Unit 1:

General Concepts and

STS Historical Development

Introduction

Human creativity is beyond limit that even our ancestors might not have
imagined that our status of science and technology would be as robust as
today. Our current understanding about the nature and the world is a result of
constant over throwing of paradigm wherein an old paradigm like Geocentric
Model is replaced by a paradigm that has a higher content and explanatory
power like the Heliocentric Model. Such is termed scientific revolution.
This is just one of the many theories that were challenged in the history of
Science and have helped shaped our society.

Development of Science and Technology does not only leave indelible impact
in the history but its trail can be traced by its influence in our society and
country as a whole. In this unit, you will learn how science and technology
has greatly influenced the development of the Philippine society. You will
evaluate different government policies and programs to see how they have
shaped the nation. You will also learn significant inventions and projects
accomplished by Filipinos that greatly develop the countries’ science and
technology, and have been a major contributor to the Philippine nation-
building.

This unit will allow you to time travel through the antecedents of science and
technology; lets you investigate how the present status of science and
technology came into being, and explore the major turns in the course of
global and national history that led it to its exhilarating and captivating
development.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, students will be able to:

 Discuss the interactions between S&T and society throughout history;

 Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect
societyand the environment;

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  Discuss the paradigm shifts through history;
 Explain how intellectual revolution change the way how humans
see the world;
 Describe the technological advancements that happened in
the information age;
 Explain the role of Science and Technology in Philippine
nation building;
 Evaluate government policies pertaining to science and
technology in terms of their contributions to nation building;
and
 Identify actual science and technology policies of the
government and appraise their impact on the development of
the Filipino nation.

Topic 1: Historical Antecedents in the Course of Science

and Technology

Learning Objectives

At the end of this topic, students will be able to:

 Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society;

and
 Explain the impact of the development of science and technology
to the environment

Presentation of Contents
Science and Technology in Ancient Times

In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and

navigation, communication and record keeping, mass production, security and
protection, as well as health, aesthetics and architecture. Science and
Technology keeps on advancing in order to meet the growing needs of people
along these areas. Due to the constant innovation introduced by Science and

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Technology, which has the end goal of improving lives and making the work
easier, faster and efficient, our society respond by changing as well. These
changes are evident as each ancient civilization keep on creating technology
that has been modified and that is being used today.

To name a few, Sumerian are known for their contribution with the first
writing system called as cuneiform. Challenge to mass produce food, they
invented plowing, irrigation and dikes and wheel for farming. Throughout the
existence of this civilization, their main mode of transportation was through
waterways such as rivers and seas. They are also known to develop the first
road.

Figure 1.1 Sumerian Cuneiform ("Redirect Notice", 2019)

On the other hand, Babylonian civilization, which emerged near Tigris and
Euphrates River were famous for being great builders, engineers and
architects. One of major contributions is the hanging garden of Babylon
which one of the seven wonders of the world.

Figure 1.2 Hanging Garden of Babylon ("Image: Hanging

Gardens of Babylon - Wikipedia", 2019)

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 Another civilization that is known for its renowned archeological artifact like
the death mask of Tutankhamen and Pyramid of Giza is the Egyptian
Civilization. Also, ancient Egyptians are known for their earlier contributions
like water clock or clypsedra, paper or papyrus, ink and a system of writing
known as hieroglyphics. They have also invented cosmetics for aesthetic
reason. Meanwhile, during this time, wigs were worn by wealthy Egyptians to
protect the shave of the heads from the harmful rays of the sun.

Figure 1.3 Death Mask ("Google Figure 1.4 Pyramid of Giza ("Google Image
Image Result for Result for
https://www.timetrips.co.uk/ep- https://cdn.images.express.co.uk/img/dynami
tutmask1.jpg", 2019) c/25/590x/Can-you-see-the-flaw-682241.jpg",
2019)

Figure 1.5 Papyrus ("Image:

Papyrus in Ancient Egypt | Essay Figure 1.6 Hieroglyphics ("Image:
| Heilbrunn Timeline of Art ...", Hieroglyph | writing character |
2019) Britannica.com", 2019)

Apart from being the birthplace of western philosophy, some of the major
achievements of Greeks include in-depth works on Philosophy and
Mathematics. They are also celebrated for their contribution to the world like
coliseum, Olympics, alarm clock and water mill.

4
 Figure 1.7 Olympics ("Image: Figure 1.6 Greek Coliseum ("Image: the coliseum (gre
The Olympic Games
[ushistory.org]", 2019)

Perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the west, Roman
Empire was considered to be the cradle of politics and governance. Other
civilizations looked up to it as a model in terms of codified laws and
legislation. They are also celebrated for the invention of newspaper, bound
books or codex. In terms of architecture and engineering, Romans are known
for building elaborate churches, basilicas, aqueducts, coliseums,
amphitheaters and residential houses. They have also devised their own
number system which is the Roman Numeral System.

Figure 1.8 Roman numeral system ("Google Image

FigureResult for user_upload/roman-numerals.jpg",
1. Roman aqueduct 2019
("Image: Roman Aqueducts—
Ancient Engineering Marvels",
2019)

Considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia, China is known for the silk
trade, tea production, gun powder and the living legend great wall of China.

5
 Figure 1.10 Silk Road ("Image: Silk Figure 1.11 The Great Wall of
Road - HISTORY", 2019) China ("Image: Great Wall -", 2019)

Science and Technology in Middle Ages

The start of the middle ages was marred by massive invasions and migrations.
Wars are prevalent during this time. As such, great technology was needed in
the fields of weaponry, navigation, food and farm production and health. The
wars have resulted to population decline. However, in the later part of this
period, there was significant increase in population. Trade and commerce
among nations increased, which resulted in greater demands for
transportation technology. Some of the most innovative minds came from this
period.

To facilitate record keeping, woodlock printing developed by Chinese was

improved by the time of Johann Gutenberg with a cast type printing press.
This general invention soon evolved to be the mechanical printing press
which was eventually used all over the world. The printing press was invented
to address the need for publishing books that would spread information to
many people at a faster rate. This invention also made works accessible to
individuals who could not even write (Streissguth, 1997).

Figure 1.12 Johann Gutenberg Printing Press ("Image: Johannes

Gutenberg Printing Press Stock Photos & Johannes ...", 2019)

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Another invention in the Middle Age is the microscope. Growing populations
caused massive migration and urbanization during the period. More and more
people transferred to polluted and populated urban areas which resulted in
more people getting sick. With this, experts needed to a device to study
microorganisms in order to develop proper medicines for illnesses. Guided by
the principles used for the invention of eyeglasses in earlier years, Zacharias
Janssen was able to develop the first compound microscope (Davidson, 2015).

Since the Middle

Figure Age was also
1.13 Zacharias known
Janssen’s as the Age
Microscope of Exploration,
("Image: Molecular the need for
nautical
Expressions Microscopy Primer: Museum of Microscopy ...",an optical
inventions was high. The invention of the telescope,
instrument
2019)that helps in the observation of remote objects, was a great help for
navigators during this time.

Great development in the weaponry technology also occurred in this era. This
include cross bows and long bows. Additionally, in close range hand-to-hand
combat, soldiers should wear something to protect themselves, a need
addressed by the creation of iron body armors. However, body armors were
heavy and limited the movements of the soldiers, chainmail was invented to
solve the problem.

Science and Technology in Modern Times

The booming world population during the nineteenth century onwards

demanded that more goods be produced at faster rate. People needed efficient
means of transportation to trade more goods and cover a larger distance.
Machines that required animals to operate must thus be upgraded. Faster
and easier means to communicate and compute should be developed to
establish connections between and among nations. All these needs resulted
in the development of industries. However, due to massive industrialization,
the modern times again faced more complicated problems. Food processing
and medicine posed some of the bigger challenges since health was of great
concern.

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As people were able to develop better means of production to meet the needs
of the population, food preservation and food safety became an issue. Louis
Pasteur, a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist found a way to solve
the problem. He invented pasteurization, the process of heating dairy products
to kill the harmful bacteria that allow them to spoil faster. Through this
process, milk could be stored and consumed for a longer period. It also
prevented illnesses caused by harmful bacteria (Macalester College, 2010).
Other contributions of Pasteur to Science and Technology and Medicine
included his works on molecular asymmetry, fermentation and vaccination.

The modern times demanded better means of powering homes and

transportation. This led to the development of kerosene and the petroleum
refinery industry (Skrabec, 2010). At present, petroleum is widely used in
powering automobiles, factories and power plants, among others.

The more people got connected by trade and exploration, the more they
needed a way to easily maintain these connections and communicate with
each other in real time. Governments likewise needed some kind of
communication system which would allow them to administer their states
well. Important day- to-day decisions must be discussed and addressed at the
fastest time possible. Thus, the invention of telephone by Alexander Graham
Bell was one of the most important inventions at that time.

Figure 1.15 Alexander Graham Bell’s Telephone ("Image: Inventor of the

Telephone: Alexander Graham Bell - Learning History", 2019)

Although an earlier version of the calculator had already been developed,

circumstances in the modern times required a faster way to compute more
complicated equations. Computing devices must also be easy to carry since
they would be utilized on a day-to-day basis. The creation of modern
calculators did not only pave the way for easier arithmetic calculations, but
also resulted in the development of more complex processing machines like
computer.

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Topic 2: Intellectual Revolution
Learning Objectives

At the end of this topic, students will be able to:

 Discuss paradigm shifts through history;

 Explain how intellectual revolution changed how humans see the world;
and
 Select a revolutionary scientist and present a persuasive
speech representing his/her theory

Activating Prior Learning

You may have read about different theories that worked and were believed to
be true during ancient times. In Astronomy, for example, you have learned
that Sun is the Center of the Solar System and that the planets, including
Earth, are revolving around it in an elliptical orbit. However, people in
ancient times believed that the earth was the center of the universe. Early
beliefs also claimed that human beings were created through “Divine
Creation” but this was replaced by Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection. These are just some of the examples of early theories that were
challenged in the history of Science.

What were the great Intellectual Revolutions that significantly shaped our
Society? What made these new theories controversial? Who were these people
or groups of people behind these upheavals that permanently changed the
course of history of Science? What were their needs, and what were their
struggles that motivated them to engage in such scholarly contribution?

This topic will lead you to some of the answers of these aforementioned
questions. Moreover, this topic describes how science and technology theories
paved the way for the Enlightenment and our current understanding of some
of the fundamental concepts of Science and of the world.

Presentation of Contents
The Man who moved the Sun

The way people think about Solar System has changed many times throughout
history. Before the development of telescope astronomy beliefs were based on
what can be seen by the naked eye. One of the earliest ideas on how Solar
System was structured was introduced by Claudius Ptolemy. He posited that
planets as well as the sun and the moon, moved in a circular motion around
the Earth, a concept which is known as geo-centrism. This geocentric model,
considered to be one of the greatest discoveries of all time, was widely
accepted by the people and became the astronomical dogma in Western
civilization for 1,400 years.

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In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the geocentric model by
putting sun at the center of the solar system and known as the concept of
heliocentrism. This idea was rejected at first by the public. It appalled many
since their religious belief had taught them that the Earth was created first
before all other things. Copernicus was even persecuted as a heretic.

Figure 2.1 Bold Man who challenged the Theory of

Divine Creation ("Image: Occult Science 4.0 -
Heliocentric vs.
Geocentric Astrology - YouTube", 2019)

Charles Darwin was an English naturalist who studied variation in plants,

animals and fossils during a five-year voyage around the world in the 19th
century. Darwin's theory of evolution challenged the idea that God made all
the animals and plants that live on Earth in a single day, which contradicted
the commonly held Christian views of his era. He did not publish his
scientific work and ideas until 28 years after his voyage.

Finally, as a result of Darwin's world expedition and observations, which were

enhanced by many years of experimentation, his discussions with like-minded

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scientists and his developing knowledge of geology and fossils, he proposed
the theory of evolution by natural selection. Darwin proposed that: individual
organisms within a particular species show a wide range of variation for a
characteristic, individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment
are more likely to survive to breed successfully; and the characteristics that
have enabled these individuals to survive are then passed on to the next
generation. This is called Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Figure 2.2 Tree of Evolution ("Redirect Notice", 2019)

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 Figure 2.3 Theory of Creation ("Redirect Notice", 2019)

The Father of Psychoanalysis

In the past, the field of Psychology was always classified under philosophy.
Psychology was considered more of an art rather than a science. In the late
19th century, Sigmund Freud was able to change people’s perception of
psychology with his revolutionary theory of psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis is the study of human behavior. In his theory, Freud explained

that there are many conscious and unconscious factors that can influence
behavior and emotions. He also argued that personality is a product of three
conflicting elements: id, ego and superego.

Figure 2.4 Theory of Psychoanalysis ("Redirect Notice", 2019)

Science hardliners brushed off the legitimacy of psychoanalysis as a science

since concepts were viewed as philosophical and supernatural. Many believed
that Freud’s theory has no scientific basis as no empirical or experimental data
could support it.

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Despite criticisms, Freud still continued to work on refining his theory and in
fact tried to explain how psychoanalysis can be a clinical method in treating
some mental disorders. Soon enough, people were able to understand the
concepts of psychoanalysis, which eventually resulted in classifying
psychology as a science.

Application
What’s New

What we had just studied are the major intellectual revolutions in the past. At
present, what are the widely acceptable theory that could explain

1. Celestial Mechanics

2. Evolution of human beings

3. Psychoanalysis

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Topic 3: Science and Technology and Nation Building
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students will be able to:
 Explain the role of Science and Technology in Philippine
nation building;
 List noteworthy inventions, with their inventors, and give their
major contributions in shaping the Filipino nation;
 Identify science and technology policies of the government;
 Appraise the impact of these policies on the development of
the Filipino nation; and
 Recognize the need for balance between freedom and
responsible behavior during the exchange of ideas.
Activating Prior Learning
Now, let us see what you know about the role of science and technology by
completing the concept map below. But before that, you may want to watch the
movie clips and read the short article listed below to get some ideas. Happy watching
and reading!
Questions to Ponder:
1. What roles do science and technology play in the
developmental progress of the country?
Watch: Link: https://youtu.be/9li8S3L5p2Q
1. Science and Technology: Moving the Philippines Forward
Answer:
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Watch: Link: https://youtu.be/_ttaqZf-SMg
2. The State of Science and Technology in the
Philippines
Answer:
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
_________________________________

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 Role of S & T in
Nation Building

Presentation of Contents

Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the Philippines

Pre – Colonial Period

Even before the Spain colonized the country, some indigenous
science and technology has already existed with regards to agriculture like
farming, animal
– raising, and the utilization of plants and herbs as medicines. The use of
technology is evident in the in handicrafts, pottery, weaving, and tools used by
ancient Filipinos in their everyday life.
Innovation and ingenuity were unmistakable by the way native
Filipinos built the rice terraces by hand. They also developed tools for
planting, hunting, cooking, fishing, and also for fighting enemies during tribal
conflicts. They used indigenous technology in building houses, irrigations and
transportation, both on land and on waterways.
The ancient practices in science and technology by our
ancestors are now considered as indigenous science or folk science.

Colonial Period
Spanish colonization paved way to modern means of construction.
Roads, bridges, churches, and other large infrastructures were built with more
sophistication using some engineering skills and tools brought by the

15
Spaniards. In addition, Spanish colonizers developed health and education
system in the country.

The American colonial rule modernized almost all aspects of life in the
country. They established the Bureau of Science to initiate the development in
the field of science and technology.

Post – Colonial Period

After achieving independence from the colonial masters, the Philippines,

under different administrations, continued to pursue programs in science and
technology. Each leadership had its own S&T agenda. However, it is
important to note that some Philippine presidents introduced more
developments in the field than others, which you will find out soon as you
course through this topic.

Filipino Presidents and their Contributions in the Development of Science

and Technology in the Philippines

Philippine Presidents and the Status of S&T during their administration

Pres. Carlos P. Garcia (1957 - 1961)

-lack of support of experimental work

-marginal budget for scientific research
-low salaries of scientists employed by the government
-established the National Science Development Board

Pres. Ferdinand Marcos (1965 - 1986)

-directed the Department of Education to revitalize the science

courses in public high schools
- channeled additional funds to support projects in applied sciences
and science education
- he proclaimed 35 hectares in Bicutan, Taguig, Rizal as the site of
the Philippine Science Community
- scholarships for graduate and undergraduate science scholars, and workshops on
fisheries and oceanography
- added the Philippine Coconut Research Institute to the NSDB to modernize the
coconut industry.
- support for the promotion of scientific research and invention with Presidential
Decree No. 49, s. 1972
- he enacted a law under Presidential Decree No. 1003-A, s. 1976 to establish the
National Academy of Science and Technology
- He enacted a law on the completion of the National Agriculture and Life

16
Sciences Research Complex at the University of the Philippines at Los Baños
(Executive Order No. 840, s. 1982)
- he established the Mindanao and Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science
High School to encourage careers in science and technology
-established other research institutes like PAGASA, National Grains Authority,
Philippine Council for Agricultural Research, Philippine National Oil Company
among others

Pres. Corazon Aquino (1986 - 1992)

- National Science and Technology Authority was replaced by the

Department of Science and Technology
- science and technology's role in economic recovery and sustained
economic growth was highlighted
- created the Presidential Task Force for Science and Technology which came up
with the first Science and Technology Master Plan or STMP
- Executive Order No.128 abolished R.A. No. 3859, also known as the “Philippine
Inventors Incentive Act.”
- gave assistance to Filipino inventors through giving financial aid, patent
application assistance, legal assistance, and to help inventors market their
products domestically and abroad
- R.A. 6655 or the Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988 opened doors to
free education up to the secondary level
- “Science for the Masses Program” which aimed at scientific and technological
literacy among Filipinos

Pres. Fidel V. Ramos (1992 - 1998)

-significant increase in personnel specializing in the science and

technology field
-addition of Philippine Science High Schools in Visayas and
Mindanao
- government provided 3,500 scholarships for students who were
taking up professions related to S&T
- Schools were becoming more modernized and updated with the addition of high-
tech equipment for student
- Priority for S&T personnel increased when Magna Carta for Science and
Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439) was established
- award was published in order to give incentives and rewards for people who
have been influential in the field of S&T (Inventors and Inventions Incentives Act
or Republic Act No. 7459)
- programs such as National Program for Gifted Filipino Children in Science and
Technology
-enactment of a law creating a nationwide system of high schools specializing in
the field of science and engineering (Science and Technology Scholarship Law of
1994)
- enacted the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No.
8293)

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 Pres. Joseph Estrada (1998 - 2001)

launched a full-scale program based on cost-effective irrigation

technologies
- establishment of one science high school in every province
- advancement of industries and schools into the Internet age,
-passage of the e-Commerce Act

Pres. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001 - 2010)

- the science and technology sector of the Philippines was dubbed

as the "golden age“ during her term
- Numerous laws and projects that concerns both the environment
and science to push technology as a tool to increase the country's
economic level
- the term "Filipinnovation" was the coined term used in helping the Philippines to
be an innovation hub in Asia
- Science Technology and Innovations (STI) was developed further by
strengthening the schools and education system such as the Philippine Science
High School (PSHS), which focuses in science, technology and mathematics in
their curriculum
- imposes Republic Act 10601 which improves the Agriculture and Fisheries
Sector through Mechanization (AFMech)

(Images from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_Philippines)

Filipino Scientists and their Inventions

Here is a list of some Filipino scientists and inventors, together with their
contributions in shaping the science and technology of the Filipino nation.

Dr. Arturo Alcaraz

Dr. Arturo Alcaraz is a volcanologist specializing in geothermal

energy development. In 1967, Arturo Alcaraz and team powered an
electric light bulb using steam-powered electricity. This was the first
geothermal power generated in the Philippines.

Julian Banzon (1908 - 1988)

Filipino chemist, Julian Banzon researched methods of producing

alternative fuels. Julian Banzon experimented with the production
of ethyl esters fuels from sugarcane and coconut.

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 Pedro Escuro (1923 - )
Filipino scientist, Pedro Escuro is best known for his isolation of
nine rice varieties, thus was renowned by developing rice breeding
in the country. The Pedro Escuro rice varieties are: Milpal 4,
HBD-2, Azmil 26 and C-22 and C-18, C4-63, C4-137, C-168 and
C-12.
Dr. Francisco Fronda (1896 - 1986)

Dr. Francisco Fronda is known as the Father of poultry science in

the Philippines. Francisco Fronda has improved methods of
production for the poultry and livestock industry.

Felix Maramba

Felix Maramba built a coconut oil-fueled power generator. He also

is the developer of one of the world's most profitable biogas
systems.

Luz Oliveros Belardo (1906 - 1999)

Filipino chemist, Luz Oliveros Belardo researched the

phytochemical properties of plants in the Philippines for natural
products, essential oils, and the medicinal qualities.

Emerita De Guzman

Filipino scientist Emerita De Guzman researched the propagation of

pure macapuno trees. Her research led to the faster propagation of
pure macapuno trees and increased macapuno nut production from
3-5 macapuno nuts to 14-19 nuts (1980). She also invented
tissue culture techniques for the rapid propagation of abaca and
banana plants.
Dr. Fe Del Mundo (1911 - 2011)

Filipino doctor, Fe Del Mundo is credited with studies that lead to the
invention of an improved incubator and a jaundice relieving device.

Gregorio Zara (1902 - 1978)

Famous Filipino Scientist, Gregorio Zara invented, made

improvements to, or discovered the following: invented the two-
way television telephone or videophone (1955) patented as a
"photo phone signal separator network"; discovered the physical
law of electrical kinetic resistance called the Zara effect (around 1930); invented an
airplane engine that ran on plain alcohol as fuel (1952).
(Google image result for Famous Filipino Scientists or Inventors)

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For more information, please go to the links provided below, then watch and
read the following:

Watch: 1. Juan’s Top 5 Filipino Inventions at https://youtu.be/RU21nUiKaoc

Read: 1. The Philippine Men and Women of Science.

http://spheres.dost.gov.ph/manuscript/PMWS27.pdf
2. Philippine Great Inventions
Activity : Back Through Time
A. This activity is meant for you to revisit our country’s rich historical
background on its journey to scientific and technological progress.
1.) Choose one period below (a-e) to elaborate the development of S&T in
each period and its contributions and implications to the present
society. Complete the table below.
2.) Make a collage of S and T development and its contributions a clean
long bond paper
a. Early Filipino/ Pre – colonial period
b. Spanish Colonization
c. American Regime
d. Japanese Colonization
e. Post – colonial period

Science Implications
Contribution culture and of S&T and
State of of the period practices/ science
Period S&T during in the Society’s culture of
the period development norms each period
of S&T during the to the
period present

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Summary

In this unit, you have learned the different contributions to Science and
Technology of each epoch of human history- Ancient, Medieval and Modern
Times. Necessity and adversity drive people to think and invent technology to
address the needs and problems they encountered in everyday life. These
inventions paved way to major developments from ancient to modern society
and along with it, the transmission of scientific and technological knowledge
that influenced our very own notion of the world.

The advent of technology opens the door for more scientific endeavors in the
quest of unravelling the mysteries of the natural world, and hence the birth of
scientific revolution. The revolution had sparked human creativity and critical
thinking, and by this time, many a discovery and scientific ideas were
developed, and new scientific paradigms were generated which had
overthrown previous paradigms. This manifests that scientific knowledge is
not permanent, and subject to constant change through careful research and
experimentation.

In the Philippines, even before period of colonization, our society has been
faring on its improvement in terms of Science and Technology especially in
agriculture, handicraft and medicine. During colonization, there was a slow
growth of S&T since majority of its sophistication is brought about by the
foreign invaders. The establishment of Bureau of Science by Americans
paved the way for the initial growth of S&T in the country. During post-
colonial period where Philippines had given the autonomy for executive,
administrative, judicial and legislative operations, different programs and
policies of the government gear towards reinforcing progress of S&T. Many
Filipinos were renowned not only in the national but also around the global
society for their outstanding feat.

21
References:

A History of Science and Technology in the Philippines by Olivia C. Caoili

Retrieved from: https://tuxdoc.com/download/history-of-science-and-technology-in-
the-philippines_pdf#download-require

McNamara, D., Valverde, V., & Beleno, R. (2018). Science, Technology, and Society
(1st ed., pp. 1-128). Quezon City: C&E Publishing Inc.

Ratnasiri, N., 2006. The role of Science and Technology in nation building. Journal of
the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, 34(3), p.113. DOI:
http://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v34i3.3640

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