ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

AND WAVES

S Y E D M U J A H I D A L I
Assistant Professor
COE PAF KIET
 Contents (brief)

1. Electrostatics ..................................... 5

2. Magnetostatics ..................................... 33

3. Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4. Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5. Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

7. Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2
We live on an island surrounded by a sea of ignorance.
As our island of knowledge grows, so does the shore
of our ignorance

_John Archibald Wheeler

3
Electrostatics

4
 ELECTROSTATICS
Study of charged particles and bodies, at rest, is called 'Electrostatics'.

Charge
Intrinsic property of fundamental particles like electrons and protons * due to which they
attract or repeal each other is called 'electric charge' or simply 'charge'.

Charging a macroscopic object and the concept of quantum of charge

The smallest charge carried by a particle that can exist in free state is that of an electron. It is
represented by 'e' and e  1.6 1019 C. Since a neutral body gains charge by either loosing or gaining
electrons, if a body losses or gains 'n' electrons, the charge 'q' it acquires will be:

q  ne
where n  1,2,3,...
Hence we conclude that a body always gains charge that is an integral multiple of the charge
of an electron. Since an electron can not be broken or decomposed into fragments, its charge remains
fixed. We can say that the charge of electron is the quantum of charge.

Point charge
If two charges are separated by distance that is too large as compared to the size of either of
the two charges, each charge is said to be a point charge. Or if the electric field of a charged body of
finite size is observed at a point too far from the body, it is considered to be a point charge.

Coulomb’s law
Charles Augustan Coulomb was impressed by Newton’s law of universal gravitation and
thought that the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges might be inverse square
and be proportional to the magnitude of the charges. After many experiments he got exactly that.
Statement:
Electrostatic force between two point charged particles is directly proportional to the product
of the magnitude of the charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
q1 q2
Mathematically
Consider two point charges having amount of charges
q1 and q2 , separated by a distance r. If the force of attraction or
repulsion between them is F then by Coulomb’s law we can write: Fig. (1) Two point charges
separated by a distance r

F  q1 q2 (1)
and

1
F  (2)
r2
combining (1) and (2):
q1 q2
F 
r2

*
Proton is about 1850 times more massive than electron but they have equal value of electric charge; 1.6 1019 C .
5
 q1 q2
F k
r2

1
where ‘k’ is the coulomb’s constant and in fact k  , with  0  8.85  1012 C 2 / N - m 2 is the
4   0 r
permittivity of free space and  r is the relative permittivity or the dielectric constant of the medium
present between the charges i.e.,  r is a dimensionless constant and its value depends upon the
nature of the medium. For instance,  r  1 for air / vacuum. Hence for air:

1
k
4   8.85  1012  1

2
k  8.99 109 N - m
C2

2
or k  9 109 N - m
C2

Vector form of Coulomb’s law

F21 r F12
We consider the same two charges + q1 q2 +
r r
again but now we observe them from a reference
point O. Relative to O, the positions of q1 and q2 r1
are given by the position vectors r1 and r2 respectively. r r2
If the electrostatic force exerted by q1 on q2 is F12 , r
then by Coulomb’s law, O
Fig. (2) Two point charges
q1 q2 separated by a distance r as seen
F12  k rˆ12 from a reference point O
r2

where r̂12 is a unit vector pointing from q1 to q2 and the distance r between the charges is now given
as r  r2  r1 . Similarly the force F21 exerted by q2 on q1 is

q1 q2
F21  k rˆ21
r2
with rˆ21   rˆ12 .

Electric field
The region around a charged body in which its electrostatic effects can be experienced is
called electric field.

Electric lines of force

The imaginary rays originating from the surface of a charged body that represents electric
field are called electric lines of force.

6
 Different field configurations as represented by electric lines of force

+ -

Isolated positive point charge Isolated negative point charge dipole

+ -
+
-
+ - +
-
+
-
+ - E +
-
+
+ - -
+
-
+ - A
B
Infinite, thin positive plane of Infinite, thin negative plane of Equal and oppositely charged
charge + charge parallel plates

+
Infinite line of charge Coaxial equal and oppositely
charged cylinders
7
Electric field intensity
The electrostatic force per unit charge (acting upon a test charge) at any point is said to be the
electric field intensity at that point .
Mathematically
We consider a test charge qt placed at a point ‘P’ in an qt
F
electrostatic field. It experiences an electrostatic force F (as +
P
shown in the fig.(1)). If E is the electric field intensity at P
then by the definition of electric field intensity we can write:

F Fig. (1) Test charge at a point P

E experiencing a force due to the the
qt
electric field in which it is placed

It is clear that the direction of E is the same as that of F . The S.I. unit of electric field intensity
N
is .
C
Electric field intensity due to a point charge
q qt
Let us consider a point charge q. In its electric r  r  r F
field, at some point P, at a distance ‘r’, there is a test + +
charge qt . It experiences an electrostatic force F (as
shown in the fig.(1)). Since they both are point charges, we
can apply Coulomb’s law in order to determine the r
magnitude of the force as: r

q1 q2 O
F k
r  r
2

Fig. (1) Test charge placed in the

q qt electric field of a point charge
F k experiencing a force as seen from a
r  r
2
reference point O

F q
k
r  r
2
qt

kq kq
E or E  2
r  r
2
r

The above equation expresses the magnitude of electric field intensity near a point charge. The
complete vector is then

kq kq
E rˆ or E  2 rˆ
r  r
2
r

where r̂ is a unit vector directed from the positive charge towards the point P (point of observation)
r  r r
and rˆ   , then the above equation can also be written as
r  r r

E  kq
 r  r or E  kq
r
r  r
3
r3

8
Electric field intensity due to n point charges
We consider two point charges q1 and q2 , such q2
that their position vectors relative to a reference point
O are r1 and r2 respectively. Let P be our point of +
r  r2
observation with position vector r . If E1 and E 2 are
the electric field intensities of the two charges at P, E1 q1
E1
then the net field intensity there is P
+ r  r1
E  E1  E2 , E2

r1

with E1  kq1
 r  r1  and E2  kq2
 r  r2  , r
r  r1 r  r2
3 3

O Fig. (1) Two point charges

E  kq1
 r  r1   kq  r  r2  influencing a point P due to their
electric fields as seen from a
2
r  r1 r  r2
3 3
reference point O

  r  r1   r  r2  
E  k  q1  q2 3
 r  r1 r  r2 
3

which can be generalized to n point charges

  r  r1   r  r2    r  rn  
E  k  q1  q2  qn 3
 r  r1 r  r2 r  rn 
3 3

n
E  k  qi
 r  ri 
r  ri
3
i 1

Electric field intensity due to continuous charge distribution:

We consider a volume V in which positive
electric charge is continuously distributed, with 
being the volume charge density (charge per unit volume). +
+ + dE
If we pick a small volume element dV then it will + dq + r  r  r P
contain a very small charge dq, given as +

dq   dV
r
and effectively it can be considered a point charge. r
If its position vector relative to a reference point O
is r  , then the electric field intensity due to this small O
charge at a point P, with position vector r is Fig. (1) A continuous charge
distribution influencing a point P
 r  r
by its electric field as seen from a
dE  k dq reference point O
r  r
3

9
 dE  k  dV
 r  r
r  r
3

The net electric field at P is the vector sum of the contribution of the whole charge distribution, and
since the charge is continuously distributed, the sum is also continuous i.e., an integration over whole
volume V,

 r  r
 
r
E k  dV or E  k  dV
r  r
3
V V r3

 r  r , with

similarly for linear charge distribution E  k

r  r
L
3
 dL  being the linear charge

density (charge/length) and L the total length over which the charge is distributed.

 r  r ,
And for superficial charge distribution E  k
A r   r 

3
with  being the superficial
 dA

charge density (charge/area) and A the total area over which the charge is distributed.

Calculation of electric field intensity for continuous charge distributions:

1) (a) Electric field intensity off the axis of a finite line of charge:
We consider a line of charge with uniform Z
linear charge density λ, of length 2L placed
along z-axis with origin O exactly at its center.
We take two small segments each of length Q +
dz symmetrically above and below the origin dz
at a distance z (shaded segment). The small dEy
amount of charge dq in either one of the + r
z dEz
segment is + P dE 

O
dq   dz (1) + y dE 
Y

dE z 
Now we take a point P on y-axis as our point +
of observation. As is clear from fig. (1) (a) that dEy
the z-components cancels while the dz +
y-components of the fields of the two charge
elements add to give the net field at P. We can +
write (a)
dE   dE y  dE y  ˆj
Q
k dq r
where dE y  dE y  cos , then z
r2
θ
O P
k dq y
dE  2 2 cos ˆj (b)
r
Fig. (1) (a) A line of charge along Z-axis
k  dz
dE  2 2 cos  ˆj (2) (b) triangle formed by the center of the
r line, the charge element and the point of
observation
10
In Δ OPQ:
OP  y (base) We have
OQ  z (perpendicular)
QP  r (hypotenuse) hyp 2  base2  perp 2
r2  z2  y2 (3)
and

y y
cos    (4)
r z2  y2

Putting (3) and (4) in (2)

k  y dz ˆj
dE  2
z 2
y 
2 3/2

Now we have to integrate from 0 to L to get the net effect of the whole line of charge,

 z
dz ˆj
E  2k  y
0
2
y 
2 3/2

which can be easily integrated to yield

L
2k   z 
E  2  ˆj
y  z  y 2  0

2k  L ˆj
E (5)
y L y2 2

Special case: Electric field intensity off infinite line of charge:

(5) can be rearranged as
2k  L ˆj
E
y L 1   y L 2

2k  1 ˆj
E
y 1   y L 2

Let the length L   , then y L  0 and we are left with

2k  ˆ
E j
y

11
(b) Electric field intensity on the axis of a finite line of charge:

We now consider a point P on Z axis, at a distance

Z
z0 from the origin. As usual we want to determine the effect
of a small charge element dq contained within a small length P
dz, at a distance z from the origin. Positions of the source point
and the field point are then
+
r  z kˆ z0 dz Q

+
r  z0 kˆ z
+
O
r  r   z0  z  kˆ
Y
 +

+
 r  r  z0  z
+
The field due to charge element dq at P is
+
k dq
dEz 
r  r
2

k  dz
dE z 
 z  z0 
2

Then

 z  z 
dz
Ez  k 2
L 0

L
 1 
Ez  k  
 z0  z   L

 1 1 
Ez  k    
 z0  L z0  L 

2k  L
Ez 
z0 2  L2

kq
Ez 
z0  L2
2

12
2) Electric field intensity on the axis of a charged ring:
In fig. (1) (a) a uniformly charged ring of radius a and total charge q is shown. We take a
small charge element dq on the ring so that its distance from the field point P is r. It is obvious that
r  x 2  a 2 . The electric field at P due to this charge element is dE . This field has a component
dE x along X-axis and a component dE directed perpendicular to X-axis. From the symmetry of the
charge distribution , we can see that the net field due to the entire ring must lie along the axis of the
ring; that is the perpendicular components sum to zero. The axial component of the field is

dEx  dE cos

kdq
dE x  cos  (1) Q
r2 dq
a
r
In Δ OPQ:
OP  x (base) We have O

OQ  a (perpendicular) x

P
dE x
QP  r (hypotenuse) hyp  base  perp
2 2 2
dE 
(a)
dE
r2  x2  a2 (2)
and Q
r
x x a
cos    (3)
r a  x2
2
θ
O P
x
(b)
Putting (2) and (3) in (1)
Fig. (1) (a) A ring of charge with axis
k dq x along X-axis (b) triangle formed by the
dE x 
x  a2 
2 3/2 center of the ring, the charge element
and the point of observation

The field due to the entire ring of charge is

 x
k dq x
Ex 
 a2 
2 3/2
Ring

Because we integrate over the elements of charge, x does not vary and we take it out of the integral.
Then


kx
Ex  dq
 x2  a2 
3/2
Ring

kqx
Ex 
x  a2 
2 3/2

where q is the total charge on the ring.

13
Special cases:
a) Electric field intensity at the center of the charged ring:

For the center x  0 , which leads to E x  0

b) Electric field intensity at a very far point on the axis of the charged ring:
We have the field intensity on the axis of the charged ring

kqx
Ex 
x  a2 
2 3/2

It can be rearranged as
kq x
Ex  3/2
  a 2 
x 1    
3
  x 
 

kq
Ex  3/2
  a 2 
x 1    
2
 x 
 
a
Now for x a,  0 and we are left with
x
kq
Ex 
x2
just like the field of a point charge.

Electric flux
Measure of the number of electric lines of force passing normally through a surface is called
electric flux.
Mathematical expression:
We consider a flat surface S with area A, placed in an electric
field in a region where the intensity of the field is E . The surface is E
not too large so that all the electric lines of force passing through
it are parallel to each other. Hence if one of them is subtending an

angle  with the vector area A of S, so is the case with all the others.
Now if Ф is the flux passing through S, we can write: P
A

  EA
S
  E A cos

Two extreme cases:

(a) If all the lines are passing normally through S, the angle b/w E and A is 0 and   E A
(b) If all the lines are passing parallel to S, the angle b/w E and A is 90 and   0 .

14
Electric flux through a spherical surface due to a point charge; the seed of
Gauss’s law:
We consider a spherical surface S
containing a point charge q placed exactly at its dA
center. Electric lines of force initiated at the charge E
are crossing the surface S. We want to determine
the flux through the surface. We draw a small patch
with area dA, around some point P on S. The small P
amount of flux through this patch will be: q +

d  E  d A

d   E dA cos0
S

d   E dA

Hence the total flux through the whole of the sphere S will be the sum of all these fluxes, i.e.,

  S
E dA

Since the point charge is exactly at the center of the spherical surface S, E is constant on S and hence
we can take E out of the integral,
E
 dA S

  E surfacearea of S

  E (4 r 2 )

where ‘r’ is the radius of the surface S. Since the charge q is a point charge, its field intensity is

1 q
E
4  0 r 2

1 q
   (4  r 2 )
4  0 r 2

q

0

i.e., the electric flux through a sphere is proportional to the net charge enclosed.
Gauss’s law
Karl Fredrich Gauss developed this law that establishes a mathematical relation between
electric flux and the quantity of charge producing the flux. Hence in this way a quantitative meaning
is gained by the abstract concept of flux. But the real importance of this law is that it provides a way

15
to calculate electric field intensity of complicated charge distributions, especially where Coulomb’s
law becomes impractical.
Statement:
The total electric flux through a closed surface, of arbitrary shape and size, is directly
proportional to the net electric charge enclosed by the surface.
Proof:
We consider a closed surface S of arbitrary shape containing
n point charges q1, q2, ..., qn . We now enclose each of these point
charge in spheres individually, so that these spheres remain inside 
the surface S. We know that if a point charge q is inside a spherical q1
surface, the flux through the sphere is given as:

q q2

ε0 
Therefore the fluxes through these spheres will be: q3

q1 q q
1  ,  2  2 , ...,  n  n 
ε0 ε0 ε0
qn
Now it is obvious that the flux of each of these spheres will also
pass through the outer surface S. Hence the total flux through S S
is the sum of these fluxes: Fig. (1) An arbitrary Gaussian
surface containing point charges
  1   2  ...   n

q1 q2 q
   ...  n
ε0 ε0 ε0

q1  q2  ...  qn

ε0

qenc

ε0
or


qenc
E  dA 
S 0

where qenc  q1  q2  ...  qn is the net charge enclosed (inside) by the surface S. (In case the charge
is continuous, qenc    dV )
V

Applications of Gauss’s law:

1) Electric field intensity due a spherical charged shell
We consider a spherical shell of radius R having a (positive) charge q uniformly distributed
on it. We want to calculate the electric field intensity (i) outside the shell, (ii) on the surface of the
shell and (iii) inside the shell.

Analogous role in magnetostatics is played by Ampere’s law.
16
(a) Electric field intensity outside the shell:
We consider a closed spherical surface S, so
that the charged shell is completely enclosed in it
with its center coincides with that of S. We want to dA
determine the flux through S. We draw a small patch E P
with area dA, around some point P on S. The small
amount of flux through this patch will be: R

q
d  E  d A

d   E dA cos0
S
d   E dA Fig. (1) Spherical charged shell
enclosed by a spherical Gaussian
surface S
Hence the total flux through the whole of the
sphere S will be
E


 E dA
S
q
4 0 R 2

Since the charged shell is symmetrically placed

inside S, E must be constant on S and hence we
can take E out of the integral,

E
 dA
S
r
  E surfacearea of S

  E (4 r 2 ) R


Fig. (2) Electric field intensity inside and
or E.dA  E (4  r 2 ) (1) outside a charged spherical shell as a
S
function of the distance from the center of
the shell
But according to Gauss’s law:


q
E  dA  (2)
S 0

Comparing (1) and (2):

q
E (4  r 2 ) 
0

1 q
E rR
4  0 r 2

The above equation represents the electric field intensity outside the charged shell at a distance r
from its center.

17
(b) Electric field intensity on the surface of the shell:
Since the radius of the shell is R, if we restrict r to R i.e., r  R , we get the value of the field
intensity E s on the surface of the shell:

1 q
ES  rR
4  0 R2

(c) Electric field intensity inside the shell:

+
Now we will determine the electric field intensity inside + +
the shell. For this we consider a spherical Gaussian surface S  , placed
inside the shell (as shown in the fig.). It is clear that all the charge + +
S
resides on the outer surface of the shell, hence there is no charge
enclosed by S. Thus by Gauss’s law the flux  through S  will be zero i.e.: + +
+

 S
E  dA  0 Fig. (3) A spherical Gaussian
surface S inside the charged
spherical shell
Since S  is arbitrary (but limited to be inside the shell), we have

E  dA  0

and E 0 rR

Hence there is no electric field inside the spherical charged shell.

2) Electric field intensity near an infinite plane of charge

Let us imagine a flat and very thin sheet of a
metal or an insulator. We want to determine the
electric field intensity at a point very close to the
sheet, like point ‘P’ (shown in the figure). Since ‘P’
is so close to the sheet that the distance of ‘P’ from S3 S2
the sheet is negligible as compared to the size of the
sheet, the sheet is considered an infinite sheet. Here
A1 P
the closed Gaussian surface, required to calculate
flux is taken as a cylinder.
E1 S1
The cylinder can be naturally decomposed
into three surfaces S1, S2 and S3 (as shown). The
total flux through the cylinder will be the sum
of the fluxes through these three parts.
Fig. (1) A cylindrical Gaussian surface enclosing
a portion of an infinite plane of charge
Flux through S1:

Vector area of S1 is A1 with magnitude A and the electric field intensity is E1 with magnitude
E. Since all the electric lines of force are emerging normally and being straight and parallel, they
intersect S1 normally. Hence the angle between E1 and A1 is zero. Thus the flux 1 through S1 will
be:
1  E1  A1

18
 1  E Acos  0

1  EA (1)
Flux through S2:
It is clear that S2 is parallel to S1 with same area A and the electric field intensity is equal in
magnitude to E1 , then the flux through S2 will be equal to that through S1 i.e.

 2  1

 2  EA (2)

Flux through S3:

As it is obvious from the figure that all the electric lines are parallel to S3 hence none of
them will intersect S3, the flux  3 through it will be zero:

3  0 (3)

Now the total flux through the whole cylinder will be:

  S
E  dA  1   2   3

 S
E  dA  E A  E A  0

 S
E  dA  2 E A (4)

If  is the surface charge density (charge per unit area), the charge q enclosed by the cylinder will
be:

q  A
We have by Gauss’s law:

qenc
 S
E  dA 
0

A
 S
E  dA 
0
(5)

Comparing eqn. (4) and (5):

A
2E A 
0


E
20

19
3) Electric field intensity between two oppositely charged parallel plates
We consider two parallel plates A and B, of metal or
insulator, placed very close to each other. A and B are charged
positively and negatively respectively. If σ is the surface charge
density on either of the plates, the electric field intensity, generated
by either of them at any point between the plates is:
+
 -
E
20 -
+
+
Hence the total electric field intensity between the plates will be the -
E +
sum of their individual fields: -
  +
E  -
20 20
+
-
 A
E
0 B

Electric potential difference:

The work done per unit charge, against an electric field, in order to displace a (test) charge (in
dynamic equilibrium) between two points is called the electrical potential difference between those
points

Mathematical representation:
Let us consider a test charge qt at a point A in an electric field of strength E . The test charge
is displaced from A to B, under the action of a force F , opposite to the direction of E . If V is the
potential difference between A and B then by the definition
qt
it will be: E F

V 
Work A B B .------------------------------------.
d
+
A

qt
Fig. (1) Test charge moving against
the electric field between two points A
Relation between electric field intensity and potential: and B

The test charge is displaced in dynamic equilibrium, therefore the force F applied on the
charge is proportional and opposite to the electric field intensity i.e., F   qt E . Since potential is
given as
Work A B
V 
qt
E
F .d
 V  
qt

qt E d
V   .d
qt

V   E.d

20
or V   E d cos

Electric field intensity as the gradient of the potential:

The electric potential difference between two infinitesimally close points is given as

dV   E  dr

We assume that the points are along x-axis, then dr  dx iˆ , and let the electric field be
E  E iˆ  E ˆj  E kˆ . Then
x y z

 
dV   Exiˆ  E y ˆj  Ez kˆ  dxiˆ  0 ˆj  0kˆ 
dV   E x dx

dV
Ex  
dx

i.e., the x-component of the electric field intensity is the negative of the variation of the potential
along that axis. Similar nature of relation between potential and field intensity can be derived along y
and z-axes respectively. Taking all the three axes simultaneously we can write

V V V
Ex   , Ey   , Ez  
x y z

and since E  Exiˆ  E y ˆj  Ez kˆ , we have

V ˆ V ˆ V ˆ
E i j k
x y z

which can mathematically equivalently be written as

   ˆ  ˆ
E    iˆ  j  k V
 x y z 

E  V
B
 ˆ  ˆ  ˆ 
C
where   i j  k is the famous del operator 
x y z

frequently encountered in vector calculus. Conclusion is A
that the electric field intensity is the negative of the gradient
of electrostatic potential. + V1 V2

Physical meaning of the gradient:

We consider the electric field of a positive point charge.
Its electric field intensity is
Fig. (1) Electric field lines and equipotential
kq
E  2 rˆ (1) surfaces of a point charge. AB and AC are
r two paths both causing equal change of
and its potential is potential

21
 kq
V (2)
r

As is clear from (1) and shown in fig. (1) that electric field intensity is every where radial. While (2)
shows that potential is spherically symmetric; that is at all points having same distance from the
charge, potential is the same. It means that the equipotential surfaces are spherical (dashed curves).
The electric lines of force intersect equipotential surfaces orthogonally.
In the fig. we consider two equipotential surfaces with potentials V1 and V2 . If we start
from potential V1 at A and ends on V2 at B, the variation of potential is V  V2  V1 . The same
variation can also be achieved via path AC (fig.). The difference between following AB and AC is in
V V
the rate ; is greater for AC (shorter path) as compared to AB (longer path). In fact AC joins
r r
V
the two equipotential surfaces orthogonally and is greatest in this direction. Since electric field
r
intensity is orthogonal to the equipotential surfaces and it is the negative gradient of the potential
V
(E  rˆ ), we conclude that gradient at a point is the greatest rate of variation of the potential
r
with position and having the direction normal to equipotential surface.

Electric P.D. for variable field:

When the field intensity varies considerably between two points, potential difference cannot
be directly calculated. Instead we have to calculate it in small pieces and then sum them; integrate
the infinitesimal pieces.
We consider a region containing an electric
field. Then we follow a path C passing through this B
field, starting at a point A and ending at B. As seen
from some reference point O, the position vectors
of two points on the path namely P and Q are r1 E Q
and r2 respectively. Now let us assume that the P
dr
points are very close to each other, so close that
the vector of displacement, the vector joining the r1
A r2
two points, is an infinitesimal displacement vector;
r2  r1  dr . Now the small amount of potential
difference between these points is O
dV   E  dr
Then the total potential difference between the two ends A and B along C is

V   E  dr
C

Mathematically it is called the line integral of the electric field intensity along the path C between
the two end points A and B.

Electric potential due to a point charge:

We have the magnitude of the electric field intensity of a point charge located exactly at the
origin given as
kq
E 2 (1)
r

We take two points namely A and B, lying exactly radially relative to the source charge q,
22
at distances r1 and r2 respectively. We want to E F qt
find the potential difference between these points. q +
We have the potential difference between any two B P A
+
points joined by a path C r2
r
V   E  dr
C
(2) r1

Fig. (1) Test charge carried between two points

Since E and dr are both radial, they are parallel to lying radially in the electric field of a point
each other and we have charge

E  dr  Edr *

r2


V   E dr
r1

r2

r
1
V   kq 2
dr
r1

r2
1
V  kq  
 r  r1

1 1
V  kq    (3)
 r2 r1 

The most important point to be noted is that the p.d. between two points depends only on the
distances of the points from the source charge and is independent of their exact location. Hence
the above expression is applicable to any pair of points not just to points in the radial direction.
Absolute potential of a point charge:
By convention the potential at infinity is taken to be zero. Then if we bring our test charge
from infinity to some point near the source charge, we get the absolute potential at that point. For a
point charge as source the potential difference between any two points is

1 1
V  kq   
 r2 r1 

Let r1   , and r2  r , we have

1 
V  kq   0 
r 

kq
V (4)
r

which is the absolute potential at a distance r from the source point charge q.

*
E  dr is the work done/charge by the electric field, that is why dr is taken parallel to E . While  E  dr is the work done
by an external force against the field and since equilibrium is demanded the two works are equal in magnitude.
23
In case the charge is not at the origin but is at r  (fig. (2)), the above expression becomes
P
q r
kq
V (5) + V
r  r

r
or if we let r  r  r  r  r  r  r , then
r

kq
V (6) O
Fig. (2) point charge as observed from
r some reference point O
where r is the distance from the source to the point where
the potential is V. (5) is the same as (4), hence potential of
a point charge is also independent of the location of the source charge.

Potential due to many point charges:

Since potential is a scalar which may be positive or negative but has no direction, the
potential due to many point charges is simply an algebraic sum of the potentials of all the charges. If
the point charges q1, q2 , , qn are at distances r1, r2 , , rn from the origin and producing potentials
V1 ,V2 , ,Vn respectively at some point P , then the net potential will be

V  V1  V2   Vn

kq1 kq2 kqn

V   
r1 r2 rn

q q qn 
V k 1  2   
 r1 r2 rn 

r
qi
V k
i 1 i

Electrostatic potential and field of a dipole P

Two equal and opposite point

charges separated by a certain distance r1
Z
is called a dipole.
We consider a dipole with each of r
the two point charges of magnitude q, q
+ r2
separated by a distance d, having axis
along Z-axis (Fig. (1)). The total potential 
at a field point P is the sum of the d O
potentials of the two charges,

q q - d cos
V  q
4 0 r1 4 0 r2
Fig. (1) Two point charges separated by a
distance r as seen from a reference point O
q 1 1
V    (1)
4 0  r1 r2 
24
 Z
Plane of zero potential:
It is obvious from (1) that for r1  r2 , V  0 q
+
i.e., the potential is zero at all such points that are
equidistant from the two charges forming the dipole. P
As can been seen from fig. (2) all the above mentio- O
ned points form a plane perpendicular to the axis of
the dipole (shaded plane). In this case where the
dipole is along Z-axis with the center at the origin, -
q
the zero potential plane is the XY plane.
Fig. (2) Plane of zero potential for a dipole
Potential at a far field point:
From (1) we can derive a special case for the potential at a very far point. We have from (1),

q  r2  r1 
V   (2)
4 0  r1r2 

In fig.(2) if we let the point P to be very far ( r   ), then r1 and r2 differ by a very small
distance in comparison to their individual lengths and further they become nearly parallel to
each other (and to r). In this condition the difference between r1 and r2 is d cos  ,

r2  r1  d cos (3)

Here r is the arithmetic mean (a.m.) of r1 and r2 ,

r1  r2
r
2

but due to the far point condition this a.m. is approximately equal to the geometric mean

r1  r2
r  r1r2
2

or r1r2  r 2 (4)

Putting (3) and (4) in (2),

q  d cos 
V  
4 0  r 2 

qd  cos 
V   (5)
4 0  r 2 

which is the potential of a dipole at a very far field point, written in spherical polar coordinates.
Electric field intensity at a far field point:
We know that the electric field intensity is the negative of the gradient of the electrostatic
potential, E  V and in spherical polar coordinates the gradient of V is


Potential is zero but electric field is not in this plane; field is the gradient and depends on the variation of potential.
25
 V 1 V ˆ 1 V ˆ
V  rˆ   
r r  r sin  

 V 1 V ˆ 1 V ˆ 
E   rˆ    (6)
 r r  r sin   
Now
V qd  cos  V qd  sin   V
  3 ,   , 0
r 2 0  r   4 0  r 2  

 qd  cos  1 qd  sin   ˆ 
E     3  rˆ     
 2 0  r  r 4 0  r 2  

qd  2cos rˆ  sin  ˆ 
E   (7)
4 0  r3 

where r̂ and ˆ are the unit vectors along the radial and the polar directions. (7) expresses the
electric field intensity of a dipole at a point very far from the dipole in spherical polar coordinates.
Potential due to continuous charge distribution: +
+ +
In a volume V positive electric charge is continuously + dq + r P
distributed, with  being the volume charge density (charge + dV
per unit volume). If we pick a small volume element dV then
it will contain a very small charge dq, given as
r
dq   dV r

and effectively it can be considered a point charge. O

If its position vector relative to a reference point O
is r  , then the electric potential due to this small charge at a point P, with position vector r is

k dq
dV 
r  r

then the total potential at P due to the whole charge distribution is


k dq
V
V r  r

 r  r 
 dV  dV
V k or V  k
V V r

 r  r , with  being the

 dL
where r  r  r . Similarly for linear charge distribution V  k
L

linear charge density (charge/length) and L the total length over which the charge is distributed.

26
 
 dA
And superficial charge distribution V  k , with  being the superficial charge density
r  r
A

(charge/area) and A the total area over which the charge is distributed.

Example of calculation of potential for continuous charge distribution

Potential on the axis of a charged ring:
In the adjacent figure a uniformly charged ring of dq
radius a and total charge q is shown. We take a small charge a
r
element dq on the ring so that its distance from the field
point P is r. It is obvious that r  x 2  a 2 . The potential at
x
P due to the whole ring is then
. P


k dq
V Fig. (1) A ring of charge with axis along
Ring r
X-axis

But it is clear from the figure that r is the same for any charge element on the ring, then


k
V dq
r Ring

kq
V
x  a2
2

Special cases:
i) Potential at the center:
For the center, x  0 ,
kq
V
a
ii) Potential very far away:
We have
kq
V
x  a2
2

kq
V
2
a
x 1  
x

a
for a very far point x a and  0 , and we are left with
x
kq
V
x

27
Examples of calculation of potential from field

1) Potential due to an infinite line of charge:

We know that the electric field intensity near an infinite line of (positive) charge is
radially outward off the axis and is given as

2k 
E rˆ (1)
r

We consider two points namely A and B in a plane

perpendicular to the line of charge, located radially
and join them by a straight line path (dotted line). +
The potential difference between these points is
+
V   E  dr
C
+ A
2k 
since dr  dr rˆ (radial), E  dr  dr and E B
r
rB
+

dr
V  2k 
rA
r
+

r 
V  2k  ln  B 
 rA  +

Fig. (1) Two points in a plane through which

Now to find absolute potential at B, we cannot an infinite line of charge is passing normally
let A to be at infinity because

r 
V  2k  ln  B   2k  ln rB  ln rA 
 rA 

and for rA   , ln rA   . Since potential at a point is arbitrary, only p.d. between two points is
significant, we assume potential to be zero at A and make it as our reference. Let rA  a and rB  r ,
then
r
V  2k  ln  
a

Now this is the potential at any point a distance r from an infinite line of charge, with r  a being the
point of zero potential.

2) Potential of a spherical shell of charge:

We have a spherical shell, of very small thickness, of radius R with charge q uniformly
distributed on its surface. We are interested in the potential at all points inside and outside the shell.
Potential outside the shell:
We know that the electric field intensity outside the shell is radial and is given as

28
 kq
E rˆ
r2

then the potential at a distance r from the center of the shell is

r
V
VO  

E  dr

r
kq
  r

2
rˆ  dr rˆ
r
dr
 kq  r

2

r
r
1
 kq  
 r  
R
1 
VO  kq   0 
r 
Fig. (1) Potential of charged spherical shell
kq as a function of distance from the center of
VO  rR the shell
r

Potential inside the shell:

We know that the field inside a charged spherical shell is zero, which means
a constant potential inside. We already have the potential outside the shell as

kq
VO 
r

Hence as we come closer to the surface of the shell r decreases and at the surface r  R , meaning
that the potential on the surface is

kq
VS 
R

Now if we continue and just crosses the boundary of the shell to step inside, the potential cannot
change abruptly, it must be continuous. Since it is constant inside, continuity demands that it must be
equal to what it is on the surface,

VI  VS

kq
VI  rR
R

29
3) Potential due to an infinite plane of charge:
We consider a plane of infinite area with charge uniformly distributed on it. Let  be the surface
charge density. If the charged plane is the Y-Z plane, X-axis is normal to it and the electric field
intensity is
 ˆ
E i (1)
2 0
then
rB


V   E  dr
rA

rB

V   2 iˆ   dx iˆ  dy ˆj  dz kˆ 
rA 0

rA
rB rB

V 
2 0 r
dx 
A
B
A

V  rA  rB 
2 0
Fig. (1) Two points in the electric
Now we cannot let rA   , as it leads to V   . field of the charged plane between
which the p.d. is evaluated
We let A to be at a finite distance from the plane
and assume the potential to be zero at A. Hence we
let rA  a and rB  r , then


V a  r , 0ra (2) V
2 0

which is the potential at a distance r on the right hand

side from the charged plane, with zero potential at
r  a . Similarly for the potential on the left hand side
of the plane


V a  r , a  r  0 (3)
2 0
r  a ra r

Alternatively, a single equation can be written instead Fig. (2) Potential as a function
of (2) and (3), of distance from the plane


V
2 0
a  r  a  r  a

Potential is maximum at the plane an decreases linearly with distance on either side of the plane (fig.
(2)).

30
Differential form of Gauss’s law for electrostatics
By the Divergence’s theorem we have

 S
F  dA    F dV
V

i.e., the total flux of a vector field F through a closed surface S is equal to the flux created within the
volume V enclosed by the surface S.
We have the Integral form of Gauss’s law
q
 S
E  dA 
0
but q    dV ,
V

1
 S
E  dA 
 0 V
 dV (1)

Now by the divergence theorem we can write

 S
E  dA     E dV
V
(2)

Comparing (1) and (2),

   E dV     /   dV
V V
0

   E   /   dV  0
V
0 (3)

Since S is arbitrary in shape and size, so will be its enclosed volume V, meaning that the limits of
integration in the above integral are arbitrary, we conclude that the integrand itself is zero,

 E   /  0  0

  E   / 0 (4)

which is also known as the first Maxwell equation.

Differential form of Gauss’s law for magnetostatics

If we enclose a magnet by a closed Gaussian surface S, the net magnetic flux will always be
zero. This is because of the presence of both the north and the south poles; the two poles create equal
and opposite valued fluxes, leading to zero net flux through S. In other words the two opposite
magnetic poles cannot be separated or there are no magnetic monopoles. Quantitatively this can be
written as
 B  dA  0 S
with the equivalent differential form

 B  0 (5)

where B is the magnetic flux density. Equation (5) is also known as the second Maxwell equation.

31
Magnetostatics

32
 Magnetostatics
Study of uniformly moving charges, or the study of the magnetic field of steady currents is called
magnetostatics.

MAGNETIC FORCE EXPERIENCED BY A CHARGE MOVING THROUGH

A MAGNETIC FIELD:
If a positively charged particle, having charge q is moving with velocity v , in a magnetic field B ,
the charged particle experiences a magnetic force F given as:


F  q v B  (1)

Magnitude of F :
Magnitude of F will be:
F  qvB sin  (2)

where  is the angle between v and B , and 0    180.

Direction of F :
v
Using (2), (1) can be written as
B 
+
F  qvB sin  rˆ
F
where r̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of v and B .
Since equation (1) contains the cross product of v and B , Fig. (1)
it shows that F will be a vector perpendicular to the plane
v
in which v and B are lying i.e. F is perpendicular to
v and B both. A simple right hand rule can be used:
If we stretch our right hand with all the four fingers aligned,
thumb will represent v , fingers will represent B then the B
palm will be the direction in which F is acting
(fig.(2)). For a negative charge the direction is opposite. F

Fig. (2)
Trajectory of a charged particle through magnetic field
If a particle of mass m with a charge q (positive) enters a magnetic field B with speed v, so that
the velocity is making an angle θ with magnetic field, the magnetic force experienced by the particle
is
F  qv B (1)

where v  v sin  is the component of v that is normal to B . Since this force has a centripetal effect,
we can write
mv 2
F (2)
r
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
mv
qB 
r

33
 mv sin 
r
qB

Special cases:
(a) If the particle enters the magnetic field so that the velocity is orthogonal to the magnetic field i.e.,
mv
  90o , then the trajectory of the particle is a circle with radius r  [see fig.(3)(a)].
qB

(b) If the particle enters the magnetic field so that the velocity is parallel (or antiparallel) to the
magnetic field i.e.,   0o / 180 , then the trajectory of the particle is a straight line parallel (or
antiparallel) to the magnetic field [see fig.(3)(b)].
(c) If the particle enters the magnetic field so that the velocity is neither orthogonal nor it is parallel
(or antiparallel) to the magnetic field i.e., 0    90o , then the trajectory of the particle is a circular
mv sin 
helix with radius r  [see fig.(3)(c)].
qB
v v

+ v

B B v
+ + B
v

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. (3)

Biot-Savart law
A wire carries a current I, then the magnetic field generated at some point P by a small segment
of length dl of the wire at some point Q on the wire is given as

0 I dl  r
dB 
4 r 3 P
I
or r
O
 I dl   r  r
r T
dB  0 r 
4 r  r
3

dl
Q
where S
Fig. (1)
r  is the position vector of the source point Q
r is the position vector of the field point P
r  r  r is the position vector of the field point P relative to the source point Q
dl is the vector length segment at Q
If the total length of the piece of the wire ST we are interested in is L, then the net magnetic field due
to the whole of ST at P is

34
 0 I dl  r
B
4  L r
3

The above last expression is named as the Biot-Savart law, and it is the magnetostatic analogue of
the Coulomb’s law.

Applications:
Magnetic field of a straight current carrying wire
We consider a segment ST of length L of a current
Z
carrying straight wire carrying a steady current I, lying
in the XY-plane. At a point P on Z-axis, we want to P
determine the magnetic flux density B due to the current
of ST. We consider a point Q on the wire and a small

directed length segment dl there. If r is the position vector z r
of the field point P relative to the source point Q, then we have

r  dl I
dl   dl sin  nˆ (1)
r S O Q T
l
where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of L
dl and r . We see that
Fig. (1)
sin   sin  90   
sin   cos 
then (1) becomes
r
dl   dl cos nˆ (2)
r
By the Biot-Savart law the net magnetic flux density at P due to the whole segment ST is

0 I dl  r
B
4  L r
3

0 I dl  r / r
or B
4 
L r2
(3)

Putting (2) in (3)

0 I dl cos 
B
4  L r2
nˆ (4)

In OPQ:

OQ  l (perp.)

QP  r (hyp.)

OP  z (base) (constant)

We have

35
 l
tan  
z
l  z tan
then
dl  z sec2  d (5)

Also
z
cos  
r
1 cos 
or 
r z

1 cos2 
 (6)
r2 z2
Putting (5) and (6) in (4)
Z
I cos2 
B 0  z sec  d   cos  nˆ
2
P
4 L z2
2
I 1 2
4 z 
B  0 cos  d nˆ
1

I
I
B  0  sin  2  sin 1  nˆ (7) S O
4 z T

Fig. (2)
Special case: Infinitely long straight wire

For an infinitely long wire the end points S and T goes to infinity, leading to 1   / 2 and
2   / 2 (see fig. (6)), and (7) becomes

0 I
B sin  / 2   sin   / 2   nˆ
4 z 
0 I
B  2  nˆ
4 z
0 I
B nˆ
2 z
or generally

0 I
B nˆ
2 r

Ampere’s Law:
Circulation of magnetic flux density ( B ), around a simple closed curve is directly proportional to
the net current passing through the surface bounded by the curve.

36
Mathematical expression:
If a current I (enclosed current) is passing through a surface S (not necessarily flat), bounded by
a simple curve C (fig. (7)), the circulation of the magnetic
I
flux density B , of the magnetic field created by I , around C,
which is the sum (integral) of all the scalar products B  dl ,
evaluated at each point of C, is proportional to I i.e., S
C
 B  dl  0 I dl
C
B

where dl is a vector line element (tangent vector) of C. Fig. (1)

A simple derivation of Ampere’s Law:

We consider an infinitely long straight wire (of negligible thickness), passing normally through the
surface ‘S’, bounded by an amperian loop ‘C’ (circular). Obviously at every point of C, B and dl
are parallel, then say at point P we have

B  dl  Bdl cos0
C
B  dl  Bdl (1)
r
Now the circulation of B around C is:  P

 C
B  dl   C
Bdl , dl

Symmetry dictates that B (magnitude of B ) has the same value B

at every point of C; B is a constant over C, and from the above
last equation we have Fig. (2)

 B  dl  B  dl C C

 B  dl  B  length of C 
C

 B  dl  B  2 r  (2)
C

We know that the magnitude of the flux density that an infinitely long wire creates is given as

0 I
B
2 r

Using this value in (2) above

0 I
 C
B  dl 
2 r
 2 r 

 C
B  dl  0 I

37
 An important point to be noted is that the circulation is independent of the size and shape of C; C
is arbitrary as far as its size and shape are concerned.

Lacking in ampere’s law and Maxwell’s modification:

S2
We consider a capacitive circuit; a parallel plate
C
capacitor connected to a d.c source with a key ‘k’.
When the key is let closed, the current starts and S1 P1 P1 P2
E
the capacitor begins to become charged. Let I C be
IC E
conduction current flowing towards the left plate
P1 of the capacitor. Conduction current means
ordinary current due to flow of charges in a
conductor (wire). We enclose the wire with an
amperian loop C, enclosing a flat surface S1, so
that I C crosses S1, then by Ampere’s law

k
 C
B  dl  0 I C (1) Fig.(3)

Now we consider another surface S2, enclosed by C instead of S1. S2 is not flat, it passes between the
two capacitor plates, therefore IC doesn’t crosses S2 [Fig.(1)]. Consequently Ampere’s law reads

 C
B  dl  0 (2)

But this is contradictory; the surface bounded by C is arbitrary, whether it is S1 or S2, the result must
be the same. Further, IC stops at P1, nothing moves ahead, which is in contradiction to Kirchoff’s
current rule: current in must be equal to current out.
Maxwell resolved these paradoxes by introducing the notion of ‘displacement current’. As
the plates get charge, an electric field develops between them. This causes electric flux to cross S 2.
The flux crossing S2 at an instant ‘t’, according to Gauss’s law will be *

q
e   E  dA  (3)
S2 0

where q is the charge on P1 at ‘t’. Since the charge is in continuous change, flux also changes. Hence
the rate at which flux changes is by (3)

e E 1 dq
  dA 
t S 2 t  0 dt

e E
0   0  dA  I D (4)
t S2 t

*
S2 is arbitrary, and so can be made larger enough to include any flux due to fringing field between the plates. Further
S2 is an open surface but it captures all the net flux generated by P1, because the net electric field exist only between
the two capacitor plates. Hence if we include S1 with S2 to make a closed surface it doesn’t make any change in the net
flux and Gauss’s law is now applicable.
38
 dq
Here I D  , is the displacement current, which is the rate at which electric flux is changing. Now
dt
ID is the current that crosses S2, by Ampere’s Law we then have

 C
B  dl  0 I D (5)

instead of (2). We conclude that in general there are two types of currents, the ordinary / conduction
current IC and the ‘displacement current’ ID and the complete Ampere’s law should be written as

 B  dl  0  I C  I D 
C

e
or  C
B  dl  0 I C  0 0
t

 E 
or  C
B  dl   0  j   0
S
 t
  dA


where S is an arbitrary ‘simple’ surface bounded by a simple closed curve C, j is the ordinary (i.e.,
E
conduction) current density and  0 is displacement current density through S.
t

APPLICATION OF (INTEGRAL FORM OF) AMPERE’S LAW

1) Magnetic field of an infinitely long solenoid
We consider an infinitely long Solenoid i.e.,           
its area of cross-section is negligibly small
B
as compared to the length. For such a
Q P
solenoid the field outside the body is very
weak and we neglect it. We need to
determine the field inside the
solenoid. We consider a rectangular h
amperian loop PQRS (clockwise).
Then the circulation of B along the loop is
R S
l
 PQRS
B  dl  B1  PQ  B2  QR  B3  RS  B4  SP
Fig.(1)

 PQRS
B  dl  Bl cos0  B2h cos90  0  l cos  B4h cos90

 PQRS
B  dl  Bl (1)

If there are ‘n’ turns per unit length wounded on the solenoid, nlI will be the net current enclosed
by PQRS . By Ampere’s law

39
  PQRS
B  dl  0nlI (2)

Comparing (1) and (2),

B l  0n l I

B  0nI

which shows that the magnetic field inside an infinitely long solenoid is uniform and depends on the
turns/length for a given current.

2) TOROIDAL MAGNETIC FIELD

A conducting wire wound on a doughnut (tyre tube) is called a toroid. If the turns are very tightly
packed, there is almost no magnetic field outside the body of the toroid. To apply Ampere’s law, and
evaluate magnetic flux density we consider three separate ‘amperian’ loops, C1, C2, and C3, which
are outside the toroid, inside the toroid and encompassing the whole toroid respectively (Fig.(10).
We focus first on C2:

Circulation along C2
dl
We have
P B

 C2
B  dl  B  dl
C2 r
rb
i.e., by symmetry the field B may
have the same magnitude all along
C2, that is why we have taken B ra
out of the integral. The remaining
integral is the length of C2, C1

 B  dl  B  2 r  (1) C2
C2

If there are total N turns in the toroid, all pass C3

through the area bounded by C2, therefore NI
is the net current enclosed by C2 and by Ampere’s Fig. (1)
law we have

 C2
B  dl  0 NI (2)

Comparing (1) and (2):

B  2 r   0 NI

0 NI
B
2 r

40
 1
i.e., the magnetic flux density inside the toroid, decreases hyperbolically (  ) from the inner
r
surface towards the outer surface (fig.(11)).

Maximum field

If ra is the inner radius of the toroid, the maximum field is then

0 NI
Bmax 
2 ra

Minimum field

If rb is the outer radius, the minimum field is then

0 NI
Bmin 
2 rb

Circulation along C1 and C3 B

C1 encloses no current, hence by

ampere’s law
0 NI
2 ra
0 NI
 C1
B  dl  0
2 r

0 NI
and since C1 is arbitrary
2 rb
(shape and length), we have
0 ra rb r
B  dl  0 Fig. (2)

and since dl  0 , and the angle between B and dl is not fixed but dependent on C1, hence not
necessarily be 900, which leads us to the conclusion that

B0

i.e., there is no magnetic field in the outside region towards the inner surface of the toroid.
Similarly if we see C3, (Fig.(10)), it encloses both the currents moving out and moving in to the page,
leading to complete cancellation of current and Ampere’s law leads to

 C3
B  dl  0

and similar arguments as discussed above are applicable, leading again to a vanishing field outside
the toroid, towards the outer surface.

41
3) MAGNETIC FIELD OF AN INFINITELY LONG CYLINDRICAL
CONDUCTOR:
We consider an infinitely long solid metallic circular cylinder of cross-sectional radius ‘R’. The
current is uniformly distributed all over its cross-sectional area. Therefore the current density inside
the conductor is defined as

total current inside the conductor

j
total area of cross-section

I
j (1)
 R2

Now we consider an amperian

loop C of radius r, completely
lying in a plane perpendicular
to the direction of flow of current.
The circulation of B along C is C j

 C
B  dl  B  dl
C
r

R
because by symmetry B should
be constant all along C. The remaining
Fig. (1)
integral is the length of C and hence

 B  dl  B  2 r  (2)
C

The current is uniformly, continuously distributed, the current I C enclosed by C should be

proportional to the area enclosed by C. By ampere’s law

 C
B  dl  0 I C (3)

Comparing (2) and (3) and rearranging we get

0 I C
B (4)
2 r

FIELD INSIDE AND ON THE SURFACE OF THE CONDUCTOR:

Insides the conductor IC is given as

IC   current density    area of cross-section enclosed by C 

I C  j r 2 (5)

Putting (1) in (5)

42
  I  2
IC   2 
r
R 

 r2 
IC  I  2  (6)
R 

Putting (6) in (4)

0  r2 
B I 2 
2 r R 

 I 
B   0 2 r (7)
 2 R 

At the center: r  0  B0

On the surface: B

0 I
rR  B R
2 R 2 0 I
2 R

0 I 0 I
B
2 R 2 r

i.e., inside the conductor, magnetic field raises

linearly with the distance from the center,
0 R r
starting with zero at the center and reaches to
I Fig. (2)
a maximum of 0 at the surface, (fig.(13)).
2 R

FIELD OUTSIDE THE CONDUCTOR:

If the amperian loop has a radius r  R , it encloses the whole current I. Hence the field at a distance
r outside the conductor is due to I C  I , then (4) leads to

0 I
B
2 r

 I 1
or B 0 
 2 r

i.e., outside the conductor field varies hyperbolically with distance from the center of the conductor,
(fig.(13)).

MOTIONAL EMF
We consider a metallic rod of length ‘l’, moving with some velocity v, perpendicular to a uniform

43
magnetic field of induction B , [(Fig.(14)), into the page]. A free
electron inside the rod is carried along by the rod and therefore
will experience a magnetic force (downward) given as: B
v
l


Fm  e v  B 
or
F
Fm  evB sin  Fig. (1)

but here   90o , sin   sin 90o  1 , then

Fm  evB (1)

Due to this force electrons are displaced from the upper towards the lower end, causing upper and
lower ends to get positively and negatively charged respectively. But due to these two poles and
electric field E is set up in the rod. As a result each electron experiences an electrical force Fe, beside
the magnetic force, in the upward direction. Fe is given as

Fe  eE (2)

When the two forces balance each other, we have

Fm  Fe

e vB  e E

E  vB (3)

The p.d (emf)induced in the rod, will then be

  El

  vBl

i.e., the emf lasts until the rod comes to rest. Hence the emf is due to the motion of the rod in a
magnetic field and hence named motional emf.

FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC

INDUCTION:
A changing magnetic flux through a loop induces an emf in it. Magnitude of the induced emf is
directly proportional to the rate of change of the flux.

Mathematical expression: (Integral form)

We consider a loop C, bounding a surface S. When there is a change of magnetic flux through S, an
electric field* and hence an emf is induced in C. By Faraday’s Law the induced emf ‘ɛ’ is

*
This magnetically induced electric field is nonconservative, that is why its loop integral (below) is non zero.
44
 m
  C
E  dl   N
t


or  C
E  dl  
t  B  dA
S

where m is the magnetic flux through S and S is the surface bounded by C.

Motivation for faraday’s law P Q

The motional emf induced in the rod is
B

  vBl (1) l v

If dx is the displacement of the rod in a time interval dt,

then we can write
dx R
v (2) S
dx
dt F

Putting (2) in (1), Fig. (1)

Bdxl
 (1)
dt

Now it can be noted that dxl is the small area increment PQRS causing an increase of flux

d  Bdxl (2)
then (3) gives
d

dt

which is Faraday’s law for a loop (single turn; N  1 ), with the negative sign missing (due to Lenz’s
law). Here the magnetic flux is changing because the rod is moving, causing an increment in the area
through which the magnetic flux is passing. But the final result is more general, saying that the cause
of the induction of the electromotive force is the change of flux no matter how this happens.

Differential form of Ampere’s law and Faraday’s law

dA
By the Stoke’s theorem we have

 C
 
F  dl     F  dA
S
S
C
i.e., the circulation of a vector field F around some loop C dl
is equal to the flux of the circulation density (curl of F ) F
through the surface S bounded by C.
Using this theorem we can convert the integral form of Fig. (1)
Ampere’s law and Faraday’s law into their differential forms.

Differential form of Ampere’s law

Integral form of Ampere’s law is
45
  E 
 C
B  dl   0  j   0
S

  dA
t 
(1)

Now by Stoke’s theorem

 C
B  dl     B  dA
S
  (2)

Comparing (1) and (2),

 E 
   B   dA   
S S
0  j  0

  dA
t 

  E  
    B   0  j  0

   dA  0
t  
(3)

S

Since S is arbitrary in shape and size, meaning that the limits of integration in the above integral are
arbitrary, we conclude that the integrand itself is zero,

 E 
  B  0  j   0 0
 t 
E
  B  0 j   0  0
t

which is the differential form of Ampere’s law and is also called the third Maxwell equation.

Differential form of Faraday’s law

Integral form of Faraday’s law is

B
 C
E  dl   
S t
 dA (1)

Now by Stoke’s theorem

 C
E  dl     E  dA
S
  (2)

Comparing (1) and (2),

B
    E   dA   
S S t
 dA

 B 
    E  t   dA  0
S
(3)

Since S is arbitrary in shape and size, meaning that the limits of integration in the above integral are
arbitrary, we conclude that the integrand itself is zero,

 E  B / t  0

B
 E  
t

which is the differential form of Faraday’s law and is also called the fourth Maxwell equation.

46
Electrodynamics

47
Wave equation from Maxwell’s equations
When a charged particle or a permanent R
magnet accelerates or a current in a conductor
undergoes a rapid change, electromagnetic
waves (disturbance in electric and/or magnetic   0, j  0
field) are radiated by it.
As a shematic we consider a dipole
Free space
connected to an A.C. source. When current
oscillates in the circuit, polarities of the dipole
also oscillates. This causes oscillations in the Fig. (1)
electric field of the dipole, which in turn creates
oscillating magnetic field. We can quantitatively show that these variations in the electromagnetic
field do behave as waves, having speed equal to the speed of light (in free space), confirming that
light is an electromagnetic wave.
A region R very far from dipole is devoid of charges and currents. Hence any Gaussian surface
completely lying within R will not enclose any charge;   0 . Therefore the first Maxwell equation
(Gauss’s law for electrostatics in free space)

 E   /  0

will yield

 E  0 (1)
The second Maxwell equation (Gauss’s law for magnetostatics) is

 B  0 (2)
The third Maxwell equation (Ampere’s law in free space)

E
  B  0 j  0 0
t

but in R, j  0 , then

E
  B  0 0 (3)
t
Finally the fourth Maxwell equation (Faraday’s law)

B
 E   (4)
t
We are now in a position to derive the source free wave equation for either the electric field or that
for the magnetic field in free space.

Wave equation for the electric field:

Taking time derivative of (3),

 2E
t
 
  B  0 0 2
t

48
Since any realistic magnetic field B varies smoothly in space and time, its derivative must be well
defined in both space and time and hence order of space and time derivative is arbitrary. Then we
can interchange the order of space and time derivatives in the above equation,

B 2E
  0 0 2 (5)
t t
Now taking curl of (4),
B

    E     t
(6)

We have for any vector field F

 
    F    F  2 F 
using the above vector identity in the left hand side of equation (6), we have

B
 
   E  2 E   
t

but by (1)  E  0 , then the above equation becomes

B
0  2 E   
t

B
2 E    (7)
t
Comparing (5) and (7)

2E
2 E  0 0
t 2

which is the wave equation for the electric field in free space (second order partial derivatives of E
with respect to both space and time), with the speed

c  1/ 0 0

and in S.I. units 0  4 107 NA2 and  0  8.85 1012 Nm2C 2 , which gives c  3 108 m sec1 ;
the speed of light in free space. A similar equation, following the same pattern, can be derived for the
corresponding magnetic field i.e.,

2B
2 B  0 0
t 2

Plane waves
We consider the wave equation for the electric field in free space

2E
2 E  0 0 (1)
t 2

49
 2
Since 2 and are linear operators, the wave equation is linear and hence obey the superposition
t 2
principle (sum of two solutions is also a solution). The simplest solution is a plane wave solution,
which can be written as

i k r t 
E  E0 e (2)

where E0 is the (constant) amplitude, k is the wave vector (directed along the propagation direction
of the wave and k  2 /  ) and   2 f is the angular frequency.

Dispersion relation
For simplicity and without loss of generality we assume that the wave is propagating along z-axis,
hence k   k ,0,0   k kˆ , and it is plane polarized so that the plane of polarization is crossing through
the z-axis. We then have


k  r  k kˆ  xiˆ  y ˆj  z kˆ 
k  r  kz (3)

Putting (3) in (2),

E  E0 ei kz t  (4)
Now applying  on (4)
2

 2 2 2 
2 E  E0 e it  2  2  2  eikz
 x y z 

2 E  E0 e  it  k 2  eikz

2 E  k 2 E0 ei kz t 

using (2) the above last equation becomes

2 E  k 2 E (5)

2
Now applying on (4)
t 2
2 ikz 
2
E  E e e it
t 2 t 2
0

2
E  E0 eikz   2  e it
t 2

once again using (2) the above last equation becomes

2
E   2 E (6)
t 2
Putting (5) and (6) in (1),

k 2 E   0 0  2 E

50
 E   0 0  2  k 2   0

Since E  0, we have
 0 0  2  k 2  0

1
2  k2
 0 0

 2  c 2k 2

  ck (7)

which is the dispersion relation for electromagnetic waves in free space.

Relation between electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic

wave
Taking curl of (4)

 E   E0 ei kz t 

Since E is a vector field and ei kz t  is a scalar function, we can use the following vector identity

 
  F f  f   F  F f

to evaluate the above curl, and we get

 E  ei kzt  E0  E0 eikz t 

    
  E  0  E0 e  it   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  eikz
 x y z 

 E   E0 eit  ik eikz kˆ

  E   ik E  kˆ

  E  ik kˆ  E  (8)

Just like the plane wave for electric field as given by (4), the plane wave for magnetic field is

B  B0 eikzt  (9)

then taking the partial time derivative of (9)

B 
 B0 eikz e it
t t

B
 B0 eikz  i  e it
t

B
 i B (10)
t
51
By Faraday’s law

B
 E  (11)
t
Putting (7), (8) and (10) in (11)

 
ik kˆ  E  i ck B

k̂  E
B (12)
c

Special case: Electric field polarized along x-axis

We assume that the electric field vector is directed along x-axis i.e., E0  E0 iˆ , then (4) gives

E  E0 ei kzt  iˆ (13)

Using (12)
kˆ  E0 ei kz t  iˆ
B
c
i  kz t  ˆ
E e k  iˆ
B 0
c

E0 ei kz t  ˆ
B j (14)
c
that is the corresponding magnetic field is polarized along y-axis. Now we can see just in a glimpse
that E  B  0 and k  E  k  B  0 i.e., both E and B are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of propagation of the wave. It can also be noted that E and B are always in phase*. Further
from (13) and (14) we get

E
B (15)
c

that is the magnitude of the magnetic field is considerably small as compared to the magnitude of the
electric field, and that is why the electric part of the electromagnetic waves is usually the
considerable part specially when these waves interact with matter.

Energy carried by the electromagnetic waves

We consider an ideal LC oscillator i.e., having zero resistance. L and C are the inductance of the
inductor coil and the capacitance of the capacitor respectively. At some instant t there is a current
I  t  through the inductor and a charge q  t  on the capacitor. For a potential difference dV across
the plates of the capacitor, the energy it has will be

dUC  qdV

*
E and B are in phase for waves in free space. This not true for waves in other situations, for example in a cavity with
metallic walls, standing electromagnetic waves are produced in which E and B have a 90o phase difference.
52
but q  CV
L
dUC  CVdV

t V B


0

U C  t   dU C  C V dV 
0
I

UC  t   12 CV 2 E

- +
But C   0 A / d and V  Ed C

Fig. (1)
0 A
UC t   1
2 E 2d 2
d

UC  t   12  0 E 2  Ad 

UC  t  / V  12  0 E 2

uC  t   12  0 E 2 (1)

which is the energy contained per unit volume in an electric field anywhere not just between the two
plates of a capacitor.
If I  t  is the current and V  t  is the induced emf across the inductor coil, the energy it acquired
in a time dt is

dU L  IVdt

dI
But V  L
dt
dU L  LIdI

then the total energy in the inductor will be

t I


U L  t   dU L  L I dI 
0
0

U L  t   12 LI 2 (2)

but L  N / I , where N is the total number of turns in the coil and  is the magnetic flux through
the coil. Assuming the coil to be a long solenoid, the field inside is uniform and is B  0 NI / L ,
further the flux is   BA , where A is the area of crossection of the solenoid. We have

L  NBA / I

NBA 2
(2) gives U L t   1
2 I
I

53
 U L  t   12 NBAI

BL
but for solenoid I 
0 N
BL
U L t   1
N BA
2
0 N
B2
U L t   1
 AL 
2
0
U L t  1 B2
2
V 0
B2
uL  t   1
(3)
2
0

which is the energy contained per unit volume in any kind of magnetic field not restricted to a
solenoidal coil
Since an electromagnetic wave contain both electric and magnetic field, the energy density of
the wave at an instant t is


u  t   12  0 E  t   B  t  / 0
2 2
 (4)

Special case: Energy density of plane electromagnetic waves in free space

We have for plane electromagnetic waves B  t   E t  / c , () can be written as


u  t   12  0 E  t   E  t  / c0
2 2

2 1 
u  t   12  0 E  t  1  2 
 c  0 0 
But c 2  1 /  0 0
u  t   12  0 E  t  1  1
2

u t   0E t 
2
(5)

Alternatively we can also write it as

u  t   B  t  / 0
2
(6)
or
u  t   E  t  B  t  / 0c (7)

54
The Poynting vector*: Flow of energy
We consider a beam of electromagnetic radiation
passing normally through some surface [fig.(1)]. The radiation
contained within a cylinder of volume dV  dAcdt will cross cdt
the surface in a time interval dt. If u  t  is the energy density
dA

of the em radiation, the energy contained within this cylinder S

will be

dU  u  t  dV
Fig. (1)
dU  u  t  dAcdt

EB
Using (7) dU  dA c dt
0 c

dU EB

dAdt 0

EB
S (8)
0

where S  dU / dAdt is the energy crossing the surface normally per unit area per unit time. This is
in fact a vector, called Poynting vector,

EB
S (9)
0

whereas its direction is the direction of propagation of the e-m radiation.

Average energy density, intensity and their relation to poynting vector

Since the energy density of a free space em- wave at a point at some instant t is

u t   0E t 
2

Then the average energy density will be

u t   0 E t 
2
(10)
And for a plane wave we can take
E  E0 cos  kz  t 
Then
T
E2
E t  
 0 cos2  kz  t  dt
2

T 0

*
It is named after its inventor, a British physicist John Henry Poynting. He was a professor of physics at the Mason
science college from 1880 to 1900.
55
where T  2 /  , is the time period. The above integral can be easily solved to give

E t   E02 / 2 *
2
(11)

Putting (2) in (1), gives the average energy density

u  t    0 E02 / 2 (12)

Intensity is defined as the average power per unit area, crossing a surface normally, i.e.,

Average Power
I
Area

Or
Average energy
I (13)
Area  time

Equation (13) above, in accordance with fig.(1) can be written as

u  t  dAcdt
I
dA  dt

I  u t  c (14)

i.e., intensity of an em-wave is the product of the average energy density and the speed of the wave.
Using (12), (14) becomes

 0 E02
I c
2

E02 cB 2
I or I  0 (15)
20c 2 0

Or in terms of both electric and magnetic field

E0 B0
I (16)
2 0

But by (8) above, we can write

I S (17)

i.e., the intensity of em waves is the average of the poynting vector.

2
* 2

The mean value of cos  over a cycle i.e., 1 / 2  cos2  d  1 / 2 .
0
56
 Problems

57
Problem set #1

Electrostatics: Point charges and discrete charge distributions

1. A plastic rod is rubbed against a wool shirt, thereby acquiring a charge of 0.8C . How many
electrons are transferred from the wool shirt to the plastic rod?

2. A charge equal to the charge of Avogadro’s number of protons ( N A  6.02  1023 ) is called a
faraday. Calculate the number of coulombs in a faraday.

3. How many coulombs of positive charge are there in 1kg of carbon? (12gm of carbon contain
Avogadro’s number of atoms, with each atom having six protons and six electrons)

4. Charges of 7nC and 3nC are separated by 2cm. Find the electrostatic force between these
charges. Is it attractive of repulsive?

5. Identical charges separated by 1cm experience a repulsion of 0.1N . What is the magnitude of each
charge?

6. If the electric field near the earth’s surface is 100N / C directed downward everywhere, what is
the charge Q on the whole earth? (Idealize: The charge is at the center of the earth). The charge is
actually on the earth’s surface, what is the surface charge density  ?

7. If the electric field near the earth’s surface is 100N / C directed downward everywhere, and the
gravitational field is 9.8 N / kg , also downward, find the acceleration of an electron there; is it up
or down? Y

8. A positive charge q1  8 nC is at the origin, and a second

positive charge q1  12 nC on the X-axis at a distance of
O q1 P2 q2 P1
4m [fig.(1)]. Find the net electric field (a) at point P1 on +  +  X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the X-axis at x  7 m , and (b) at point P2 on the X-axis at
x  3 m . (At which point magnitude of the field is greater
and why?)
Fig. (1)

9. A charge of 3nC is located at the origin, and 5nC is located at 0.3m along the x-axis. Where is
the electric field zero?

10. A charge of 3nC is located at the origin, and 5nC is located at 0.3m along the x-axis. Where is
the electric field zero?

11. A charge of 4nC is located at the origin, and 5nC is located at 0.3m along the x-axis. Find the
electric field at y  0.2m along y-axis.

12. A charge of 4nC is located at the origin, and 5nC is located at 0.3m along the x-axis. Find the
electric field at y  0.2m along y-axis.

13. Identical charges of 1C are located at the corners of a square of length 0.1m. Find the field at
The center. (Take the center at the origin)

14. Repeat problem(13) with a replacement of one of the charges by 1C.

58
15. In the adjacent figure [fig.(2)] five point charges each of 10nC ,
Z
are shown to be placed at the vertices of a pyramid, with each
edge of length 8 cm. Find the net force on the charge placed on
the apex (along Z axis), assuming a free space between the charges.

8 cm

Y
4 cm 4 cm
X

16. Five equal charges Q are equally spaced on a semi-circle Fig. (2)
of radius R as shown in fig. (3). Find the force on a charge
Y
q located at the center of the semi-circle.
Q
+
Q
+
R
q1
Q + +
q X

Q+
14
17. An oil drop has a mass of 4 10 kg and a net charge of Q
+
4.8  1019 C. An upward electric force just balances the Fig. (3)
downward force of gravity so that the oil drop is stationary.
What is the direction and magnitude of the electric field?

18. A point charge of 5C is located at x  3.0cm and a second point charge of 8.0C is located at
x  4.0cm. Where should a third charge of 6 C be placed so that the electric field at x  0 is
zero?

19. A point charge of 5C is located at x  4m, y  2m. A second point charge of12 C is located
at x  1m, y  2m. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at x  1m, y  0. (b)
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on an electron at x  1m, y  0.

20. A point charge of 2.5C is located at x  0, y  0. A second point charge of 6.0 C is located at
x  1m, y  0.5m. Find the x and y coordinates of the position at which an electron would be in
equilibrium.

Challenge problem:

21. A simple pendulum of length L  1.0m and mass m  5.0 103 kg is placed in a uniform,
vertically directed electric field E . The bob carries a charge of 0.8C . The period of the
pendulum is 1.2sec. What is the magnitude and direction of the electric field E ?

59
Problem set #2
Electrostatics: Continuous charge distributions

1. A line of charge of linear charge density   4.5 nC / m, lies on z-axis and extend from 5cm to
5 cm. Calculate the electric field on the y-axis at (a) y  1 cm (b) y  4 cm , and (c) y  40 cm. (d)
Calculate the electric field on y-axis at y  1 cm, assuming an infinite line of charge, and also
calculate the percentage error of the approximate result as compared to the exact result of
(a). (e) find the total charge and calculate the electric field at y  40 cm , assuming the line of
charge to be a point charge and also calculate the percentage error of the result of the field as
calculated in (e) in comparison to the exact result of (c).

2. A 2.75 C charge is uniformly distributed on a ring of radius 8.5 cm. Find the electric field on
the axis at (a) 1.2 cm, (b) 3.6 cm, (c) 4.0 m from the center of the ring. (d) Find the electric field
at 4.0 m using the approximation that the ring is a point charge at the origin and find the
percentage error in this value of the field using the field value of (c) as the reference.

3. The electric field intensity along the axis of a charged ring of radius a, containing a charge q
uniformly distributed, at a distance r is given as

kqr
E 3

r 2
 a2  2
a
Show that the maximum electric field along the axis exist at r   . Also show that the
2
2 3  kq 
absolute maximum value of the field is Emax   .
9  a2 

4. A uniform line charge extends from 2.5cm to 2.5cm and has a linear charge density of
  6.0 nC / m. (a) Calculate the total charge. Find the electric field on the y-axis at (b) y  4 cm
(c) y  12 cm , and (d) y  4.5 m. (e) Find the field at y  4.5 m, assuming the line charge to be a
point charge and calculate the corresponding error in this result in comparison to the exact
result of (d).

5. A line charge of length 2L with linear charge density  is placed along z-axis with center at the
origin. The electric field intensity along an axis passing normally through the center of the line
charge (say y-axis) at a distance y from the center of the line charge is given as

2k  L
E , y0
y L  y2
2

Show that there exist no maximum/minimum value of electric field along the axis
y
6. A charge Q is uniformly distributed on a ring of radius
a with axis along x-axis. Find the electric field on the
axis at (a) x  0.2a, (b) x  0.5a, (c) x  0.7a, +
q
(d) x  a, and (e) x  2a. What is the significance of the
value of the field in (c)?
3m
7. An infinite line charge of linear charge density   0.6 C / m
lies along Z-axis, and a point charge q  8 C lies on the  z
+ + + + + +
60 O
Fig. (1)
 Y-axis at y  3m (fig (1)). Find the electric force on the point charge.

y
8. A rod of length L lies perpendicular to an infinitely
long line charge of charge density λ C/m. The near
end of the rod is at a distance d above the line charge +
(fig.(2)). The rod carries a total charge Q uniformly L+Q
distributed along its length. Find the force that the
infinitely long line charge exert on the rod. +

d
 z
+ + + + + +
O
Fig. (2)
9. A ring of radius R that lies in the horizontal (xy) Z
plane carries a charge Q uniformly distributed over
its length. A mass m carries a charge q whose sign Q
is opposite that of Q. (a) What is the minimum O R
Y
value of q / m such that the mass will be in z
F
equilibrium under the action of gravity and the X
+
electrostatic force on the charge q (fig.(3))? (b) If
q / m is twice what is calculated in (a), where will mg
Fig. (3)
the mass be when it is in equilibrium?
y

q
+

3m
z

+ +
10. An infinite line charge of linear charge density +
  0.6 C / m lies along Z-axis, and a point + + +
+
charge q  8 C lies on the Y-axis at y  3m  4m P
(fig.(4)). Find the electric field at the point P  x
on the x-axis at x  4 m. y Fig. (4)

q
+
11. A spherical shell of radius R  3 m has its center 2
m P Q
at the origin and carries a surface charge density   x
R  3m
of   3 nC / m2 . A point charge q  250 nC is 2
m 4
on the y-axis at y  2 m (fig.(5)). Find the electric m
field on the x-axis at (a) x  2 m and (b) x  4 m.
Fig. (5)

61
12. A ring of radius R that lies in the horizontal yz plane carries a positive charge Q uniformly
distributed over its length. A particle of mass m that carries a negative charge of magnitude q is
at the center of the ring. (a) Show that if x R, the electric field along the axis of the ring is
proportional to x. (b) Find the force on the mass m as a function of x. (c) Show that if m is given a
small displacement in the x direction, it will perform simple harmonic motion. Calculate the time
period of motion.

13. When the charges Q and q of problem 12 are 5C and 5C respectively, and the radius of the
ring 8.0cm, the mass m oscillates about its equilibrium with an angular frequency of
21 rad / s. Find the angular frequency of oscillation of the mass if the radius of the ring is doubled
to 16cm and all other parameters remain unchanged.

14. Given the initial conditions of problem 13, find the angular frequency of oscillation of the mass if
the radius of the ring is doubled to 16cm while keeping the linear charge density on the ring
constant.

15. Two infinite planes of charge lie parallel to each other and to the yz plane. One is at x  2m and
has a surface charge density of   3.5 C / m2 . The other is at x  2m and has a surface
charge density of   6.0 C / m2 . Find the electric field for (a) x  2m; (b) 2m  x  2m; and
(c) x  2m.
y
16. A infinite charged plane in the xz-plane
carries a uniform surface charge density
 1  65 nC / m 2 . A second infinite charged 2
plane carrying a uniform surface charge
density  2  45 nC / m 2 intersects the xz-plane
at the z-axis and makes an angle of 30o with x
the xz-plane (fig.(6)). Find the net electric 30o 1
field in the xy-plane at (a) x  6 m, y  2 m
and (b) x  6 m, y  5 m. z Fig. (6)

17. A infinite charged plane parallel to the xz-plane

at y  0.6m, carries a uniform surface charge
0,  0.6m
density  1  3 C / m 2 . A second infinite charged O y
plane carrying a uniform surface charge P1  0.4m,0
density  2  2 C / m 2 parallel to the yz-plane
at x  1m. A sphere of radius 1m with its center 2
in the xy-plane at the intersection of the two 3
1m,  0.6 m
charged planes  x  1m, y  0.6 m  has a surface
charge density  3  3C / m 2 (fig.(7)). Find the 1 P2  2.5 m,0
magnitude and direction of the electric field on x
the x-axis at (a) x  0.4 m and (b) x  2.5 m.
Fig. (7)

18. A nonconducting sphere of radius R  0.1 m carries a uniform volume charge density
  2.0 nC / m3. The magnitude of the electric field at r  2 R is 1883 N / C. Find the magnitude
of the electric field at r  0.5R.

62
Problem set #3
Electrostatics: Charge density and integral form of Gauss’s law in symmetric cases

1. Calculate the total charge Q contained in a cylindrical tube of charge oriented along z-axis.
The linear charge density is   2z , where z is the distance in meters from the bottom end of
the tube. The total length of the tube is 10cm .

2. A cube 2m on a side is located in the first octant in a Cartesian coordinate system, with one of its
corners at the origin. Find the total charge contained in the cube if the charge density is given by

  xy 2e2 z mC / m3 . 
3. Find the total charge contained in a cylindrical volume defined by r  2 m and 0  z  3 m , if the

volume charge density is   10rz mC / m3 . 
4. Find the total charge contained in a cone defined by R  2 m and 0     / 4, given that charge


density is   20R2 cos2  mC / m3 . 
5. A circular disk of electric charge is characterized by an azimuthally symmetric surface charge
density that increases linearly with r from zero at the center to 6 C / m2 at r  3 cm. Find the total
charge present on the surface of the disk.

6. A square plate in the x-y plane is situated in the space defined by 3m  x  3 m and
3m  y  3 m . Find the total charge on the plate if the surface charge density on the plate is


  4 y 2 C / m2 . 
7. A spherical shell centered at the origin extends between R  2 cm and R  3 cm. If the volume
 
charge density is given by   3R 104 C / m3 , find the total charge contained in the shell.

8. Find the total charge within a cylinder of length L and crossectional diameter 2R, when the
charge density is   1010 e  r C / m3.

9. Use Gauss’ law and symmetry to find the electrostatic field as a function of position for an
Infinite uniform line of charge. Let the charge lie along z axis and denote the charge per unit
length by λ.

10. Use Gauss’ law and symmetry to find the electrostatic field as a function of position for an
Infinite cylinder of charge whose axis coincide with z axis. The volume charge density in
Cylindrical coordinates is

 0 , rb
 r  
0, rb
where  0 and b are constants.

11. Repeat problem (10) with   r   0e r /b .

12. Use Gauss’ law and symmetry to find the electrostatic field as a function of position for the
63
 spherically symmetric charge distribution whose density in spherical polar coordinates is

 0 , rb
 r  
0, rb
where  0 and b are constants.

13. Repeat problem (12) with   r   0e r /b .

14. Use Gauss’ law and symmetry to find the electrostatic field as a function of position for the
spherically symmetric charge distribution whose density in spherical polar coordinates is

0 , rb

  r    1, b  r  2b
0 r  2b

where  0 and b are constants.

15. (a) What is the total charge of the distribution given in problem (14) as a function of  0 and b.
(b) How must  0 and 1 be related so that the field will be zero for r  2b ? What is the total
charge of this distribution under these circumstances?

16. Find the field inside and outside of an infinite cylinder of radius R and charge
density   r    / r , where σ is a constant.

Problem set #4
Electrostatics: Potential from field and vice versa

1. An electric field points in the positive x direction and has a constant magnitude of 10 N / C . Find
the potential as a function of x, assuming that V  0 at x  0.

2. An electric field points in the positive x direction and has a magnitude of 10 x N / C. Find the
potential as a function of x, assuming that V  0 at x  0. 3.

3. (a) What is the electric potential at a distance r  0.53  1010 m from a proton? (This is the
average distance between the proton and the electron in a hydrogen atom.) (b) What is the
potential energy of the electron and the proton at this separation?

4. A positive charge of magnitude 2 C is at the origin. (a) What is the electric potential V at point
4 m from the origin relative to V  0 at infinity? (b) How much work must be done by an outside
agent to bring a 3  C charge from infinity to r  4 m, assuming that the 2 C charge is held
fixed at the origin? (b) How much work must be done by an outside agent to bring the 2 C
charge from infinity to the origin if the 3  C charge is first placed at r  4 m and then is held
fixed?

5. An electron gun fires electrons at the screen of a cathode ray tube (CRT). The electrons start
from rest and are accelerated through a potential difference of 30000 volt. What is the energy of
the electrons when they hit the screen (a) in electron volts and (b) in joules? (c) What is the speed
of impact of the electrons with screen of the CRT?

64
6. Four 2 C point charges are the corners of a square of side 4 m. Find the potential at the center of
the square if (a) all the charges are positive, (b) one of them is negative, and (c) two are positive
and two are negative.

7. Three point charges on the x-axis: q1 is at the origin, q2 is at x  3 m, and q3 is at x  6 m. Find the
potential at the point x  0, y  3m if (a) q1  q2  q3  2 C , (b) q1  q2  2 C and q3  2 C ,
and (c) q1  q3  2 C and q2  2 C.

8. In nuclear fission, a Uranium-235 nucleus captures a neutron and split apart into two lighter
nuclei. Sometimes the two fission products are a Barium nucleus (charge 56e) and a Krypton
nucleus (charge 36e). Assume that these nuclei are positive point charges separated by
r  14.6 1015 m. Calculate the potential energy of this two point charge system in electron volts.

Remarks The separation distance r was chosen to be the sum of the radii of the two nuclei. After
the fission the two nuclei fly off apart because of their electrostatic repulsion. The original
potential energy of 199 MeV (answer of the above problem) is converted into kinetic energy and
thermal energy. The average energy given off in chain reactions of this type is about 200 MeV
per nucleus as is the answer of the above problem.

9. The screened Coulomb potential that commonly occurs in a conducting medium is given as

q e  r /
V
4 0 r

where q is the total charge responsible for the potential and  is characteristic length over which
the potential decreases effectively. Calculate (a) the corresponding field intensity
(using E  V ) and (b) charge density.
(Hint: use formulae from sheet#3)

10. A point charge q is located at the origin in free space. Potential at a radial distance r from the
charge is
q
V
4 0r

Find the electric field intensity. (Hint: use gradient in spherical polar coordinates)

11. A uniformly charged ring of radius a and total charge q lies in the yz plane, so that the x
axis is passing through its center. If the potential at a distance x from the center of the ring
is
kq
V
x  a2
2

Find the expression for the electric field.

12. An infinite line of charge with uniform linear charge density λ, placed along z-axis with
origin O exactly at its center. The potential at a radial distance r from the line is

r
V  2k  ln  
a
where a is a constant. Find the electric field.

65
13. A very thin infinite plane with uniform surface charge density σ is in the yz plane. Potential at a
distance x from the plane is


V
2 0
a  x 

d x z
where a is a constant. Find the electric field. (Hint:  sgn  x  )
dx

14. Find the potential difference between the origin and the point
 2, / 4, / 2
 2m, / 4, / 2 in the field III
I y
10 ˆ
E  5e  r /4 rˆ  
r sin  II
x
Fig. (1)
using the path shown in fig.(1).

15. Given the electric field E  2 x iˆ  4 y ˆj (N/C), find the work done in moving a point charge +2C
(a) from  2m,0,0 to  0,0,0 and then from  0,0,0 to  0,2m,0 ; (b) directly from  2m,0,0
to  0,2m,0 via the straight line path joining the two points (see fig.(2)).

Problem set #5
Electrostatics: Applications of differential form of Gauss’s law and divergence theorem

1. The electric field intensity of a continuous spherical charge distribution with radius 3m is
729
E  r 4 rˆ N / C, at a point inside the sphere and E  2 rˆ, at a point outside the sphere. (a) Find
r
the divergence of the field inside and outside the sphere, and comment on the outcomes in the
light of the definition of divergence; divergence is the flux per unit volume with volume tending
to zero. (b) Using differential form of Gauss’s law find the charge density of this distribution.

2. Determine which of the following electric fields could describe a static electric field (based on
the property  E  0 ). Find the corresponding volume charge density using differential form of
Gauss’s law where possible:

r cos  2
(a) E  rˆ (b) E  rˆ (c) E  2 y 2 iˆ (d) E  rˆ (cylindrical)
1  r2 r5 3  r4

3. Show that the net electric charge in the hemisphere z


ˆ ,
ˆ  ˆjxz  kxy
is zero, given the electric field: E  c iyz  S1
where c is constant (with dimensions of Electric field
intensity/area). (Hint: If charge density is identically zero then
charge is also zero)
2 2 2 R
( S1 : z  R  x  y
S2 : z  0, x 2  y 2  R 2 ) S2
x-y plane

66
4. Find the net charge contained within the axially
chopped cylindrical surface, bounded by four z
surfaces: S1, S2, S3 and S4, given the electric field
 
S3
ˆ  ˆjy , where c is a constant
intensity (a) E  c ix S1
(with dimensions of field intensity/length) and

(b) E  c ˆjy 3  kz 
ˆ 3 where c is a constant S2
y
S4

(with dimensions of field intensity/volume) h/2

R
(Hint: use cylindrical coordinate system with x replacing z) x
z
5. Find the net electric flux through a cube of dimensions
b (see the adjacent fig.). Let the electric field intensity
 
ˆ and (b) E  e  x ix
ˆ  ˆjy  kz
be (a) E  ix  ˆ .
ˆ  ˆjy  kz 
(Hint: use divergence theorem)
y

x b
6. Find the net electric flux through a right circular cylinder
with axis along z-axis, having radius R and height h, above

the x-y plane. Let the electric field intensity be E  ln  x 2  y 2  ix
ˆ  ˆjy 
(Hint: use cylindrical coordinate system)

Problem set # 6
Steady magnetic field
1. Copper wire 0.40 mm in diameter is tightly wound into a long solenoid, and a 3.6 A current passed
through it. What is the magnetic field in the solenoid?

2. A solenoid used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is 2.4 m long and 95 cm in diameter. It is
wound from a niobium-titanium superconducting wire 2.0 mm in diameter, with adjacent turns
separated by an insulating layer of negligible thickness. What current is necessary to produce a 1.5
T magnetic field inside the solenoid?

3. The magnetic field shown in Fig.(1) below, has uniform magnitude 75 μT, but its direction
reverses abruptly. How much current is encircled by the rectangular amperian loop?

B B

15 cm 4.0 cm

7.0 cm
20 cm
Fig.(1) Fig.(2)

4. Fig.(2) shows a magnetic field pointing in the x- direction. Its strength, however, varies with
position in the y- direction. At the top and the bottom of the rectangular ‘amperian’ loop shown the
field strengths are 3.4 μT and 1.2 μT, respectively. How much current flows through the area
enclosed by the loop?

5. A toroidal coil of inner radius 15 cm and outer radius of 17 cm is wound from 1200 turns of wire.
What are (a) the minimum and (b) the maximum magnetic field strengths within the toroid when it
carries a 10 A current?

67
6. Two infinitely long straight wires are in the z
xy plane and parallel to x axis. One wire is at
y  6 cm and the other is at y  6 cm . The
current in each wire is 20 A. If the currents
in both the wires are in the negative x direction, y  6 cm
find B at the points on the y axis at (a) y  3 cm ,
(b) y  0 , (c) y  3 cm , and (d) y  9 cm .
x y
y  6 cm

7. Find B at points on y axis as in problem 6 when the current in the wire at y  6 cm is in the
negative x direction and the current in the wire at y  6 cm is in the positive x direction.

8. Find B on the z axis at z  8 cm if (a) the currents are parallel as in problem 6, and (b) the currents
are antiparallel as in problem 7.

9. A toroidal fusion reactor requires a magnetic field that varies by no more than 10% from its
central value of 1.5 T. If the minor radius of the toroidal coil producing this field is 30 cm, what is
the minimum value of the major radius of the device?

10. A wire of radius 0.5 cm carries a current of 100 A that is uniformly distributed over its cross-
sectional area. Find B (a) 0.1 cm from center of the wire, (b) at the surface of the wire, and (c) at
appoint outside the wire 02 cm from the surface of the wire. (d) Sketch a graph of B versus the
distance from the center of the wire.

11. A long straight wire carries a current of 10 A. Find the magnitude of B at (a) 10 cm, (b) 50 cm,
and (c) 2 cm from the center of the wire.
I1
L

12. Three infinitely long parallel wires are at the corners of a square.
They each carry a current of magnitude I. Find the magnetic field L L
B at the unoccupied corner of the square when (a) all the currents
are into the paper, (b) I1 and I3 are in and I2 is out, and (c) I1 and I2
are in and I3 is out. L
I2 I3

13. A solenoid 2.7 m long has a radius of 0.85 cm and 600 turns. It carries of 2.5 A. What is the
approximate magnetic field B on the axis of the solenoid?
C2

14. In fig.(), one current is 8 A into the paper and the other is 8 A
C1
out of the paper, and each curve is a circular path. Find  B  dl
C
for each path indicated.  C3

68
Problem set #7

Electrodynamics: wave equation, plane waves, poynting vector and intensity of e-m waves

1. A parallel plate capacitor has closely spaced circular plates of radius R. Charge is flowing onto
the positive plate and off the negative plate at the rate I  dQ / dt  2.5 A. Show that the
displacement current between the plates is exactly equal to the above conduction current.

2. A parallel plate capacitor in air has circular plates of radius 2.3 cm separated by 1.1 mm.
Charge is flowing onto the upper plate and off the lower plate at a rate of 5 A. (a) Find the time
rate of change of the electric field between the plates. (b) What is the value of the displacement
current?

3. (a) Show that for a parallel plate capacitor the displacement current is given by
I D  CdV / dt, where C is the capacitance and V is voltage across the plates of the capacitor. (b)
A parallel plate capacitor with capacitance C  5 nF is connected to an emf    0 cos t , where
 0  3volt and   500 . Find the displacement current between the plates as a function of time.

4. The electric field vector of an electromagnetic wave is given by

E  E0 sin  kx  t  ˆj  E0 cos  kx  t  kˆ . (a) Find the corresponding magnetic field. (b) Compute
the Poynting vector and also show that the electric and magnetic fields are orthogonal.

1 2E
5. Show by direct substitution that the wave equation 2 E  is satisfied by the wave
c 2 t 2
function E y  E0 sin  kx  t  , where   ck .

6. The fields of an electromagnetic wave are E  E0 sin  kz  t  ˆj , and B  B0 sin  kz  t  iˆ . Show

that this e-m wave is propagating towards negative z axis.

7. What are the wavelengths of (a) a 100 MHz FM radio wave, (b) a 3.0GHz radar wave,
(c) a 6.0  1014 Hz light wave, and (d) a 1.0 1018 Hz x-ray?

8. What would be the average intensity of a laser beam so strong that its electric field has a peak
value of 3 106 volt / m .
Remarks: This laser is so strong that its electric field can cause dielectric breakdown of air.

9. A laser blackboard pointer delivers 0.1mW average power in a beam of 0.90mm diameter. Find
(a) the average intensity, (b) the peak electric field, and (c) the peak magnetic field?

10. A 1.0 kW radio transmitter broadcasts uniformly in all directions. What is the intensity of its
signal at a distance of 5.0km from the transmitter?

69
 Answers

70
 Answers to problem set#1

1. 5  1012 2. 9.6  104 C 3. 4.82  107 C

4. 472.5 N , attractive 5. 33.3nC 6. 4.5 105 C,  8.8 1010 C / m2

7. 1.76 1013 m / sec2 , upward 8. (a) 13.5 N / C  iˆ (b) 116 N / C  iˆ

9. 0.131m, between the charges 10. 1.031 m, to the left of the charges

11. 288 iˆ  708 ˆj or 764 N / C , 67.9 12. 288 iˆ  1092 ˆj or 1129 N / C , 104.78

13. 0  
14. 2.5  106 iˆ  ˆj N / C or 3.6 106 N / C, 225

15.  4.0  104 N  kˆ 16.  2 1  4qQR

0
2

17. 8.2 105 N / C, upward 18. 5.7 cm, to the right of the origin

 
19.  8100 iˆ  10112 ˆj N / C or 1.3  104 N / C, 231.3 ,

 
and 1  1015 1.3iˆ  1.62 ˆj N or 2.08 1015 N , 51.3

20.  1.83m,  0.92m 

Note: All angles are measured anticlockwise from positive x-axis.

Answers to problem set#2

1. (a) 7942.7 N / C (b) 1581.3 N / C (c) 25.117 N / C (d) 8100.0 N / C , 1.98%

(e) 4.51010 C, 25.313 N / C, 0.78%

2. (a) 4.7 105 N / C (b) 1.133 106 N / C (c) 1.5458 103 N / C (d) 1.5469 103 N / C,0.068%

4. (a) 3.0 1011 C (b) 143.10 N / C (c) 18.356 N / C (d) 1.33 102 N / C
2
(e) 1.33 10 N / C,0%

Q Q Q Q

6. (a) 1.697  109  2  (b) 3.22  109  2  (c) 3.46  109  2  (d) 3.182  109  2 
a  a  a  a 
Q
(e) 1.61  109  2 
a 
2k Q d  L 3 3 gR 2
7. 0.0288 N ˆj 8. ln 9. (a) (b)
L d 2 kQ

10. 5004 iˆ  1728 ˆj N / C   
11. (a) 198.87 iˆ  ˆj N / C  
(b) 291.47 iˆ  50.31 ˆj N / C

mR 3
12. 2 13. 7.42 rad / s 14. 10.5 rad / s
kQq

71
15. (a) 1.41  105 N / C iˆ (b) 5.37  105 N / C iˆ (c) 1.41  105 N / C iˆ


16. (a) 1.27 103 iˆ  1.47 103 ˆj N / C  
(b) 1.27 103 iˆ  5.87 103 ˆj N / C 

17. (a) 1.13 105 iˆ  1.69 105 ˆj N / C  
(b) 2.33 105 iˆ  1.21 105 ˆj N / C
18. 3766 N / C

Answers to problem set#3

1. 1  102 C 2. 2.62 mC 3. 240 mC 4. 0.173C

5. 11.31mC 6. 0.432 mC 7. 0.612 nC 8. 1010 2 L 1  e  R  R  1  C

 0r  b2
9. E  rˆ 10. E  rˆ  r  b  , E  0 rˆ  r  b 
2 0 r 2 0 2 0r

 0b 2 0r  b3
11. E  1  1  r / b  e  r /b  rˆ 12. E  rˆ  r  b  , E  0 2 rˆ  r  b 
 0r 3 0 3 0r

 0b 3   r 2 r  
13. E  2 
2   2  2  2  e  r / b  rˆ
 0r   b b  

0r 1
b3 0   r 3  b3  1  rˆ  b  r  2b  ,
14. E  rˆ  r  b  , E  2  
3 0 3 0 r
b3
E  0  71  rˆ  r  2b 
3 0r 2

4  R
15. (a) q   b3   0  7 1  (b)  0  71 , q  0 16. ,
3  0  0r

Answers to problem set#4

1. V  x   10 x volt 2. V  x   0.045  5x 2

3. (a) 27.17 volt (b) 4.347  1018 J

4. (a) 4500 volt (b) 0.0135 J (c) 0.0135 J

5. (a) 300000eV (b) 4.8 1014 J (c) 3.248  108 m / sec

6. (a) 25456volt (b) 12728volt (c) 0

7. (a) 12926volt (b) 7559.3volt (c) 4440.7 volt

8. 199 MeV

72
 q  1 1   r / r  1   r /
9. (a)   e (b) q    r   e
4 0  r   r2  4 2 r 

q kqx 2k 
10. E  rˆ 11. E  iˆ 12. E  rˆ
4 0 r
x 
2
2 3/2 r
2
a
  ˆ
 2 i , x0
 
13. E  sgn  x  iˆ or E   0 14. 23.58volt
2 0    iˆ x0
 2 0

15. 24 J

Answers to problem set#5

6 0r 3 , r  3
1. (a) 6r ,0 3
(b)   
 0 r3

2. (a)  0
3  r  2
3 cos 
(b)  0 6 (c) 0 (d)
6 0 1  r 4 
1  r  2 2
r 3  r4 
2
r

4. (a) c 0 R2h (b)

3
2
c 0 R 4h 5. (a) 3b3 
(b) b2  b  1 e b  1 
6. 4 hR2 ln R2

Answers to problem set#6

1. 11 mT 2. 2.4 kA 3. 24 A 4. 123 mA

5. (a) 1.60  102 T (b) 1.41  102 T

6. (a) 1  104 T (b) 0 (c) 1 104 T (d) 1.6 104 T

7. (a) 1.78 104 T (b) 1.33 104 T (c) 1.78 104 T (d) 1.0667 104 T

8. (a) 6.4  105 T , towards +y axis (b) 4.8  105 T , towards -z axis

9. 3.3 m 10. (a) 8  104 T (b) 4  103 T (c) 2.86  103 T

11. (a) 2  105 T (b) 4  106 T (c) 1 104 T

30 I ˆ ˆ 0 I ˆ ˆ 0 I ˆ ˆ
12. (a)
4 L
ij   (b)
4 L
i  j  (c)
4 L
 i  3 j  13. 6.98 104 T

14. (a) C1 :1.01  105 T .m (b) C2 : 0 (c) C3 : 1.01  105 T .m

73
 Answers to problem set#7

2. 3.4 1014 V / m.sec 3. (b) 0.75 sin 500 t    A

4. (a) 1c   E0 cos  kx  t  ˆj  E0 sin  kx  t  kˆ  (b)  E0 2 / 0c  iˆ

 

7. (a) 3m (b) 0.1m (c) 0.5  m (d) 0.3nm

8. 12 Gwatt / m2

9. (a) 157W / m2 (b) 344V / m (c) 1.15 T

10. 3.18 W / m2

74
 Bibliography
1. William H. Hayt Jr.,
Engineering electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill Higher Education; 7th edition (2005)

2. David J. Griffiths,
Introduction to electrodynamics, Addison Wesley; 2nd edition (1989)

3. Robert H. Good,
Classical electromagnetism, Saunders College Publishing; 1st edition (1998)

4. Paul A. Tipler,
Physics for scientists and engineers, vol. 2, Worth Publishers; 4th edition (1998)

5. Fawwaz T.Ulaby,
Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice-Hall International; 1st edition (1997)

6. Richard E. Dubroff, S. V. Marshall, and G. G. Skitek

Electromagnetic concepts and applications, Prentice-Hall International; 4th edition (1996)

7. H. M. Schey
div, grad, curl and all that, W. W. Norton and company; 2nd edition (1992)

8. J. R. Reitz, F. J. Milford, and R. W. Christy

Foundations of Electromagnetic theory, Addison-Wesley Publishing company; 3rd edition
(1979)

75
 Formulae

76
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE & CURL

Cartesian

 ˆ  ˆ 
Gradient   iˆ j k
x y z

Fx Fy Fz

Divergence  F   
x y z

 F F  ˆj  Fx  Fz   kˆ  Fy  Fx 

  F  iˆ  z  y      x y 
Curl
 y z   z x  

Spherical polar

 ˆ 1  ˆ 1 
Gradient   rˆ  
r r  r sin  

1  2  1 F
Divergence  F 
r r
2  r Fr  
1
r sin  
 F sin   
r sin  

1   F  ˆ 1  1 Fr   ˆ1  Fr 

Curl   F  rˆ 
r sin   
 F sin    
    r  sin    r  rF     r  r  rF    
 
  

Cylindrical

 ˆ 1  
Gradient   rˆ   zˆ
r r  z

1  1 F Az
Divergence  F   rFr   
r r r  z

 1 Fz F  F F 1  F 
Curl   F  rˆ  sin       ˆ  r  z   zˆ   rF   r 
 r  z   z r  r  r  

where     r  and F  F  r  are scalar and vector fields respectively.

77
Useful results and formulae Prefixes for powers of 10
Multiple Prefix Abbreviation
r 
(i)    3   4  r 
r  1018 exa E
r  1 15
(ii)    2   2 10 peta P
r  r 12
10 tera T
r  2
(iii)      109 giga G
r r
1 r 106 mega M
(iv)      3
r r 103 kilo k
 
(v)    F    F  F   102 hecto h
(vi) Stoke’s theorem:  C S

F .dr     F  dA  101 deca da
10-1 deci d
(vi) Divergence theorem:  S
F .dA     F dV
V
10-2 centi c
-3
10 milli m
-6
10 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
Physical constants
10-15 femto f
me  9.1  1031 kg rest mass of electron 10-18 atto a
mp  1.67 1027 kg rest mass of proton
19
e  1.6  10 C quantum of charge (charge of proton/electron)
 0  8.85  1012 C 2 N 1m 2 permittivity of free space
k  1 / 4 0  9  109 Nm 2C 2 electrostatic constant
0  4  107 NA2 permeability of free space
c  3  108 m sec 1 speed of light in free space
M e  6  1024 kg mass of earth
Re  6.4  106 m radius of earth
N A  6.023  10 23
Avogadro’s number

Some geometrical facts

A   r2 area of circle
As  4 r 2 surface area of sphere
V  43  r 3 volume of sphere
A  2 r  r  l  surface area of cylinder
V   r 2l volume of cylinder
V  13  r 2h volume of cone

78