1.

SOLUTION – REVISION NOTE (AJC)

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures containing two Types of Solute solvent Example
or more components. The components that is present solution
in large amount is called solvent. The component that Gaseous Gas gas Mixture of O2 and CO2, O2
solutions in nitrogen
is present in small amount is called solute
Liquid gas Chloroform in nitrogen
• Solutions containing only two components are called binary Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen
solutions. Liquid Gas liquid CO2 in water
Concentration of solutions solutions Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water
• Mass percentage (w/w) Solid Liquid Glucose in water
Solid Gas Solid H2 in Palladium
solutions Liquid Solid Mercury in sodium
Eg: 10% aqueous solution of glucose by mass means Solid solid Copper in gold
10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water so that the total mass of the solution is 100 g.
• Volume percentage (v/v)

Eg: 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL of ethanol is dissolved in 90 mL of water so that the total volume of the
solution is 100 mL
• Parts per million (ppm)

Eg: The concentration of pollutants in water or atmosphere is expressed in terms of ppm.

• Mole fraction (×): It is defined as the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number moles of
solution.

Eg: Mole fraction is useful in describing the calculations involving gas mixtures.
• Molarity (M) : it is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of the solution.

𝑛 𝑊2 𝑊2 𝑋 1000
𝑀= = =
𝑉(𝐿) 𝑀2 𝑋 𝑉(𝐿) 𝑀2 𝑋 𝑉(𝑀𝐿)

Eg: 0.25 M NaOH means that 0.25 moles of NaOH is present in 1 L of the solution.
• Molality (m) : It is defined as the number of moles of the solute present in 1 Kg of the solvent
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑛 𝑊 𝑋 1000
Molality = m = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑘𝑔) = 𝑊 = 𝑀 2𝑋 𝑊 (𝑔)
1(𝑘𝑔) 2 1
Eg: 1 molal solution of KCl means that 1 mole (78.5 g ) of KCl is dissolved in 1 Kg of water.
• Normaity (N) : It is defined as the number of gram equivalents of solute present per litre of the solution.

• molarity, normality and volume % are depend on temperature. This is because volume depends on temperature
SOLUBILITY - Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent. It
depends upon the nature of solute and solvent, temperature and pressure
Henry’s law - The law states that “at a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas.” OR “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas
(x) in the solution”
P = KH x ( KH → Henry’s law constant. The value of KH depends on the natureof the gas and
temperature. As the value of KH increases, the solubility of the gas in the liquid decreases.)
(slope of the graph gives the value of KH )
 1. SOLUTION – REVISION NOTE (AJC)
Applications of Henry’s aw
1. To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.
2. Scuba divers carry oxygen cylinders to breath under deep sea. At high pressure under water, the solubility of atmospheric
gases in blood increases. This blocks capillaries and creates a medical condition known as bends. To avoid bends the cylinders
used by scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium (helium 11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
3. At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. This leads to low concentrations of oxygen
in the blood Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly. This condition is known as anoxia.
• As the temperature increases solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases. It is due to this reason that aquatic species are more
comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm water.
RAOULT’S LAW- It states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component in the
solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
Then according to Raoults law, For component A, pA = pA0 xA for component B , PB = pB0 xB

pA0 and pB0 are the vapour pressures of the pure components A and B
respectively.
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total pressure (ptotal) will
be the sum of the partial pressures of the components in the solution. So,
ptotal = pA + pB
Ptotal =pA0 + (pB0-pA0) xB

Raoult’s Law as a special case of Henry’s Law

According to Raoults law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component in a solution is given by pi = xi pi0. According to Henry’s
aw solubility of a gas in a liquid is given by p=KH x. Raoults law becomes a special case of Henry’s law in which KH becomes
equal to pi0

IDEAL SOLUTIONS
These are solutions which obey Raoults law over the entire range of concentration.
For an ideal solution , pA=pA0 xA , pB=pB0 xB , ΔHmix = 0 , ΔVmix = 0 , A-A and B-B interactions are nearly equal to the A-B interaction
Eg: solutions of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane and chloroethane, benzene and touene
NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS
These are solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration.

1. positive deviation from Raoult’s law: The vapour pressure of such a solution is higher than that predicted by Raoult’s law. A-
B interactions are weaker than A-A and B-B interactions. ΔHmix = +ve, ΔVmix = +ve
Eg: solutions of ethanol and acetone, acetone and CS2, acetone and CCl4
2. negative deviation from Raoult’s law: The vapour pressure of such a solution is lower than that predicted by Raoult’s law.
the A-B interactions are stronger than A-A and B-B interactions. ΔHmix = -ve, ΔVmix = -ve
Eg: solution of phenol and aniline, chloroform and acetone
 1. SOLUTION – REVISION NOTE (AJC)
AZEOTROPES - They are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at a constant
temperature.
• it is not possible to separate the components by fractional distillation.

1. The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoults law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a particular
composition. Eg: 95% ethanol solution by volume.

2. The solutions which show a large negative deviation from Raoults law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a particular
composition.eg: a mixture of 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass form a maximum boiling azeotrope at 393.5 K.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES AND DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS
• The properties which depend only on the number of solute particles and not on their nature are called
colligative properties.
• Molecular mass is inversely proportional to colligative properties.
1. Relative lowering of Vapour Pressure - The difference between the vapour pressure of pure solvent
and that of the solution is called lowering of vapour pressure (ΔP).

Here w1 and w2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are the molar masses of the solvent and solute
respectively.
2. Elevation of Boiling Point - The difference between the boiling point of the solution (Tb) and that
of the pure solvent (Tb0) is called elevation of boiling point (ΔTb).

Kb is called Boiling Point Elevation Constant or MolalElevation Constant

(Ebullioscopic Constant).

3. Depression of Freezing point (∆Tf) - The difference between the freezing point (f.p) of pure solvent (Tf0) and
that of the solution (Tf) is called depression of freezing point (∆Tf).

Kf is known as Freezing Point Depression Constant or

Molal Depression Constant or Cryoscopic Constant. (For water, Kf = 1.86 K kg/mol.

4. Osmotic pressure - the excess pressure that must be applied on solution side to stop osmosis.
• For dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is proportional to the molarity (C) and temperature (T).
π = CRT
R is the universal gas constant. (R= 0.0821 Latm/K/mol or R = 0.083Lbar/K/mol

Advantages of osmotic pressure measurement over other colligative property measurement

1. Osmotic pressure measurement can be done at room temperature.
2. Here molarity of the solution is used instead of molality, which can be determined easily.
3. The magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilute solutions.
4. This method can be used for the determination of molar masses of Biomolecules (which are generally not
stable at higher temperatures) and for polymers (which have poor solubility)
 1. SOLUTION – REVISION NOTE (AJC)
OSMOSIS. Osmosis is the process of flow of solvent molecules from pure solvent to solution
through a semipermeable membrane. Or, it is the flow of solvent molecules from lower
concentration side to a higher concentration side through a semi-permeable membrane.
• A membrane that allows the passage of solvent molecules only is called a semi-
permeable membrane. E.g. egg membrane, all animal and plant membrane.
Cellulose acetate is an example for artificial SPM.
• Examples for osmosis:
a) Raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses water and shrink.
b) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water
c) Blood cells collapse when suspended in saline water.
d) The preservation of meat by salting and fruits by adding sugar protect against bacterial action. Through the
process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water, shrinks and dies.
Reverse osmosis and water purification: The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the osmotic
pressure is applied to the solution side. Now the pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi permeable
membrane. This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis and is used in desalination of sea water.
ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS: Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature
Eg: our blood cells are isotonic with 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, called normal saline solution. So it is
safe to inject intravenously
HYPOTONIC SOLUTIONS: The solution with lower concentration or lower osmotic pressure

Eg: If we place our blood cells in a solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, water
will flow out of the cells and they would shrink.

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION: The solution with higher concentration or higher osmotic pressure

Eg: placed in a solution containing less than 0.9% (mass/volume) NaCl, water will flow into the cells and they would swell.
ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS The molar mass obtained by colligative property measurement is incorrect, if there is association
or dissociation of particles. Such molar masses are called abnormal molar masses.
VAN’T HOFF FACTOR (i)
• In the case of association, the value of i < 1 and in dissociation
the value of i > 1.
• NaCl, i =2, K2SO4, i = 3, CaCl2, i = 3 , acetic acid in benzene, i = ½

• Degree of dissociation

• Degree of association
 1. SOLUTION – REVISION NOTE (AJC)
1. Define the following- a) Molality b) Abnormal molar mass c) Colligative properties d) Ideal solution e) Molarity
f) van’t Hoff factor g) Molal elevation constant h) Osmotic pressure i) Azeotrope j) Mole fraction k) Isotonic solutions

2. Identify which liquid will have a higher vapour pressure at 90°C if the boiling points of two liquids A and B are 140°C and
180°C, respectively
Ans) liquid with low boiling point will have high vapour pressure. so, A have high VP.

3. Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (Molar mass = 176 g mol–1 ) to be dissolved in 75 g of acetic acid, to lower its freezing point
by 1·5°C. (Kf = 3·9 K kg mol–1)
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1. SOLUTION – REVISION NOTE (AJC)