A

MICRO PROJECT REPORT

ON
“study of damage caused by various natural hazards ”
Submitted By
1) Mr. Samarth Suresh Dethe
2) Mr. Pratik Arjun Survase
3) Mr. Sushant Keraapa Yadav
4) Mr. Atul Santosh Birajdar
5) Mr.Abhishek Nagnath Yevale

In the partial fulfillment of the requirement of

Diploma in Civil Engineering
Approved By,
Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education, Mumbai

Under The Guidance Of

Mr.Bhosle.M.S

Department Of Civil Engineering

An Education Empowered by industry..

FABTECH TECHNICAL CAMPUS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH POLYTECHNIC

(SHIFT), SANGOLA
Year 2021-2022
 An Education Empowered by industry...
FABTECH TECHNICAL CAMPUS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH POLYTECHNIC
(SHIFT), SANGOLA
Certificate

This is to certify that

1) Mr. Pratik Arjun Survase
2) Mr. Samarth Suresh Dethe
3) Mr. Atul Santosh Birajdar
4) Mr. Abhishek Nagnath Yevale
5) Mr. Sushant Keraapa Yadav
Of TY [Civil Engineering] have satisfactorily and successfully completed their project entitled
as,
“study of damage caused by various natural hazards”
And have submitted this micro project report in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Subject / Course of
the MSBTE during academic year 2021-22.

Date:

Project Guide H.O.D Principal

(Mr.Bhosle.M.S) (Mr.Mule.V.V) (Mr.Pawar S.L)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my project guide Mr.Mule.V.V Head of
the Department Mr.Bhosle.M.S as well as our principal Mr.PawarS.L. who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic “study of damage caused by various natural
hazards” which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to know about so many

new things
I am really thankful to them. Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.
 INDEX

SR.NO CONTENT PAGE

1 Rationale 4

2 Course Outcomes Addressed 4

3 Literature Review 5-6

4 Actual methodology 6

5 Actual Resources Used 6

6 Outputs of the Micro-Project 7

7 Applications of this Micro-Project 10

8 Skill Developed 20

9 Application of Micro-Project 20
 Annexure – II

Micro-Project Report
“study of damage caused by various natural hazards”
1.0 Rational
Buildings in any geographic location are subject to a wide variety of natural phenomena such
as windstorms, floods, earthquakes, and other hazards. While the occurrence of these incidents
cannot be precisely predicted, their impacts are well understood and can be managed effectively
through a comprehensive program of hazard mitigation planning.
Ongoing changes in climate patterns around the world may alter the behaviour of
hydrometeorological phenomena within our lifetimes. The frequency and severity of floods, storms,
droughts, and other weather-related disasters is expected to increase, as is the risk from associated
changes in the manifestation of other hazards such as wildland fires.
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the
surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the
Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Seismic waves are produced when some
form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when masses of rock
straining against one another suddenly fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most often
along geologic faults, narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one another.
Earthquakes are one of the most destructive natural hazards that cause huge amount of
loss of life and property. Nearly 10,000 people were killed every year because of these
hazards.

The primary effects of earthquakes are ground shaking, ground rupture,

landslides, tsunamis, and liquefaction. Fires are probably the single most important
secondary effect of earthquakes.

2.0Aim of the Micro-Project

i. To find and study the damages due to earthquake.
ii. To give comments on remedies of damages.

3.0 Course Outcomes Achieved

a) Select the relevant method of maintaining different building structure.

b) Apply the relevant methods of repair for the masonry structure.
d) Restore the damage of building structural elements using suitable method of repair.
4.0Literature Review

2005 Kashmir earthquake

The Kashmir earthquake (Mw7.6) occurred on October 8, 2005 at western Himalaya. The
epicenter of the earthquake was located about 90 km north-northeast of Islamabad. This
earthquake was widely felt in major cities, including Islamabad, Lahore, Srinagar, and New
Delhi. The focal mechanism solution indicated a NE dipping fault with primarily thrust motion.
Few accelerograms were recorded at three stations namely, Abbottabad, Murree and Nilore,
as the ground motion network was unavailable within the vicinity of epicenter of the
earthquake (Raghukanth, 2008)

1991 Uttarkashi earthquake

The Uttarkashi earthquake of October 19, 1991 occurred in the great Himalayan region, north
of main central thrust (MCT) at an estimated depth of 12 km. The fault plane solution
indicated a low angle thrust mechanism (Zeng et al., 1994a). The earthquake was recorded on
13 accelerographs at distances ranging from 25-150 km. The epicenter, focal mechanism of
the earthquake and location of near fault accelerographs are shown in figure 1.5. The
accelerograph at Bhatwari station, located close to the fault recorded 0.248 g as peak ground
acceleration (PGA). Similarly, the Uttarkashi station, located 25 km from epicenter
recorded 0.237 g.

Article: Long-Term Monitoring of the Impacts of Disaster on Human Activity

Using DMSP/OLS Nighttime Light Data: A Case Study of the 2008 Wenchuan,
China Earthquake

A catastrophic earthquake measuring Mw 7.9 struck Sichuan Province in Southwestern China

on 12 May 2008, representing one of the country’s worst natural disasters. Approximately
87,150 people were killed or missing and another 374,643 were injured. The Wenchuan
Earthquake severely struck 237 counties and cities, seriously damaging over 100,000 square
kilometers of area, with the direct economic loss reaching 845.2 billion RMB. The seismic
intensity at the epicenter was XI degree; more than half of China was affected, and many other
Asian countries, such as Thailand, Vietnam, and Pakistan, felt the earthquake’s subsequent
shock.

2011 Sikkim earthquake

The state of Sikkim was struck by an earthquake of magnitude M6.9 on September 18, 2011.
 The epicenter was located near the India-Nepal border, about 68 km NW of Gangtok at a focal
depth of 19.7 km (USGS, dated on 10 May 2014). The earthquake was felt strongly in the
northern part of Bangladesh and also felt in Nepal, Bhutan and China. Tremors were felt in
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, parts of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,

Chandigarh and Delhi in India. The focal mechanism solution by USGS indicated that the
earthquake was strike-slip movement, whereas, India Meteorological Department (IMD)
suggested a reverse faulting thrust mechanism (Durgesh et al., 2012). This event has been
recorded at 14 near-field stations by the Department of Earthquake Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Roorkee, Uttarakhand (Joshi et al., 2012). The PGAs 0.15 g and 0.20 g
were recorded at Gangtok and Siliguri stations respectively (PESMOS).

2013 Iran-Pakistan earthquake

The earthquake (M7.7) occurred in south central Pakistan on September 24, 2013. The
epicenter of the earthquake was located about 63 km towards north of Awaran, Pakistan at a
shallow focal depth of 15 km. This event occurred between northward subduction of the
Arabian plate beneath the Eurasian plate and northward collision of the Indian plate with the
Eurasian plate. Although it is seismically active, this portion of the Eurasian plate boundary
has not experienced large earthquakes in the recent years. In 1990, one significant earthquake
(M6.1) occurred within 200 km of September 2013 earthquake. In 1505, a segment of the
Chaman fault near Kabul was ruptured, causing more destruction.

5.0 Actually Methodology Followed

1. We discussed with our project group as well as teacher and we selected a topic name as “Study
of damage caused by various natural hazards.”
2. Analyzation of collected information.
3. Preparation of broad report on it.

6.0 Actually, Resources Required (major resources like raw material, tools, software etc.)

Sr. No Name of Specification Qty. Remark

resources /
material
 1 Internet http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/cammon/ - -
HTML/Cla
sses/IntroQuakes/Notes/earthquake_effe
cts.html

2 Book Building repair and maintenance 1 -

management
- By Gahlot, P.S; Sharma, Sanjay.

7.0 Outputs of Micro-Project:

 Introduction
What Are Earthquake Hazards?
Earthquakes really pose little direct danger to a person. People can't be shaken to
death by an earthquake. Some movies show scenes with the ground suddenly opening up
and people falling into fiery pits, but this just doesn't happen in real life.
An earthquake is an abrupt movement or tremor of the earth’s crust that is initiated
below or at the surface. The earth’s surface is moving continuously in a slow motion, due to
which the plates at the surface also move along the globe. With the movement of the plates,
they rub against each other or spread apart, and at a certain point the strain developed
exceeds the capability of the plates to withstand more forces and they break, causing an
earthquake.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonic deals with movement and strain of earth crust. According to the state of the
art of Plate tectonic, the earthquake occurs in some parts of the plate and these parts act
relative to each other. Pressure shift arose from these action and cooling stages in mantle
causes stresses in the earth crust. When the increased stresses reached to bearing capacity
of the crust on faults, this event causes sliding (breakthrough). Sliding movement spreads
outward starting from hypocenter. Strain energy, which cumulated for a long time,
discharges with sliding and causes earthquake shaking. Propagation of wave from
hypocenter that results surface sliding is perceived as earthquake [3]. 1 and 2 show the
tectonic plates and worldwide earthquake distribution, respectively.
 Figure 1.

Tectonic plates.
Figure 2.
Geographical distribution of the 1700 earthquakes on the
worldwide.

Seismic waves
 Body wave
Seismic activity that results in earthquake generates two types of seismic waves: body
and surface. Body waves move through the interior layers of earths. Body waves
include primary waves (known as P-waves) and secondary waves (also called as S-
waves). P-waves generate sequential push (or compression) and pull (or tension) in
soil as shown in below Figure 3a. P waves have relatively little damage potential. On
the contrary, S-wave propagates horizontal and vertical motion. S-waves produce

shear stresses in the soil along their paths [6] as shown

in Figure 3b.
Figure 3.
(a) Primary (P) wave and
(b) Secondary (S) wave.
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 Surface waves

Surface waves include Love (L) and Rayleigh (R) waves that propagate through the
outer layers of the crust. These waves are generated by body waves move through
parallel to the ground surface and various underpass the layer boundaries. These
waves cause large displacements. These types of waves take various forms at a further
distance away from the earthquake source. Surface waves are occurred during shallow
earthquakes; on the other hand, body waves take place at all depths. Surface waves
cause serious damage to structures due to their long duration. Figure 4a and b shows
these types of waves.

Figure 4.

6.1 Effects of earthquake

Primary effects of an earthquake can include the ground shaking, buildings collapsing,
and the ground splitting. Secondary effects may include subsidence, tsunamis, and
fires, contamination of water supplies, gas leaks, and power outages.

 Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures

Soft and weak storey mechanism

In some R/C buildings, especially at the ground floor, walls may not be continuous along to height of
building for architectural, functional, and commercial reasons. While ground floor generally encloses
with glass window instead of brick infill walls, partition walls are constructed above from this storey
for separating rooms for the residential usage. This situation causes brittle failures at the end of the
columns. In mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings, the most common failure mode is soft-storey
mechanism, particularly at the first storey. Failures can be concentrated at any story called as weak
storey in which the lateral strength changes suddenly between adjacent stories due to lack of or
removing of partition walls or decreasing of cross section of columns. Thus, during an earthquake,
partial and total collapses occur in these storeys.

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Inadequate transverse reinforcement in columns and beams
Shear forces increase during an earthquake especially at columns and beam–column joints.
Consequently, special attention should be paid to construction and design of beam–column joints and
columns. Seismic design requires increasing of ductility of structures for performance-based design
approach. In particular, columns of buildings can be having insufficient transverse reinforcement in
the plastic hinge region. Therefore, structural elements which have such details show low
performance against to dynamic loads and lost their shear and axial load carrying
capacity. Figure 12 shows this failure below.

Weak storey mechanism during the Bingöl earthquake.

Damaged structure due to inadequate spacing between shear reinforcements during (a) Van
earthquake and (b) Bingö l earthquake.

Short column
This type of mechanism can be developed due to structural adjustments and/or to continuous
openings at the top of infill walls between columns. Lateral forces that occurred by an earthquake are
carried by columns and shear walls. Length of column is an important factor for dissipation of these
loads. When the length of column decreases, the column becomes stiffer and brittle than the other

3
columns and this column attracts more shear forces. Thus, shear failure which is a critical type of
concrete column damage occurs at these columns.

Short column damages during the 2003 Bingöl earthquake.

Inadequate gaps between adjacent buildings

Buildings are sometimes constructed adjacent because of the lack of building lots. In this layout plan,
one or two faces of two buildings are in contact to each other. Consequently, the buildings that have
not adequate gaps pound to each other during the earthquake. If the floors of the buildings are not at
the same level, pounding effect of the buildings becomes more dangerous. Figure 14 shows this type
of damage during the 2003 Bingö l earthquakes.

Collapse of adjacent buildings during the Bingöl earthquake.

Strong beam–weak column

Deep and rigid beams are used with flexible columns in type of buildings. Therefore, these beams
resist more moments, occurred by dynamic loads, than weak columns. In such a design during an
earthquake while deep and rigid beams show elastic behaviour, shear failure or compression crushing
causes plastic hinges at flexible columns. Failure mechanism of strong beam–weak column can be
seen in Figure 15.

4
Failure of a building due to strong beam–weak column effect during the Van earthquake.

Failures of gable walls

The most common failure mode at gable walls is out-of-plane collapse in the earthquakes. Although
failures of gable walls are not structural damages, these damages may be cause loss of lives and
properties. Stability problems and large unsupported wall lengths cause damages at these walls.
Failure of gabble wall is presented in Figure 16.

Failure of gabble walls on top of the building during the Van earthquake.

Poor concrete quality and corrosion

The other main reasons of damages are low concrete strength and workmanship. Concrete quality is
an important factor for building performance against to earthquakes. Handmade concrete is used to
without using vibrator in construction of old buildings. Thus, homogeny mixing was not obtained and
expected compressive strength was not provided in these buildings. In addition to this, using of
aggregates which have improper granulometry, corrosion which decreases reinforcement bar area,
and using of smooth steel reinforcement effected strength of concrete.

5
Failure of column due to poor concrete quality during; (a) Van earthquake and (b) Bingö l earthquake.

In-plane/out-of-plane effect
One of the most important reasons of life and economic loss during the earthquake is combined effect
of in-plane and out-of-plane movement of the wall. In-plane and out-of-plane interaction is very
complicated and should be analysed well for this phenomena. For low-rise and mid-rise unreinforced
masonry (URM) infilled R/C frames, ground story infill walls are expected to be damaged firstly,
because they are subjected to the highest in-plane demands. However, under the effect of bidirectional
loading, where the two components of a ground motion are equally significant, infill walls of the upper
stories may fail under the combination of in-plane and out-of-plane effects. The in-plane demand
reduces at the upper stories, while that of out-of-plane forces increases due to the increase of
accelerations [40]. To prevent this problem, in-plane carrying capacity of the wall should increase and
out-of-plane ductility should increase with possible and applicable developments like bed-joint
reinforcements and wire mesh. These listed applications will prevent detachment of infill wall from
reinforced concrete elements and will increase the stiffness of the total structural
system. Figure 18 shows out-of-plane and in-plane damages.

(a) Detachment of infill wall during the Bingö l earthquake and (b) In-plane damage of during the Van
earthquake.

Primary effects of earthquake

Ground Shaking
The first main earthquake hazard (danger) is the effect of ground shaking.
Buildings can be damaged by the shaking itself or by the ground beneath them settling
to a different level than it was before the earthquake (subsidence).
The magnitude of ground shaking at a particular location will determine the
earthquake damage. The extent of ground shaking will depend upon the scale of an

6
earthquake, distance from the epicenter, and nature of the material. When the
earthquakes are great, the amplitude is large, duration is more, and the area is vast.
The amplitude of ground shaking at a site depends upon its distance from the
epicenter of the earthquake, and it decreases with the increase in distance. Similarly,
motions are of low frequency when these are located at greater distances. The ground
motion frequency is a significant feature that determines the extent of damage to the
structures, and the nature of construction that can be affected.
Particular location will determine the earthquake damage. The extent of
ground shaking will depend upon the scale of an earthquake, distance from the
epicenter, and nature of the material. When the earthquakes are great, the amplitude is
large, duration is more, and the area is vast. The amplitude of ground shaking at a site
depends upon its distance from the epicenter of the earthquake, and it decreases with
the increase in distance. Similarly, motions are of low frequency when these are
located at greater distances. The ground motion frequency is a significant feature that
determines the extent of damage to the structures, and the nature of construction that
can be affected.

 liquefaction

7
 Buildings can even sink into the ground if soil liquefaction occurs. Liquefaction is the mixing
of sand or soil and groundwater (water underground) during the shaking of a moderate or strong
earthquake. When the water and soil are mixed, the ground becomes very soft and acts similar to
quicksand. If liquefaction occurs under a building, it may start to lean, tip over, or sink several feet.
The ground firms up again after the earthquake has past and the water has settled back down to
its usual place deeper in the ground. Liquefaction is a hazard in areas that have groundwater near
the surface and sandy soil.

Buildings can also be damaged by strong surface waves making the ground heave and lurch.
Any buildings in the path of these surface waves can lean or tip over from all the
movement. The ground shaking may also cause landslides, mudslides, and avalanches
on steeper hills or mountains, all of which can damage buildings and hurt people.
Liquefaction starts with the forceful shaking of the soft wet soils, and rear
arrangement of its grains, due to which the soils start functioning as liquids. The load
of structures is transmitted to the wet soils that may be changed into quicksand. The
material that has been liquefied, may lose its bearing strength due to the excessive
weight of the structures above it, and produce landslides. Consequently, the fluid
pressure of the liquefied region may cause tilting or breaking of walls, failure of
basement floors, and if the foundations are weak severe damage to the structures may
occur. Any items or materials above the liquefied soil may be submerged into the soft
soil. The liquefied region may itself also go downwards into the earth, and in the
process bury anything on it.

8
1964 Niigata Earthquake

Titled Apartment Complex in Kawagishi-cho (Berkeley Seismo Blog, 2008)

The infamous Niigata earthquake occurred on June 16, 1964. It had a magnitude of 7.5 and caused 36
deaths and 385 injuries. Although this earthquake affected a large portion of Japan, the Niigata
Prefecture had the largest infrastructure damage. Thus, this paper will focus on this particular
prefecture. One very characteristic thing about Niigata was that this was the first time that an
earthquake titled or overturned many buildings. What was even more unique was that many of the
affected buildings had no damage to their superstructure!

Ground Displacement
Main earthquake hazard is ground displacement (ground movement) along a
fault. If a structure (a building, road, etc.) is built across a fault, the ground
displacement during an earthquake could seriously damage or rip apart that structure.
Ground displacement is how far the surface moves during the earthquake. It can
cause the ground to change position in both horizontal and vertical directions and
move relative to objects or other areas of land nearby.
Ground velocity is a measure of how quickly the ground was displaced – the
speed and direction that the ground moved to get from its original location to its new
location. Ground that moves with a higher velocity is also displaced more quickly.
Ground acceleration is a measure of how quickly the ground changes velocity during
the earthquake. Ground acceleration is responsible for the classic earthquake shaking
effect where the ground

rapidly changes direction in a violent back and forward and up and down motion.
Displacement, velocity and acceleration are also responsible for several
secondary effects on the ground, including liquefaction, settlement and lateral
movement, which can compromise the soil’s ability to support objects on the surface.

9
Structural Hazards
Earthquakes are a severe structural hazard that causes vibrations in the structures due
to the ground shaking. If the structures are weak, or extremely rigid to withstand
severe vibrations, then these may collapse. The tall buildings may experience extreme
vibrations due to their height, and may fall down or into each other. Other destructive
effects on structures due to an earthquake are sliding away from their foundations,
and their horizontal or vertical movements that may make the structures unsafe.

Secondary effects of earthquake

Flooding
An earthquake can rupture (break) dams or levees along a river. The water from the
river or the reservoir would then flood the area, damaging buildings and maybe
sweeping away or drowning people.
Tsunamis and seiches can also cause a great deal of damage. A tsunami is what most
people call a tidal wave, but it has nothing to do with the tides on the ocean. It is a huge
wave caused by an earthquake under the ocean. Tsunamis can be tens of feet high
when they hit the shore and can-do enormous damage to the coastline. Seiches are like
small tsunamis. They occur on lakes that are shaken by the earthquake and are usually
only a few feet high, but they can still flood or knock down houses, and tip over trees.
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Flood-Damaged Buildings

Inspectors should be prepared to protect themselves and their clients from the unique challenges
posed by flood-damaged buildings. 

Hazards in and around flood-damaged buildings include

the risks of:

 growth of large mold colonies;

 septic system collapse;
 trip-and-fall injuries;
 structural collapse; 
 fire and explosions; 
 toxic sludge and materials containing waterborne
bacteria; and 
 electrical shock hazards.

 Tsunami
Inland earthquakes, such as the 2001 Nisqually earthquake, will not result in tsunamis
because they do not uplift the seafloor. However, an offshore subduction zone
earthquake or an earthquake generated somewhere else around the Pacific Ocean will
generate a tsunami, which is actually a series of waves. In some cases, waves may be
up to 33 feet (10 meters) high, flooding everything in their path. Tsunamis can injure
or kill many people and cause significant damage to buildings and other structures.
People can escape tsunamis by moving to higher ground or far inland after ground
shaking stops.
A tsunami earthquake triggers a tsunami of a magnitude that is very much larger than
the magnitude of the earthquake as measured by shorter-period seismic waves. The
term was introduced by Hiroo Kanamori in 1972. Such events are a result of relatively
slow rupture velocities. They are particularly dangerous as a large tsunami may arrive
at a coastline with little or no warning. A tsunami is a sea wave of local or distant
origin that results from large-scale seafloor displacements associated with large
11
 earthquakes, major submarine slides, or exploding volcanic islands.

 Other Hazards (fire, contamination of water, gas leakage etc.)

Other hazards that may cause earthquake damage include fire that can be started on
the rupturing of power or gas lines, and severe losses may occur. In addition, bricks,
rocks, trees may fall, sewage may enter water supplies and drinking of such water.
 Tertiary effects of earthquake
It causes serious diseases, and failure of transportation and means of communication
may hinder rescue efforts. Furthermore, valuable records held by business concerns
and governmental offices may be lost creating serious difficulties

 Preventive Measures
Preventive measures may reduce the destructive effects due to earthquakes, but
may not completely eliminate the risk of damages. If a building is not properly
designed to withstand earthquakes, it will be exposed to greater risks of structural
damage. Suitable fixing of the structure with the foundation, and among the different
constituents of the structure, is important for earthquake resistance. Structures that
are not properly connected with the foundations may be shifted during an earthquake.
Here are some easy steps to help prevent earthquake
damage.

Step 1
Secure your belongings. The largest financial loss you can incur during an earthquake
will be from falling objects and overturned furniture. Fasten objects that are fragile,
costly or heavy to fixed furnishings. Anchor your heavy and tall furniture to the wall or
floor to prevent them from turning over.

Step 2
Put latches on cabinet doors and file cabinets. During an earthquake doors and
drawers can come open. Place strong latches on your cabinet's door and file cabinets
12
 to keep them from opening and spilling their contents on the floor causing damage.

Step 3
Fasten your water heater and other appliances. Secure your water heater to wall studs.
Anchor your appliances to the wall or floor to prevent them from sliding or falling
over. Make sure that any appliance connected to a gas pipe has pliable tubing.
Step 4
Store hazardous materials in a sturdy place. Mixing or spilling chemicals can be
dangerous. Make sure that any hazardous products are in their proper containers and
stored in a cabinet secured to a wall with a strong latch.

Step 5
Keep fire extinguishers. Place them throughout your home in the event you need them.
If a fire starts during an earthquake having a fire extinguisher nearby will help
minimize the damage.

8.0 Skill Developed/ learning out of this Micro-Project

1. Presentation skill
2. Management skill
3. Group working

9.0 Applications of this Micro-Project

9.1.1 It is applicable to study the damages due to earthquake.

9.1.2 To study the preventive measures on affected structure.

10.0 Area of Future Improvement

10.1.1 To safer construction of structure.

10.1.2 To prevent structural as well as other damages.

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