices. In this study, majority of respondents are not able to
reported that droughts, changes in the timing, duration, inten- read and this could have an implication of less willingness to
sity, and geographical location of rain, and changes in start adopt new technologies and practices in agriculture in general
or end of growing seasons are not suitable for many crops and for adapting climate change options in particular. Literate
which could have an effect on food security of the household. farmers are more likely to reacts changes through evaluating
However, it is evident from Coulibaly (2015) and Birara choices that fits best to their knowledge, inclination, and ca-
et al. (2015); climate in its optimum level is an important re- pabilities. This finding is in contrary to Gebrehiwot and van
source both for crop and livestock productions in developing der Veen (2013).
regions as farmers are depend largely on rain fed agriculture. Being male has a positive influence on the adaptation of
Climate change effects are multi-dimensional; it directly the change in climatic conditions, it indicated that male farm-
reduces the crop and livestock yield. These reductions are ers are more (75.7%) likely to apply adaptation choices to re-
directly influences the availability and quality of food prod- cruit the climate change effects. Female-headed households
ucts obtained from the farm. Thus, the low crop and livestock were more susceptible for the climate change. This can be due
productivity puts the households under pressure to consume to the fact that women are culturally assigned for domestic
less preferable food items with poor nutritional qualities and activities and have limited access to critical resources (land,
contents (Bacon, 2017). cash, and labor), which often undercuts their ability to carry
Food insecurity is one of the most crucial problems threat- out labor-intensive activities that make them economical sub-
ening millions of people in Ethiopia. The descriptive statis- ordinate to their husbands. In addition, even a little change in
tics result revealed that 60.5% of the households faced food climate adversely influences the livelihoods of female-headed
insecurity, which was higher than the findings reported from compared with their counterparts due to less mobility from
Tigray (42.7%) and Amhara (43.8%) (Gebrehiwot, 2009). place to place for the search of non-farm income-generat-
Beyond the change in climatic variables, the demographic ing opportunities. This finding is in line with the results of
factors have been found to be influencing the household's Kebede (2013) and Mihiretu et al. (2019) who reported that
food security status. According to the FGDs result, “house- male farmers are more likely to access information on climate
holds with the large family size were food insecure than the change and pleased to take risks than their counterparts.
small family size.” Family size was a negative correlation Family size had surprisingly a negative effect on farm-
with food security. This could be due to the fact that, increases ers’ adaptation choices to climate change. Livestock keeping
in population led to the fragmentation of farmlands, shifts in needs recurrent movement with animals for pasture; hence,
cropping patterns, acceleration of land use conflict and com- diversifying in sedentary agriculture would be less accus-
petition, and land degradation (Asefach & Nigatu, 2007). tomed. This is in line with the finding of Tazeze et al. (2012)
Moreover, this result was in line with the finding of Tazeze who reported households with large families may be forced
et al. (2012) and Mihiretu et al. (2019). However, cultivated to divert part of their labor to non-farm activities with an
land sized found to be positively influencing the food secu- attempt to earn income and ease the consumption pressure
rity status of the household. Finally, the age of the household imposed by a large family. However, in contrary to these
head has a positive implication on the food security status of Jagnang et al. (2019) reported positive correlation of family
the households. Those households headed by older people are size and food security status of households.
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
MEKONEN et al.    11 of 14

Cultivated land size result indicated that the household 5 | CONCLUSION AND POLIC Y
who has large land size has better production which gives RECOM M ENDATIONS
a better chance for food security. With other things being
constant, food security status of the farmer increases by a Climate change became reality and the dominant factor for
factor of 39.02 as the farm size increases by one hectare. food security of the households particularly in the develop-
This result is similar with the findings of Berman (2014) ment world, and thus, building the future with increased and
who reported that households with larger farms are ex- sustainable food secure households requires adequate poli-
pected to work on their plot intensively rather than going cies and an enabling environment. This requires a clear un-
for alternatives. derstanding of the dimensions, causes, and consequences and
Among the other climatic factors, in the district, the tem- magnitudes of food security factors that differ widely from
perature raises threats to the production of major crops es- one area to another. Accordingly, the findings of this study
pecially maize. The simple linear regression model result of are expected to contribute toward the understanding of cli-
this study depicts that increment in 1°C temperature results in mate-related issues.
222 kg reductions in maize yield. During the survey period, Based on the findings of the study, many food insecure
the 100 kg of maize was sold for 440 Ethiopian birr (ETB). households and its dominant factors were highly evaluated.
The total loss in monetary equivalent due to increase in 1°C The three decades national meteorological data of the district
was about 976.80 ETB (35.9 US$). At the country level, the also confirmed that there was a variability of annual tempera-
temperature has been increasing annually at a rate of 0.2°C ture and rainfall. The coefficient of rainfall variation showed
over the past five decades (Yohannes & Mebratu, 2009). there is a high variability during the main cropping season
This change in temperature has a visible effect on household in the area. The demographic variables such as age, family
income. As temperature increases by 1°C, the net revenue size, and economic factors as cultivated land and annual
decreases by US$19.9 per hectare, whereas 1 mm/month income affect food security status of the farmers. Farmers
rainfall increase will increase revenue by US$2.7 per hectare in the district are developed the adaptations mechanisms
(Ouedraogo et al., 2009). By this comparison, change in tem- mainly focused on using improved crop and livestock pro-
perature has more negative effects as compared with the same duction, changing the date of planting and harvesting, soil
quantity decreases in rainfall. and water conservation practices, irrigation, and income
The perception of farmers toward the change in climate source diversification. Therefore, the government should de-
in this study is similar with research reported by Deressa sign new production oriented and commercialization policies
et al. (2008) and Mengestu (2011) in Ethiopia who showed that are focused on improved agricultural system, provision
that there was a climate change implication due to increase in of timely climate information, widening the income sources
temperature and decreasing the amount of rainfall. Moreover, and adopting improved varieties are the most important ones
studies conducted in South Africa (Mandleni & Anim, 2011a) that should be taken in to account to reduce the food security
also reported the same result. risks of the area in the time of climate change. Educating the
It is evident from the three decade data that, climate is households and strengthen female-headed household's par-
changing from time to time, farmers of the district are devel- ticipation in income-generating activities are also the other
oped the adaptations mechanisms mainly focused on using most important mechanisms for climate change adaptation in
improved crop and livestock production, changing the date the area. Women have numerous roles in household nutrition,
of planting and harvesting, soil and water conservation prac- family planning, and other productive activities. Therefore,
tices, irrigation, and income source diversification. Studies special needs of women/female-headed households (like ac-
showed that farmers are responding to climate change, mainly cess to land, technology, women extension services and basic
by using different coping strategies for example in Mexico, survival support) should also be clearly identified and ad-
smallholder coffee farmers have adopted crop and livelihood dressed in all development policies and interventions.
diversification, good agricultural practices, and inter-cropped
maize with drought tolerant crops (Anderzen, 2015). In
Honduras, farmers have coped the climate change impacts by 6 | SIGNIFICANCE STATEM EN T
installing rainwater harvesting systems and in Nicaragua, by
diversifying crops (Adaptation Partnership, 2012). Moreover, This finding could help to understand how climate change is
Bacon (2017); Bielecki (2015), and Ruiz (2015) also reported increasing the vulnerability of households due to its effect on
that farmers are copped the climate change effects by reduc- their food security, and therefore, it can contribute to effective
ing food consumption and household expenditures, selling policy responses. The study provides realistic information and
crops for lower prices, selling assets, and seeking help from intended to make some contribution to the ongoing effort of
programmes and organizations. combating the recurrent food security problem of the farmers.
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
12 of 14    MEKONEN et al.

ORCID Butt, T. A., McCarl, B. A., Angerer, J., Dyke, P. T., & Stuth, J. W. (2005).
Ashenafi Haile https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3303-4031 The economic and food security implications of climate change in
Mali. Climatic Change, 68(3), 355–378.
Central Statistics Agency (CSA) (2010). Agricultural Sample Survey
ENDNOTES Report on Area and Production of Crops. The Federal Democratic
1
The smallest administrative unit in each district. Republic of Ethiopia Central Statitics Agency.
2
The season extending from March to May. Central Statistics Agency (CSA) (2018). Agricultural sample surveys-
3
The season extending from June to August. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Central Statistical
4
1 quintal is equal to 100 kg. Agency.
Chalachew, T., Freyer, B., Getachew, A., & Yosef, D. (2014). Analysis of
rural livelihood challenges and options under climate change pressure:
R E F E R E NC E S
Case study from potato producer localities in Awi Zone, Ethiopia.
Abu, G. A., & Soom, A. (2016). Analysis of factors affecting food secu-
International Journal of Research in Agricultural Sciences, 1, 2348–3997.
rity in rural and urban farming households of Benue State, Nigeria.
Cline, W. R. (2007). Global warming and agriculture: Impacts estimate
International Journal of Food and Agricultural Economics, 4(1), 55–68.
by country. Centre for Global Development and Peterson Institute
Adaptation Partnership (2012). Assessing climate change vulnerabil-
for International Economics.
ity and building resilience in the agricultural sector to promote
Coulibaly, J. Y. (2015). Responding to crop failure: Understanding
economic development and food security in Central America. US
farmers’ coping strategies in Southern Malawi’. Sustainability
Agency for International Development (USAID), the US Department
(Switzerland), 7(2), 1620–1636.
of State, and the Costa Rican Ministry of Environment, Energy and
Da Cunha, D. A., Coelho, A. B., & Féres, J. G. (2015). Irrigation as an
Telecommunications (MINAET).
adaptive strategy to climate change: An economic perspective on
Adugna, T., Gazahgne, A., Mengistu, K., & Endrias, G. (2016). Food
Brazilian agriculture. Environment and Development Economics,
Security and vulnerability to climate change in Eastern Ethiopia.
20(1), 57–79. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355​770X1​4000102
Economics, 5(6), 81–88.
Deressa, T., Hassan, R. M., Alemu, T., Yesuf, M., & Ringler, C. (2008).
Ahmed, K. D., Jema, H., & Lemma, Z. (2018). Determinants of food
Analyzing the determinants of farmers’ choice of adaptation meth-
insecurity and coping strategies of rural households: The case of
ods and perceptions of climate change in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia.
Shalla District, West Arsi Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Journal
International food policy research institute (IFPRI), Discussion
of Development and Agricultural Economics, 10(6), 200–212.
Paper No. 00798.
Akinnagbe, O. M., & Irohibe, I. J. (2014). Agricultural adaptation strat-
Eriksen, S., O’Brien, K., & Rosentrater, L. (2008). Climate change
egies to climate change impacts in Africa: A review. Bangladesh
in Eastern and Southern Africa: Impacts, vulnerability and adap-
Journal of Agricultural Research, 39(3), 407–418.
tation (p. 27). Department of Sociology and Human Geography,
Alemu, T., & Mengistu, A. (2019). Impacts of climate change on food se-
University of Oslo.
curity in ethiopia: Adaptation and mitigation options: A review. In: P.
Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute (EHNRI) (1997). Food
Castro, A. Azul, F. W. Leal, & U. Azeiteiro (Eds.), Climate change-re-
composition table for use in Ethiopia. Part III, from 1968–1997.
silient agriculture and agroforestry (pp. 397–412). Springer.
FAO (2007). Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome, Italy.
Anderson, S., & Farmer, E. (2015). USAID Office of food for peace food
Feleke, F. B., Berhe, M., Gebru, G., & Hoag, D. (2016). Determinants
security country framework for Ethiopia FY 2016 – FY2020. Food
of adaptation choices to climate change by sheep and goat farm-
Economy Group.
ers in Northern Ethiopia: The case of Southern and Central Tigray,
Anderzen, J. M. M. (2015). Small-scale coffee farmers’ perceptions of
Ethiopia. SpringerPlus, 5, 1692.
and livelihood responses to coffee rust epidemic in Maya Vinic cof-
Frehiwot, F. (2007). Food insecurity and its determinants in rural house-
fee cooperative, Mexico (Master’s thesis).
holds in Amhara Region. MSc Thesis, Department of Economics,
Asefach, H., & Nigatu, R. (2007). Correlates of household food security
Faculty of Business and Economics, School of Graduate Studies,
in densely populated areas of Southern Ethiopia: Does the house-
Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.
hold structure matters. Studies on Home and Community Science,
FSS (Food Security Strategy) (2002). Poverty and poverty policy in
1(2), 85–91.
Ethiopia. Special Issue of Consultation Papers on Poverty No.7.
Bacon, C. M. (2017). Vulnerability to cumulative hazards: Coping
Proceeding of the workshop organized by Forum for social Studies.
with the coffee leaf rust outbreak, drought, and food insecurity in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Nicaragua. World Development, 93, 136–152.
Gebrehiwot, T. (2009). Determinants of food security in rural house-
Berman, R. J. (2014). Developing climate change coping capacity into
holds of the Tigray Region, 29 Tsegay Gebrehiwot, Determinants of
adaptive capacity in Uganda. p. 253.
Food Security in Rural Households of the Tigray Region.
Bielecki, C. D. (2015). Coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) effects on the food se-
Gebrehiwot, T., & van der Veen, A. (2013). Farm level adaptation to
curity and livelihoods of smallholder coffee farmers in Guatemala’s Boca
climate change: The case of farmer’s in theEthiopian Highlands.
Costa region (pp. 193). Doctoral dissertation, Texas A & M University.
Environmental Management, 52(1), 29–44.
Birara, E., Mequanent, M., & Samuel, T. (2015). Assessment of food
Getachew, M. (2010). Adaptation to Climate variability among the pas-
security situation in Ethiopia. World Journal of Dairy and Food
toralist and Agro-pastoralist communities in Jijiga wereda, Somalia
Sciences, 10(1), 37–43.
regional state, Ethiopia.
Bouis, H. (1993). Food consumption surveys: How random are mea-
Gregory, P. J., Ingram, J. S. I., Andreson, R. et al (2002). Environmental
surement errors? In J. Von Braun, & D. Putez (Eds.), Data needs
consequences of alternative practices for intensifying crop produc-
for food policy in developing countries. International Food Policy
tion. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 88, 279–290.
Research Institute.
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
MEKONEN et al.    13 of 14

Gregory, P. J., Ingram, J. S. I., & Brklacich, M. (2008). The impacts of Mihiretu, A., Okoyo, E. N., & Lemma, T. (2019). Determinants of
climate change on food security in Africa. adaptation choices to climate change in agro-pastoral dry lands of
Gujrati, D. N. (2004). Basic econometric (4th ed.). The McGraw-Hill Northeastern Amhara, Ethiopia. Cogent Environmental Science,
Companies. 5(1), 1636548. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311​843.2019.1636548
Indris, S., & Adam, B. (2013). Assessment of food insecurity and coping Mongi, H., Majule, A. E., & Lyimo, J. G. (2010). Vulnerability and ad-
mechanisms among pastoral households of Afar National Regional aptation of rain-fed agriculture to climate change and variability in
State: The case of Chifra District, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of semi-arid Tanzania. African Journal of Environmental Science and
Agricultural Science, 23, 145–156. Technology, 4(6), 371–381.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2014a). Mota, A. A., Lachore, S. T., & Handiso, Y. H. (2019). Assessment
Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, of food insecurity and its determinants in the rural households in
Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Damot Gale Woreda, Wolaita zone, southern Ethiopia. Agriculture
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of and Food Security, 8, 11.
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In C. B. Field, V. Mulatu, N. (2014). Determinants of farmers’ preference for adaptation
R. Barros, D. J. Dokken, K. J. Mach, M. D. Mastrandrea, T. E. Bilir, strategies to climate change: Evidence from North Shoa Zone of
M. Chatterjee, K. L. Ebi, Y. O. Estrada, R. C. Genova, B. Girma, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. American Journal of Social Sciences,
E. S. Kissel, A. N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea, & L. 2(4), 56–66.
L. White (Eds.), Climate change; impacts, adaptation, and vulner- Negash, M. (2013). “Determinants of farmers’ preference for adapta-
ability. Part A: summary for policymakers: Global and Sectorial tion strategies to climate change: Evidence from north shoa zone
Aspects (p. 1–32). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. of Amhara region Ethiopia”, MPRA Paper No.48753. https://mpra.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2014b). Climate ub.uni-muenc​hen.de/48753/​1/MPRA_paper_48753.pdf
Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. In O. Edenhofer, R. Nelson, G. C., Rosegrant, M. W., Koo, J., Robertson, R. D., Sulser, T.,
Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, Zhu, T., Ringler, C., Msangi, S., Palazzo, A., Batka, M., Magalhaes,
A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. M., Valmonte-Santos, R., Ewing, M., & Lee, D. R. (2009). Climate
Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel, & J. C. Minx change impact on agriculture and costs of adaptation (p. 30).
(Eds.), Climate change: mitigation of climate change ( p. 1–116). International Food Policy Research Institute.
Cambridge University Press. Ouedraogo, M., Somé, L., & Dembele, Y. (2009). Economic impact
Jagnang, R. B., Lemma, T., & Ndemo, E. (2019). Tobacco growing con- assessment of climate change on agriculture in Burkina Faso: A
demning tobacco farmers to poverty in Malakisi Sub-County. The Ricardian Approach. CEEPA Discussion Paper No.24. Centre
Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources Sciences, 6(1), 1–14. for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa, University of
Jones, P. G., & Thornton, P. K. (2003). The potential impacts of climate Pretoria. Paper 38, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research,
change on maize production in Africa and Latin America in 2055. Norwich, UK.
Global Environ Change, 13, 51–59. Rajib, K., Indranil, D., Debashis, D., & Amitava, R. (2016). Potential
Kebede, G. (2013). Spatial and temporal uncertainty of rainfall in arid effects of climate change on soil properties: A review. Science
and semi-arid areas of Ethiopia. Science, Technology and Arts International, 4, 51–73.
Research Journal, 2(4), 106–113. Ruiz, L. E. (2015). Adaptive capacity of small-scale coffee farmers to
Lema, M. A., & Majule, A. E. (2009). Impacts of climate change, vari- climate change impacts in the Soconusco region of Chiapas, Mexico.
ability and adaptation strategies on agriculture in semi-arid areas of Climate and Development, 7, 100–109.
Tanzania: The case of Manyoni District in Singida Region, Tanzania. Shiferaw, T. F., Richard, L. K., & Christina, H. G. (2005). Determinants
African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2(8), of food security in Southern Ethiopia at the household level.
206–218. Agricultural Economics, 33, 351–363.
Maksuda, M., & Taj, U. (2012). Socioeconomic factors influencing Storck, H., Emana, B., Adnew, B., Borowiecki, A., & Weldehawariat, S.
food security status of maize growing households in selected areas (1991). Farming systems and farm management practices of small-
of Bogra District. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Economics. holders in the Hararge highlands: A baseline survey (Vol. 11). Vauk.
XXXV, 1(2), 177–187. Tazeze, A., Haji, J., & Ketema, M. (2012). Climate change adaptation
Mandleni, B., & Anim, F. D. K. (2011a). Perceptions of cattle and sheep strategies of smallholder farmers: The case of Babilie district, East
farmers on climate change and adaptation in the Eastern Cape prov- Harerghe Zone of Oromia Regional State of Ethiopia. Journal of
ince of South Africa. Journal of Human Ecology, 34(2), 107–112. Economics and Sustainable Development, 3(14), 2222–2855.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09709​274.2011.11906375 Thobei, T., Sutarno, S., & Komariah, K. (2014). Effects of climate
Mekuriaw, S., Tegegn, F., & Mengistu, A. (2014). A review on reduc- change on crop production in Thaba-Tseka and Mokhotlong districts
tion of greenhouse gas emission from ruminants through nutritional lesotho highlands. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary
strategies. Academia Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2(1), Science, 7(1), 37–44.
006–014. Weldearegay, S. K., & Tedla, D. G. (2018). Impact of climate variability
Meles, T. D., Meseret, A., & Miruts, M. B. (2016). Assessment of on household food availability in Tigray, Ethiopia. Agriculture and
food security status and factors influencing food security in Hawi Food Security, 7, 6.
Guddina district, Ethiopia. International Journal of Agricultural World Food Program (WFP) (2014). Climate risk and food security in
Extension and Rural Development, 3(3), 167–173. Ethiopia: Analysis of climate impacts on food security and liveli-
Mengestu, D. K. (2011). Farmers’ perception and knowledge of cli- hoods. Report 1–51. https://docum​ents.wfp.org/stell​ent/group​s/
mate change and their coping strategies to the related hazards: Case publi​c/docum​ents/newsr​oom/wfp26​9379.pdf
study From Adiha, Central Tigray, Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). (p.
Science, 2, 138–145. 919). Harper and Row.
 |

20483694, 2021, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fes3.266 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
14 of 14    MEKONEN et al.

Yohannes, G., & Mebratu, K. (2009). Local innovation in climate change

adaptations by Ethiopian pastoralists, PROLINNOVA–Pastoralist How to cite this article: Mekonnen A, Tessema A,
Forum Ethiopia (PFE) Final report, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (p. 29). Ganewo Z, Haile A. Climate change impacts on
Zegeye, T. (2009). Farm Household Food Insecurity, Determinants and household food security and adaptation strategies in
Coping Strategies: The Case of Fadis District, Eastern Oromia,
southern Ethiopia. Food Energy Secur. 2021;10:e266.
Ethiopia. An M.sc. Thesis Presented to the School of Graduate
Studies of Haramaya University. pp 28.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.266