Lecture 27.

WORD ORDER

§ 1. Word order in English is of much greater importance than in Russian. Due to the
wealth of inflexions word order in Russian is rather free as the inflexions show the function of
each Word in a sentence. As English words have hardly any inflexions and their relation to each
other is shown by their place in the sentence and not by their form, word order in English is
fixed. We cannot change the position of different parts of the sentence at will, especially that of
the subject and the object.
To illustrate this we Shall try to change the order of words in the following sentence.

Mrs. Winter sent the little boy with a message to the next village one
December day. (Hardy)

If we put the direct object in the first place and the subject in the third, the meaning of the
sentence will change altogether because the object, being placed at the head of the sentence,
becomes the subject and the subject, being placed after the predicate, becomes the object.

The little boy sent Mrs. Winter with a message to the next village one
December day.

In Russian such changes of word order are in most cases possible.

Моя сестра видела замечательный фильм в Москве.

Замечательный фильм видела моя сестра в Москве.

So due to the absence of case distinctions word order is practically the only means of
distinguishing between the subject and the direct object.
The above sentence may serve as an example of direct word order in an English declarative
sentence:
(1) the subject;
(2) the predicate;
(3) objects;
(4) adverbial modifiers.

§ 2. Inverted order of words.

The order of words in which the subject is placed after the predicate is called inverted order
or inversion.

Haven’t you any family? (Du Maurier)

§ 3. Certain types of sentences require the inverted order of words. These are:
1. Interrogative sentences. In most of them the inversion is partial as only part of the
predicate is placed before the subject, viz. the auxiliary or modal verb.

Where did they find her? (Du Maurier)

Can I show you my library? (Greene)

The whole predicate is placed before the subject when it is expressed by the verb to be or to
have.

Is he at home?
Have you many friends?
N o t e. — No inversion is used when the interrogative word is the subject of
the sentence or an attribute to the subject: Who is in the room? Who speaks
English here? What photos are lying on the table?

2. Sentences introduced by there.

There is nothing marvellous in what Jam is going to relate. (Dickens)

Into the lane where he sat there opened three or four garden gates.
(Dickens)

3. Compound sentences, their second part beginning with so or neither.

“Most of these military men are good shots,” observed Mr. Snod-grass,
calmly; “but so are you, ain’t you?” (Dickens)
Their parents, Mr. and Mrs. R., escaped unhurt, so did three of their sons.
(Daily Worker)

4. Simple exclamatory sentences expressing wish.

Be it so!
Gentle reader, may you never feel what I then felt. May your eyes never shed
such stormy, heart-wrung tears as poured from mine. (Ch. Bronte)

§ 4. The inverted order of words is widely used when a word or a group of words is put in a
prominent position, i. e. when it either opens the sentence or is withdrawn to the end of the
sentence so as to produce a greater effect. So word order often becomes a means of emphasis,
thus acquiring a stylistic function.
In this case inversion is not due to the structure of the sentence but to the author’s wish to
produce a certain stylistic effect.
1. Inversion occurs when an adverbial modifier opens the sentence.
Here we must distinguish the following cases:
(a) Adverbial modifiers expressed by a phrase or phrases open the sentence, and the subject
often has a lengthy modifier.

In an open barouche, the horses of which had been taken out, stood a stout
old gentleman in a blue coat and bright buttons. (Dickens)
On a chair — a shiny leather chair displaying its horsehair through a hole in
the top left hand corner — stood a black despatch case. (Galsworthy)

(b) An adverbial modifier with a negative meaning opens the sentence. Here belong such
adverbial modifiers as: in vain, never, little, etc. In this case the auxiliary do must be used if the
predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

In vain did the eager Luffey and the enthusiastic strugglers do all that skill
and experience could suggest. (Dickens)
Little had I dreamed, when I pressed my face longingly against Miss Minns’s
low greenish window-panes, that I would so soon have the honour to be her
guest. (Cronin)
Never before and never since, have I known such peace, such a sense of
tranquil happiness. (Cronin)
 (c) Adverbial modifiers expressed by such adverbs as so, thus, now, then, etc. placed at the
head of the sentence, if the subject is expressed by a noun.

So wore the day away. (London)

Thus spoke Mr. Pickwick edging himself as Hear as possible to the
portmanteau. (Dickens)
Now was the moment to act.
Then across the evening stillness, broke a blood-curdling yelp, and
Montmorency left the boat. (Jerome)

If the subject is a pronoun inversion does not take place.

Thus he thought and crumpled up and sank down upon the wet earth.
(London)

(d) Adverbial modifiers of manner expressed by adverbs placed at the head of the sentence,
may or may not cause inversion. In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the
predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

Silently and patiently did the doctor bear all this. (Dickens)
Dimly and darkly had the sombre shadows of a summer’s night fallen upon
all around, when they again reached Dingley Dell. (Dickens)

B u t: And suddenly the moon appeared, young and tender, floating up on her
back from behind a tree. (Galsworthy)
Speedily that worthy gentleman appeared. (Dickens)

(f) An adverbial modifier preceded by so is placed at the head of the sentence.

So beautifully did she sing that the audience burst into applause.

2. Inversion occurs when the emphatic particle only, the adverbs hardly, scarcely
(correlated with the conjunction when), the adverb no sooner (correlated with the conjunction
than), or the conjunction nor open the sentence. If there is inversion the auxiliary do must be
used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb.

Only once did he meet his match in tennis.

In only one respect has there been a decided lack of progress in the domain
of medicine, that is in the time it takes to become a qualified practitioner.
(Leacock)
I do not care to speak first. Nor do I desire to make trouble for another.
(Cronin)
No sooner had Aunt Julie received this emblem of departure than a change
came over her... (Galsworthy)
Scarcely iocs one long task completed when a guard unlocked our door.
(London)

3. Inversion occurs when the sentence begins with the word here which is not an adverbial
modifier of place but has some demonstrative force.

“Here is my card, Sir,” replied Mr. Pickwick. (Dickens)

«Вот моя визитная карточка, сэр», — ответил мистер Пиквик.
 Here comes my brother John.
Вот идет мой брат Джон.

If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun the order of words is direct.

“Here he is!” said Sam rising with great glee. (Dickens)

«Вот он!» — радостно сказал Сэм, вставая.
“Here we are!” exclaimed that gentleman. (Dickens)
«Вот и мы!» — воскликнул этот джентльмен.

4. Inversion occurs when postpositions denoting direction open the sentence and the
subject is expressed by a noun. Here belong such words as in, out, down, away, up, etc. This
order of words makes the speech especially lively.

Out went Mr. Pickwick’s head again. (Dickens)

The wind carries their voices — away fly the sentences like little narrow
ribbons. (Mansfield)
Suddenly in bounced the landlady: “There’s a letter for you, Miss Moss.”
(Mansfield)

But if the subject is a pronoun there is no inversion:

Down he fell.
Her skirt flies up above her waist; she tries to beat it down, but it is no use —
up it flies. (Mansfield)

5. Inversion occurs when an object or an adverbial modifier expressed by a word-group

with not a..., or many a... opens the sentence.
In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either an
auxiliary or a modal verb.

Not a hansom did I meet with in all my drive. (London)

Not a hint, however, did she drop about sending me to school. (Ch. Bronte)
Many a dun had she talked to and turned away from her father’s door.
(Thackeray)
Many a time had he watched him digging graves in the churchyard. (Dickens)
I hated that man, many and many a time had my fingers longed to tear him.
(Dickens)

6. Inversion often occurs when a predicative expressed by an adjective or by a noun

modified by an adjective or by the pronoun such opens the sentence (in case the subject is a noun
or an indefinite pronoun).

Violent was Mr. Weller’s indignation as he was borne along. (Dickens)

Such is life, and we are but as grass that is cut down, and put into the oven
and baked. (Jerome)
Sweet was that evening. (Ch. Bronte)

Inversion is very common in clauses of concession where the predicative is followed by the
conjunction as.

Great as was its influence upon individual souls, it did not seriously affect the
 main current of the life either of the church or of the nation. (Wakeman)

However, when the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the link verb follows the
subject.

Bright eyes they were. (Dickens)

A strange place it was. (Dickens)
Starved and tired enough he was. (Ch. Bronte)
Miserable as he was on the steamer, a new misery came upon him. (London)

7. Inversion is also found in conditional clauses introduced without any conjunction when
the predicate is expressed by was, were, had, could or should.

Even were they absolutely hers, it would be a passing means to enrich herself.
(Hardy)
He soon returned with food enough for half-a-dozen people and two bottles of
wine — enough to last them for a day or more, should any emergency arise.
(Hardy)
Yates would have felt better, had the gesture of a few kind words to Thorpe
been permitted him. (Heym)

It must be borne in mind that emphatic order does not necessarily mean inversion;
emphasis may be also achieved by the prominent position of some part of the sentence without
inversion, i. e. without placing the predicate before the subject.1
1
The prominent position of each part of the sentence will be treated in paragraphs dealing
with the place of different parts of the sentence.

Here we shall only mention a peculiar way of making almost any part of the sentence
emphatic. This is achieved by placing it is or it was before the part of the sentence which is to be
emphasized and a clause introduced by the relative pronoun who or that, by the conjunction that
or without any connective after it.

So it’s you that have disgraced the family. (Voynich)

It is not in Mr. Rochester he is interested. (Ch. Bronte)
Father appreciated him. It was on father’s suggestion that he went to law
college. (London)

§ 5. Position of the object.

The usual position of the object in declarative sentences is after the predicate. However, in
exclamatory sentences the direct object may occupy the first place.

What wonderfully blue eyes you have, Ernest! (Wilde)

This position of the object generally does not cause inversion, except in poetry, high prose,
and negative exclamatory sentences.

Thee would I spare — nay more — would save thee now! (Byron)
Passage after passage did he explore, room after room did he peep into! (Dickens)
 In declarative sentences the front position of the object serves the purpose of emphasis. In
Russian this position of the object is common (e. g. Волейболом он увлекался в юности, а
теперь играет только в теннис); in English it occurs but seldom.

A fearful voyage I had with such a monster in the vessel. (Ch. Bronte)
Honey she had in plenty out of her own hives. (Hardy)

As a rule this prominent position of the object causes no inversion except when the object
is expressed by word-groups with not a.., or many a... .
The direct object acquires some prominence when it is separated from the predicate by
some secondary part of the sentence — generally an adverbial modifier or a prepositional
indirect object. We may call this the back position of the object.

She produced from her pocket a most housewifely bunch of keys. (Ch.
Bronte)
I had at heart a strange and anxious thought. (Ch. Bronte)
Cowperwood smiled as he saw in the morning papers the announcement of
the passage of each ordinance granting him a franchise. (Dreiser)

As is seen from the above examples this occurs when the object has an attribute.
The front position of the indirect object in declarative sentences is rare. The prepositional
indirect object is more common in this position, especially in colloquial English.

Of his love he would tell her nothing. (Voynich)

To Martin the future did not seem so dim. Success trembled just before him.
(London)

Sometimes the front position of the prepositional indirect object causes inversion.

To this circumstance may be attributed the fact that none of the letters
reached my hand. (Dickens)

§ 6. Position of the attribute.

I. The usual place of the attribute expressed by an adjective, noun, pronoun, or participle is
before the word it modifies.

What extraordinary ideas you have about the way to behave to a woman!
(Wilde)

With most of such attributes the order in which they follow each other is generally free, i.
e. it can be easily changed.

Amelia Sedley had such a kindly, smiling, tender, generous heart of her own
as won the love of everybody who came near her. (Thackeray)

However, with some attributes the order in which they follow each other is more or less
fixed.
Attributes denoting age, colour, material, and nationality come next to the noun modified.

Rawdon preferred the quiet little Belgian city to either of the more noisy
capitals. (Thackeray).
Two years of married life had not lengthened her short dark chestnut hair.
 (Galsworthy)

When two or more attributes denoting age, colour, material, and nationality refer to the
same noun the order is as follows:

5 4 3 2 1
various age colour material nationality
red Turkish slippers
black lacy dress
old blue kimono
pleasant young man

E. g.

3231
She had brought her a bright yellow spotted silk blouse and a purple
Angora sweater. (M. Dickens)

It is interesting to note that the adjective little often corresponds to Russian diminutive
suffixes in such words as паренек, братишка, ручка, комнатка. In this case as well as when
little denotes age, it is placed immediately before the noun unless there are attributes denoting
colour or nationality.

He was naked and painted blue and yellow in stripes — a jolly little chap.
(Galsworthy)
He was a little like Jolly, but eager-looking and less formal... altogether a very interesting
little brother. (Galsworthy)

B u t: Mrs. Inchbare’s unloveable hair clung fast round her head in wiry little
yellow curls. (Collins)
A fortnight after it took place, he asked her where was her little French watch
and chain she used to wear. (Thackeray)

II. Post-position of the attribute.

There are some cases when the post-position of the attribute is its normal place, i. e. when
it is not emphatic.
1. Most adjectives in -able and -ible are generally placed after the noun, especially when
the noun is preceded by the adjective only or an adjective in the superlative degree: sufferings
unspeakable, the only person visible, with all the solemnity possible, the most interesting thing
imaginable.
However, a few adjectives with the same suffixes stand before the noun they modify.

He is the only reasonable man here.

She is a sensible little girl.

2. In some stock phrases the adjective is placed after the noun:

wealth untold — несметные богатства

from times immemorial — с незапамятных времен
a poet laureate — поэт-лауреат
generations unborn — грядущие поколения
court martial — военно-полевой суд
 sum total — общая сумма
four years running — четыре года подряд
the first person singular — первое лицо единственного числа
the second person plural — второе лицо множественного числа

3. The adjectives proper (собственно, как таковой) and present (присутствующий) are
placed after the noun.

We shan’t find anything about sculpture in this book, it deals with architecture
proper.
В этой книге мы не найдем ничего о скульптуре, она посвящена
архитектуре как таковой.
All the people present welcomed Paul Robeson enthusiastically.
Все присутствующие восторженно приветствовали Поля Робсона.

These meanings of proper and present are not to be confused with the meanings of proper
and present when used in pre-position, e. g.:

This is not a proper answer to a question of this kind.

Our present task is to preserve peace in the world.

4. Attributes expressed by cardinal numerals denoting the place of the object in a series
always follow the noun modified. No article is used in this case: page ten, tram number six,
room two.
5. Adjectives stand after indefinite and negative pronouns.

I’d like to read something very interesting.

There is nothing extraordinary in her dress.
I’d like to speak with somebody very clever on the subject.

6. Attributes expressed by prepositional phrases follow the noun modified.

As a gesture of proud defiance he had named his son Francis Nicholas.

(Cronin)

Besides the cases when the post-position of the attribute is its normal (unemphatic) place,
there are a few instances when the postposition of an attribute expressed by an adjective serves
the purpose of emphasis.

It was with a conscience uneasy that Edwin shut the front door one night a
month later. (Bennett)

In this example we can easily put the attribute before the word modified, but then it will not
be prominent.
Whereas the post-position of a single adjective is rather rare, two or more adjectives are
often placed after the word modified for the sake of emphasis: these adjectives may or may not
be joined by a conjunction.

He gave Annette a look furtive and searching. (Galsworthy)

(“He gave Annette a furtive and searching look” would sound less emphatic.)
 All sorts of fancies bright and dark tenanted my mind. (Ch. Bronte)

When two or more attributive adjectives are placed in postposition, their connection with
the noun they modify is often loose, i. e. they become detached and are consequently separated
by a comma.

When I looked up... there stood the widow, pale, grave, and amazed. (Ch.
Bronte)
The boy inherited his own eyes, large, brilliant and black. (E. Bronte)

When an attribute expressed by an adjective modifies a proper noun or a personal pronoun,

it mostly stands in loose connection to it whether it is placed in pre-position or in post-position.

Clare, restless, went out into the dusk. (Hardy)

Pale and constrained, he walked into the room and took his seat at the
window. (Cronin)

§ 7. Position of adverbial modifiers.

An adverbial modifier hardly ever separates the direct object from the predicate. It stands
either before the predicate or after the direct object.

Helen heard me patiently to the end. (Ch. Bronte)

We could also very well say: “Helen patiently heard me to the end,” but no other position
of the adverbial modifier is possible here, unless it is meant to be emphatic; in this case it is
placed at the beginning of the sentence.
However, an adverbial modifier separates the direct object from its verb when the object
has an attribute (see § 5).

He knew instinctively the principles of “pyramiding” and “kiting”. (Dreiser)

He could read English but he saw there an alien speech. (London)

1. An adverbial modifier of time is generally placed either at the beginning or at the end of
the sentence.

On Tuesday night the new laundrymen arrived, and the rest of the week was
spent breaking them into the routine. (London)
Probably we shall try tomorrow. (Heym)

Adverbial modifiers expressed by the adverbs now and then can be placed in nearly any
position.

Tess then remembered that there would have been time for this. (Hardy)
Indeed, anything untoward was now sedulously kept from James
(Galsworthy)
We now slowly ascended a drive and came upon the long front of a house.
(Ch. Bronte)

N o t e. — The hour is generally mentioned before a more general adverbial

modifier of time such as day, night, evening, morning.

At nine in the evening Badly White... opened the door to the room and poked
 his head in. (Maltг)

2. An adverbial modifier of place generally stands either at the beginning or at the end of
the sentence.

Down in the mill yard a Bessemer furnace was blowing flame into the sky.
(Maltz)
Geodin led the guests into the parlour. (O. Henry)
There it was all spiritual. Here it was all material and meanly material.
(London)
...a library was a most likely place for her, and he might see her there.
(London)

However, an adverbial modifier of place sometimes comes between the predicate and the
prepositional object.

He emerged from the theatre with the first of the crowd. (London)

Adverbial modifiers of place generally precede those of time and purpose:

I am going to the country to-morrow.

Well, they only kept up there about an hour but that was sure a long time.
(Maltz)
Sybil had gone to town to buy a new carpet for the first floor landing. (M.
Dickens)

3. The place of the adverbial modifier of frequency is more fixed than that of other
adverbial modifiers which enjoy a certain freedom of position. As a rule they precede the
predicate verb in a simple tense form but follow the verb to be and all the modal verbs. In a
compound tense form they follow the first auxiliary.

No one ever loved me. (London)

Lily would complain that she always told Jane everything she knew.
(Herbert)
She was always on the point of telling him the truth.

However, when they are emphasized they stand before the verb to be.

You were awfully good about being pushed up here, but then you always are
good about the things that happen to you. (M. Dickens)
As for Charlie, he needed frequently to have a confidant. (S. Lewis)
Don’t go worrying about what may never happen.
He can never leave out an irreligious finale. (Lindsay)
I’d just love to come, but Francis and I can’t ever be away together.
(Galsworthy)
Take your hands away, Huckleberry; what a mess you are always making.
(Twain)
She cared for Ailen more than she had ever cared for any of her children. (M.
Dickens)
“I never heard of such a thing!” she exclaimed.
It will never be Frank! It can’t be! (Dreiser)
 However, sometimes and generally may be placed either before or after the verb.

For he sometimes thought that, unless he proclaimed to the world what had
happened to him, he would never again feel quite in possession of his soul.
(Galsworthy)
And I got so lonely here sometimes. (Dreiser)

In interrogative sentences adverbial modifiers of frequency come immediately after the

subject.

Did you ever have shoes like that? (Abrahams)

Does he often come to see you?

Adverbial modifiers of frequency sometimes occupy the first place. This position generally
does not cause inversion.

Often he had asked her to come and pass judgement on his junk.
(Galsworthy)
Occasionally a small band of people followed the preachers to their mission.
(Dreiser)

4. The most frequent position of an adverbial modifier of manner is after the predicate if
the verb is intransitive, and after the direct object if the verb is transitive.

“You needn’t worry about me,” Louise said stoutly. (M. Dickens)
Cokane shakes hands effusively with Sartorius. (Shaw)

An adverbial modifier of manner generally stands between the predicate-verb and the
prepositional indirect object though it is also found after the object.

She leaned lightly against his shoulder. (London)

Gwendolen... though I asked most distinctly for bread and butter, you have
given me cake. (Wilde)

Very often, however, an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by an adverb stands

immediately before the predicate.

...Bessie was already gone, and had closed the nursery door upon me. I slowly
descended. (Ch. Bronte)
Then it occurred to him that with this letter she was entering that very state
which he himself so earnestly desired to quit. (Galsworthy)

In compound tense forms an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by an adverb

generally comes after the last auxiliary.

These ladies were deferentially received by Miss Temple. (Ch. Bronte)

Mr. Ernest has been suddenly called back to town. (Wilde)

5. Adverbial modifiers of degree always precede the predicate; if the verb is in a compound
tense-form they follow the first auxiliary.
 I entirely agree with you.
He has quite forgotten about the concert.

6. An adverbial modifier of degree expressed by the adverb enough generally follows the
adjective it modifies, but may follow or precede a noun.

He is clever enough but very lazy.

When enough modifies a noun it may either follow or precede it.

I have time enough to do it.

I have enough time to do it.

ADDITIONAL REMARKS

It should be borne in mind that whereas in Russian the word пожалуйста may occupy any
position, in English the word please can either begin the sentence or finish it.
Thus in Russian we can say:

Пожалуйста, принесите мне книгу.

Принесите, пожалуйста, мне книгу.
Принесите мне, пожалуйста, книгу.
Принесите мне книгу, пожалуйста.

In English we can only say:

Please, bring me the book.

Bring me the book, please.