PS NOTES Final File

PS NOTES
PHYSICS
II PU COMPLETE NOTES
Chapterwise important questions
based on updated syllabus 2023
concept wise Numericals for each
chapter
Previous year question papers with
key answers
By
Pradeep Kumar H M MSc. BEd.
Lecturer in Physics
Sunil Kumar M MSc. BEd.
Lecturer in Physics
Electric Charges & fields
Electrostatics: The branch of physics, which deals with the study of electric forces, fields & electric
potentials due to charges at rest is known as Electrostatics.
Historically the credit of discovery goes to Thales of Miletus, Greece, around 600 BC.
The name electricity is coined from the Greek word elektron meaning amber.
Electric Charge: Electric charge is a physical property of matter which causes it to experience a force when
placed near other matter.
Two kinds of charges: Benjamin Franklin named the two kinds of charges as positive and negative.
Electrification: The process of charging a body is known as electrification.
(1) Charging by Friction: When we rub two insulating substances against each other, both the bodies gets
charged. The body which loses electrons become positively charged & the one which gains electrons
become negatively charged.
(2) Charging by conduction: A body can be charged by putting it in contact with another charged body
s
either directly or by means of a conductor.
(3) Charging by induction: Uncharged body can be charged, when it is brought near the charged body.
te
BASIC PROPERTIES OF CHARGES: (M-18, M-19)
No
1.Electric charge it is a scalar quantity.
2.Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
3.Additivity of charge: Total charge of a system is obtained by adding algebraically all the charges present
anywhere on the system.
4. Conservation of charge: he net electric charge in an isolated system always remain constant.
S
5. Quantization of electric charge: Free charges are integral multiple of a basic charge e.
Total charge on a body q   ne
where n  is any integer and e = 1.6 x 10-19C
P
COULOMB’S LAW (J-15, M-17, M-19, M-20)

Statement: The electrostatic force between any two point charges at rest is
a) directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges
b) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
and acts along the line joining the two charges
Explanation: Consider two point charges q1 and q2 are separated in vacuum by a distance r, then
qq
According to Coulomb's law, F  1 2 2
r
qq
F  K 12 2
r
Where K is electrostatic force constant.
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Note: The value of K depends on the nature of medium separating the charges, and on the system of units.
1
When the charges are situated in free space/air, In SI system, K   9  109 Nm 2 C2
40
Where 0  absolute permittivity of free space.

0  8.854 1012 C2 N1m2
The magnitude of force is
……………………………………………………….....................................................................................
Coulomb’s law in vector form: (M-15)
Let the position vectors of charges q1 and q2 be r1 and r2

respectively.
1 q1q 2
Force on q2 dueto q1 is F21  rˆ21 → (1)
40 r212
s
1 q1q 2
Force on q1 dueto q2 is F12  rˆ12 → (2)
40 r122 te
 F12  F21
No
Thus coulomb’s law agrees with Newton’s third law.
Unit of charge (M-14, J-16)

The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C).
S
Definition of unit charge (or) (one coulomb): (M-14, M-15)

Z from another equal & similar charge
One coulomb is the charge that when placed at a distance of one metre
9
in vacuum experiences an electrical force of repulsion of 9×10 N.
P
Dielectric Constant or Relative Permittivity ∈ r  : of a medium is defined as the ratio of permittivity of the

given medium to the permittivity of free space.  r 
0
(OR) It can also be defined as, the force between two point charges separated by a certain distance in free
space or vacuum to the force between the same two point charges separated by the same distance in the
medium.
F0
εr =
Fm
Forces between multiple charges:
principle of superposition: According to principle of super position, the force on any charge due to a number
of other charges is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a
time.
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Consider a system of three charges q1 , q2 & q3 as shown in figure.
1 q1q 2
Force on q1 due to q2 is F12  rˆ12
4 0 r122
1 q1q3
Force on q1 due to q3 is F13  rˆ13
40 r132
The resultant force F on the charge q1 due to the two charges q1 & q2 is
F  F12  F13
1 q1q 2 1 q1q3
F rˆ12  rˆ13
40 r12
2
40 r132
1 q1q 2 1 q1q3 1 q1q n
In general, F  rˆ12  rˆ13      rˆ1n
40 r12
2
40 r13
2
40 r1n2
q1  n qi 
 F  rˆ1i 
40  i 2 r1i2 
s
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. te
ELECTRIC FIELDS
No
Electric field: due to a charge is the space around the charge, in which a test charge will experience an
electrostatic force.
The concept of field was introduced first by ‘Faraday’

S
Note: The charge, which is producing the electric field is called a source charge and the charge which tests
the effect of source charge is called a test charge.
P
Electric field intensity ( E ) : At a point is defined as the electrostatic force experienced by a test charge
placed at that point.
The electric field intensity at any point is the strength of electric field at that point.
If F is the force acting on a small test charge +q0 at any point r , then electric field intensity at this point is
given by
SI unit of electric field intensity is N/C (or) V/m.

Electric intensity is a vector. The direction of E is the same as the direction of F .
Note: If the source charge is positive, the electric field is directed radially outward from the charge.
If the source charge is negative, the electric field is radially inwards.
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Electric field intensity due to a point charge: To calculate electric field intensity at any point P due to a
point charge q at O, at a distance r, imagine a small positive test charge q0 at P.
O P
q r q0
1 q q0
According to coulomb’s law, force on charge qo at P is F  ̂
40 r 2
Where ̂ is unit vector directed form q towards q0
F
By definition, E 
q0
∴ ̂
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Electric field intensity due to a system of charges: Electric field intensity at any point due to a system of
point charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric fields due to individual charges at the same point.
Let P be a point at distances r1, r2, r3 ----- rn from the point charges q1, q2, q3 ----- qn in a system
s
1 q1
Electric field intensity at P due to charge q1 is E1  rˆ1
40 r12
te
where ̂ is the unit vector from q1 to P
1 q2
The electric field at P due to charge q2 at a distance r2 is E 2  rˆ2
40 r22
No
where ̂ is the unit vector from q2 to P and so on.
By the superposition principle, the resultant electric field E at the point P due to the system of charges is
E  E1  E2      En
S
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
E rˆ + r̂ + ------- + r̂n ̂i
40 r12 1
40 r2
2 2
40 rn2
P
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
ELECTRIC DIPOLE: (M-16)

An electric dipole consists of a pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by some small
distance.
Ex.:- molecules of ammonia, water, alcohol, carbon dioxide, HCl etc., -q
+q
Electric dipole moment ( p ): (M-22) O
2l
It is defined as the product of the magnitude of either charge and the
distance between them.
That is P = q 2l 
SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb-metre (C-m)
It is a vector quantity.
Note: By convention, the direction of dipole moment is from negative charge to positive charge.
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Electric field intensity due to a dipole at any point on its axial line (M-16, J-17)
Consider an electric dipole consisting of 2 point charges –q and +q -q +q

separated by a small distance 2l. Let E be the electric intensity at a
O B P
point P on the axial line of the dipole at a distance r from the centre
O of the dipole. 2l
r
Step I. If E1 is the electric intensity at P due to charge –q , then
1 q 1 q
E1= = along PA
4πε0 AP 4πε0  r+l 2
2
Step II. Suppose E 2 is the electric intensity at P due to charge +q , then

1 q 1 q
E2 = = along BP
4πε0 BP 4πε0  r-l 2
2
Step III. The resultant intensity E at P is

1 q 1 q
s
E  E 2  E1  
40  r  l  40  r  l 2
2

q  1
 
1 

te
40   r  l 2  r  l 2 
No
 2
q   r+l  -  r-l  
2
q 4lr
E= =
4π0   r 2 -l 2  2
 4πε0  r 2 -l 2 2
 
S
q×2l×2r
E= (But q×2l= p , the dipole moment)
4πε0  r 2 -l 2 
2
P
The direction of E is along BP produced.
2p
Note: If dipole is short, 2l<< r, then E=
4πε0 r 3
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Electric field intensity due to a dipole at any point on its equatorial line : (J-17)
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges

–q and +q separated by a small distance 2l with centre O and
dipole moment P = q(2l).
Let E be the electric intensity at a point P on the equatorial P
line of the dipole, where OP = r.
Let PBAˆ  PABˆ 
Step I. Electric intensity at P due to charge –q is

1 q 1 q
E1 = =  AP 2 = OP 2 +OA2 = r 2 +l 2 
4πε0 AP 2
4πε0 r +l 2 
2
E1 is along PC
Step II. Electric intensity at P, due to charge + q is

1 q 1 q A 0 B
E2 = = 2l
4πε0 BP 2
4πε0 r +l 2
2
E 2 is along PD
E 2 and E1 are inclined at an angle 2
s
Step III.  Resultant intensity at P is given by
E  E12  E2 2  2E1E2 cos(2 )
te
E  E12  E12  2E1E1 cos(2 ) ( E1  E2 )
E  2E12  2E12 cos(2 )
No
E  2 E12 [1  cos(2 )]
E  2E12 [2cos 2 ( )]  1  cos(2 )  2cos 2 ( ) 
1 q
∴ E  2E1[cos( )] = 2 cos 
S
4 0 r  l 2
2
l
Now from ∆AOP, cos(θ)=
r  l2 2
P
1 q l 1 q(2l )
∴ E2 =
4 0 r  a 2
2
r l
2 2 4 0 [r  l 2 ]3/2
2
1 P
E=  P = q  2l 
4πε0  r +l 2  2
3
2
........................................................................................................................................................................
The direction of E is along PR (along –ve x- axis)
1 -P
In vector form, E= E is in a direction opposite to the direction of P
4πε0  r 2 +l 2  2
3
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1 P
Note: If the dipole is short, 2l << r E  Also Eaxial  2Eequatioral
40 r 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field:
Consider an electric dipole

– q & +q  two equal and opposite charges
2l  distance between 2 charges
p = q (2l)  dipole moment
Let this dipole be held in a uniform external

field ⃗ at an angle θ with the direction of ⃗ .
F  qE Force on charge +q along E
F  qE Force on charge - q opposite to E
Torque = Force x perpendicular distance between two forces

  F  AC  F  ABsin 
  qE  2lsin 
  EPsin 
In vector form   E  P
s
Special cases : (i) Torque is minimum, when θ = 0 τmin = 0. The dipole is in stable equilibrium.
(ii) Torque is maximum, when θ = 90 τmax = pE
te
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Electric field lines: (M-15)
It is the path along which a unit positive charge moves in the electric field.
No
Properties of electric field lines : (J-14, J-15, M-16, M-17, J-18 ,M-22,M-23)
1. Electric field lines are continuous curves. They start from a positively charged body and end at negatively
charged body.
S
2. Electric field lines do not form continuous closed loops.

3. Tangent to the electric field line at any point gives the direction of electric field intensity at that point.
4. No two lines of force can intersect each other. This is because at the point of intersection , we can draw
two tangents to the two lines of force which mean two directions of electric field at the same point, which is
P
not possible.
5. The electric field lines are always normal to the surface of a conductor.
6. The electric field lines contract longitudinally, on account of attraction between unlike charges.
7. The electric field lines exert a lateral pressure on account of repulsion between like charges.
8. They are more crowded where the electric field is more.
9. They can be stretched like on elastic membrane.
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Area vector:
The vector associated with every area element of a closed surface is taken to be
in the direction of the outward normal.
Thus, an area element vector ∆⃗⃗⃗⃗ at a point on a closed surface can be written as
S  S nˆ
Where ∆S is magnitude of the area element and ̂ is a unit vector in the direction
of outward normal drawn at that point , as shown in the figure.
Electric flux:
Electric flux over an area in an electric field is the total number of electric field lines crossing unit area
normally.
s
⃗⃗⃗⃗ in an electric field ⃗ is defined as
The electric flux ∆υ through an area element ∆
  E S
te
  E S cos( )
Note: Total electric flux through any surface of finite area is given by
No
E   E S
E   E S cos( )
Electric flux is a scalar quantity.
S
SI unit of flux is Nm2C-1 (M-20)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Continuous distribution of charge:
P
1. Linear charge density (λ) : when charge is distributed along a line (straight or curved) , then the charge
per unit length is called linear charge density.
q
 SI unit of λ is C/m
L
2. Surface charge density (σ) : When charge is distributed over a surface ( plane or curved), then charge per
unit area is called surface charge density.
Distribution of charge q over a plane surface of area A, then.
q
 SI unit is C/m2
A
3. Volume charge density (  ) : When charge is distributed over a volume of an object , then charge per
unit volume is called volume charge density.
q
 SI unit is C/m3
V
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Gauss’s theorem: (J-17,M-23)
1
Statement: The total electric flux over any closed surface is equal to the times the total charge enclosed
0
by that surface.
1
i.e.  = q
ε0
Explanation: Consider a closed surface enclosing the charges q1 ,q2 ,q3 ,.......
1
then the electric flux   Ε ds cosθ = ε  q + q 1 2 + q3 + .......
0
1
  qnet 
ε0
Note:
1) The Gauss theorem is applicable for closed surface (The surface may be of any shape).
2) The closed surface to which the Gauss theorem is applied is known as Gaussian surface.
3) Gauss theorem cannot be applied for a dipole kept inside the sphere. [because electric flux is zero]
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Application of Gauss’s law: It helps us in calculating the electric field of continuous charge
distributions , example line charges, plane sheet of charges, charged spheres etc.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
s
Electric field intensity due to infinitely long straight charged wire (using Gauss’s law):
(J-15, J-16, M-23) te
Consider an infinite and very thin straight wire having linear charge density λ.
To calculate the electric field intensity E at a point P, distance r from the line charge draw an imaginary
No
cylinder (Gaussian surface) of radius r and length l around the charged line.
Step I. The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q = λ l .

q l
According to Gauss’s theorem, flux through the surface ∅ =  …………..(1)
0 0
S
Step II. The cylindrical Gaussian surface is divided into three parts I, II, and III i.e. top , bottom and
Curved surface.
Therefore total flux through the surface can be written as
P
∅=  E.ds +  E.ds +  E.ds

I II III
∅=  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() ………(2)

I II III
For surfaces I and II, angle between E & ds is 900 , so flux is zero.
For surface III, angle between E & ds is 00 , so flux is not zero.
∴ (2) becomes
∅ =  Eds cos(0) =  Eds = E  ds = E (2πrl) …… (3)
III III III
[  ds = area of curved surface of cylinder]

III
l 
Step III. Equate (1) and (3), we get E (2πrl) = ∴ E
0 2r 0
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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1
Note: Thus E∝
r

In vector form E  nˆ
2r 0
Where n̂ is unit vector ⊥ to the curved surface of the wire.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Electric field intensity due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet (using gauss’s law):
Consider a thin, infinite plane sheet of charge.
q
  be the surface density of charge on the sheet.
A
P  any point (at a perpendicular distance r) from the sheet.
Let us imagine a cylinder of cross-sectional area A around P and length 2r, piercing through the sheet.
++
+ +
̂ ++ ̂
+ +
Q ̂ E
P
+ + ++ →
E ̂
s
→ r + ++ + r
+ + ++ te
++
+ +
Step I. The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q = σ S
q S
No
According to Gauss’s theorem, flux through the surface    …………..(1)
0 0
Step II. The cylindrical Gaussian surface is divided into three parts I, II, and III i.e. end caps and
Curved surface as shown.
S
Therefore total flux through the surfaces can be written as

∅ =  E.ds +  E.ds +  E.ds
I II III
 Eds cos() +  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() ………(2)

P
∅=
I II III
For cylindrical surface III, angle between E & ds is 900 , so flux is zero.
For surfaces I and II, angle between E & ds is 00, so flux is not zero.
∴ (2) becomes
∅=  Eds cos(0) +  Eds cos(0)
I II
∅ = EA + EA = 2EA …… (3)
Step III. Equate (1) and (3), we get

A 
2EA = E
0 2 0
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.........................................................................................................................................................................

Note: In vector form E  nˆ where n̂ is unit vector ⊥ to the plane of the sheet.
2 0
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Electric field intensity due to a charged spherical shell (using Gauss theorem):
(M-14, J-14, J-18, M-19)
I. At a point outside the sphere:
Consider a conducting spherical shell
R  radius
q  the charges are uniformly distributed on the surface of the sphere.
P  be a point outside at a distance r from the centre of the sphere.
To find ‘E’ at a point P. Imagine concentric sphere of radius r.

q
Step I. According to Gauss’s theorem, flux through the surface   …………(1)
0
Step II. The total flux due to entire Gaussian surface is
φ =  E.ds =  Eds cos() but = [ E along the normal]
s s
∴   Eds
s
s
  E 4 r 2 ………(2) [  ds =surface area of spherical Gaussian surface = 4 r 2 ]

te
s
Step III. Equate (1) and (2), we get
1
E (4 r 2 )  q
No
0
1 q
E
4 0 r 2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
S
II. E at a point lie on the surface of the spherical shell:
For a point on the surface of the sphere =

P
1 q
∴ Electric field, E 
4 0 R 2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
III. E at a point inside the spherical shell:
Let P be a point inside the sphere at a distance r from the centre.

According to Gauss theorem,
q
 [but = ]
0
0
∴  0
0
Hence, =
∴ Electric intensity inside the Charged spherical shell is zero.
*****************
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NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON ELECTRIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC FIELD
PROBLEMS ON CHARGE AND FORCE
1. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3 × 10-7 C. (a) Estimate
the number of electrons transferred (from which to which?) (b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool
to polythene? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 2 × 1012, from wool to polythene (b) Yes, but of a negligible amount ( = 2 × 10-18 kg in
the example)
2. What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges of 2 × 10-7C and 3 × 10-7 C
placed 30 cm apart in air? [NCERT] Ans: 6 x 10-3 N (repulsive)
3. The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4C due to another small sphere of charge –
0.8µC in air is 0.2 N. (a) What is the distance between the two spheres? (b) What is the force on the
second sphere due to the first? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 12 cm (b) 0.2 N (attractive)
4. Four point charges qA = 2µC, qB = –5µC, qC = 2µC, and qD = –5µC are located at the corners of a
s
square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a charge of 1µC placed at the centre of the
square? [NCERT] Ans: Zero N te
5. (a) Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B have their centres separated by a distance of 50
cm. What is the mutual force of electrostatic repulsion if the charge on each is 6.5 × 10-7C? The radii of
No
A and B are negligible compared to the distance of separation. (b) What is the force of repulsion if
each sphere is charged double the above amount, and the distance between them is halved? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 1.5 × 10-2 N (b) 0.24 N
6. Two point charges 20 µC and 10µC are separated by 0.05m in free space. Find the force between
S
them. Also calculate the force when a dielectric medium of dielectric constant 3 is introduced between
them. Ans: [720N, 240N]
P
7. Two identical metal spheres having equal and similar charges repel each other with a force of 103
N when they are placed 10 cm apart in a medium of dielectric constant 5. Determine the charge on
each sphere. Ans: 23.9 x 10-6 C
PROBLEMS ON FIELD
8. Two point charges qA = 3µC and qB = –3µC are located 20 cm apart in vacuum.
(a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining the two charges?
(b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 × 10-9 C is placed at this point, what is the force
experienced by the test charge? [NCERT] (M-17)
Ans: (a) 5.4 × 106 N C-1 along OB (b) 8.1 × 10-3 N along OA
9. Two point charges q1 and q2, of magnitude +10-8 C and –10-8 C, respectively, are placed 0.1 m
apart. Calculate the electric fields at points A, B and C shown in Fig. [NCERT]
Ans: EA=7.2 × 104 N C-1 directed toward the right. EB = 3.2 × 104 N C-1 directed towards the left.
EC = 9 × 103 N C-1 points towards the right.
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15
10. Two charges ±10µC are placed 5.0 mm apart. Determine the electric field at
(a) a point P on the axis of the dipole 15 cm away from its centre O on the side of the positive charge,
and (b) a point Q, 15 cm away from O on a line passing through O and normal to the axis of the dipole.
[NCERT] Ans: a) 2.6 × 105 N C-1 along AB b) 1.33 × 105 N C-1 along BA
11. A spherical conductor of radius 12 cm has a charge of 1.6 × 10-7 C distributed uniformly on its
s
surface. What is the electric field (a) inside the sphere (b) just outside the sphere (c) at a point 18
cm from the centre of the sphere? [NCERT] Ans: (a) Zero (b) 105 N C-1 (c) 4.4 × 104 N C-1
te
12. A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown charge. If the electric field 20 cm from the
centre of the sphere is 1.5 × 103 N/C and points radially inward, what is the net charge on the sphere?
No
[NCERT] Ans: –6.67 nC
13. A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 2.4 m diameter has a surface charge density of
80.0µC/m2. (a) Find the charge on the sphere. (b) What is the total electric flux leaving the surface of
the sphere? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 1.45 × 10-3C (b) 1.6 × 108 Nm2/C
S
14. An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 × 104 N/C at a distance of 2 cm. Calculate the linear
charge density. [NCERT] Ans: 10µC/m
P
15. Three charges each equal to +4nC are placed at the three corners of a square of side 2cm. find the
electric field at the fourth corner. (M-18)
16. Two point charges 16nC and 8nC are situated at the corners B and C of an equilateral triangle of
side 0.03m. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant electric field at the vertex A of the
triangle Ans: 21.2X104NC-1 , 40053’ angle with E1
17. Two charges 5µC & -5µC are placed at points A & B, which are separated by a distance of 0.06m.
Find the electric field intensity at a point P on the perpendicular bisector of AB at a distance of 0.04 m
from its middle point. [April 06]
18. Four charges +Q, +2Q, +3Q & +4Q are placed at the corners of a square ABCD of side 0.1 m
respectively. The intensity of electric field at the centre of the square is 5.1 x 103 NC-1. Find the value
of Q. [April 09]
PRADEEP & SUNIL

16
19. ABC is a right angled triangle such that AB=3m, BC=4m and B= 900. Charges of 9nC and -16nC
are placed at the corners A and C respectively. Calculate the resultant electric intensity and direction
at point B.
20. Two fixed point charges +4μC and +1μC are separated by 30cm in air. Find the position between
them at which the resultant electric field is zero.
PROBLEMS ON DIPOLE
21. A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10-7 C and qB = –2.5 ×10-7 C located at points A: (0, 0, –15
cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively. What are the total charge and electric dipole moment of the
system? [NCERT] Ans: Total charge is zero. Dipole moment = 7.5 × 10-8 C m along z-axis.
PROBLEMS ON TORQUE
22. An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10-9C m is aligned at 30° with the direction of a
uniform electric field of magnitude 5 × 104 NC-1. Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the
dipole. [NCERT] Ans: 10-4 N m
s
PROBLEMS ON FLUX
te
23. Consider a uniform electric field E = 3 × 103 î N/C. (a) What is the flux of this field through a
No
square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to the yz plane? (b) What is the flux through the
same square if the normal to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 30 Nm2/C, (b) 15 Nm2/C
24. Careful measurement of the electric field at the surface of a black box indicates that the net
S
outward flux through the surface of the box is 8.0 × 103 Nm2/C. (a) What is the net charge inside the
box? (b) If the net outward flux through the surface of the box were zero, could you conclude that
there were no charges inside the box? Why or Why not? [NCERT]
P
Ans: (a) 0.07µC (b) No, only that the net charge inside is zero.
PROBLEMS ON GAUSS THEOREM
25. A point charge of 2.0µC is at the centre of a cubic Gaussian surface 9.0 cm on edge. What is the net
electric flux through the surface? [NCERT] Ans: 1.9 × 105 N m2/C
27. A point charge causes an electric flux of –1.0 ×103 Nm2/C to pass through a spherical Gaussian
surface of 10.0 cm radius centred on the charge. (a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface were
doubled, how much flux would pass through the surface? (b) What is the value of the point charge?
[NCERT]
Ans: (a) –103 N m2/C; because the charge enclosed is the same in the two cases. (b) –8.8 nC
PRADEEP & SUNIL

17
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
Electric Potential (V): at any point in an electric field is defined as the work done in carrying a unit positive
charge (without acceleration) from infinity to that point against the electric field.
(OR) The electric potential (V): at a point is also equal to the potential energy of unit positive charge at
that point.
If W is the work done in carrying a positive charge qo without acceleration from infinity to a point, the
w
electric potential at that point is V 
q0
Electric potential is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is volt (V)
Electrostatic potential difference ( V ): Electrostatic potential difference between two points in an

electrostatic field is defined as the work done in carrying unit positive charge (without acceleration) from
one point to the other point against the electric field.
WAB
V  VB  VA 
s
q0
SI unit of potential difference is volt
te
Define 1volt: Potential difference between any 2 points in an electric field is defined as 1volt, when 1 joule
of work is done in moving a unit positive charge between these 2 points in an electric field.
No
Dimensional formula for electric potential and (potential difference) is [M1 L2 T-3 A-1].
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Electric Potential at a point due to an isolated point charge (5 mark) (M-18)
S
r x
+q
O P B dx A
Consider a point charge +q at O. Let P be a point at a distance r from O.

P
Consider some intermediate point A at distance x from O.

1 qo
The electrostatic force on unit positive charge is E  along OA produced.
40 x 2
Small amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from A to B ( dx ) is
dw  E.dx  E dx cos1800  E dx
 Total work done in moving unit + charge from ∞ to the point P is
q o
r r r
1 qo
W   Edx    dx   x 2dx
 
40 x 2
40 
q o  1 
r
q 1 1 
W    o   
40  x   40  r  
W 1 q

q 0 40 r
PRADEEP & SUNIL

18
W 1 q
By definition V  V= The electrostatic potential due to a point charge
q0 4πε0 r
Note: Potential due to a +ve charge is +V and due to –ve charge is -V

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Potential at a point due to group of charges:
q1
Suppose there are a number of point charges q1, q2, q3,….qn at distances r1, r2, r1
r3,….rn respectively from the point P, where electric potential is to be P q2
r2
calculated. Potential at P due to charge q1
r4 r3
1 q1
V1  q3
40 r1
q4
Similarly, values of potential at P due to other charges are
1 q2 1 q3
V2  , V3  & so on
40 r2 40 r3
1 qn
Potential at P due to nth charge is Vn 
40 rn
By the principle of super position, resultant potential at P due to total charge configuration
s
V  V1  V2  V3  .....  Vn
V
te
1  q1 q 2 q3 qn 
    ....... 
40  r1 r2 r3 rn 
No
n
1 qi
V
40

i 1 ri
Derive an expression for electric potential at a point due to an electric dipole (5mark)
S
Consider any point P at a distance r from the centre O of the electric dipole AB. Let OP makes an angle  with the
vector dipole moment p and r1 , r2 be the distances of point P from –q and +q charge respectively.
1 (q)
P
Step I: Potential at P due to –q is, V1 

4 o r1
1 q
V1  
4 o r1
1 q
Potential at P due to +q is, V2 
4 o r2
 Potential at P due dipole, V  V1  V2

1 q 1 q
or V  
4 o r1 4 o r2
1 q q
or V    .........(1)
4 o  r2 r1 
Step II: Draw a  from A which meets the line OP at C when produced. Also draw BD  on OP.
r1  AP CP  OP  OC  r  l cos  ( from AOC , OC  l cos  )
Then
r2  BP DP  OP  OD  r  l cos  ( from BOD, OD  l cos  )
PRADEEP & SUNIL

19
Step III: Substituting the values of r1 and r2 in (1), we get,
q  1 1  q  r  l cos   r  l cos  
V    
4 o  (r  l cos  ) (r  l cos  )  4 o  r 2  l 2 cos 2  
q  2l cos  
V
4 o  r 2  l 2 cos 2  
1  p cos  
V ....(2)
4 o  r 2  l 2 cos 2  
This is the expression for electric potential due to a dipole
1  p cos  
Note: If r l , thenthe (2) becomes V ......(3)
4 o  r 2 
SPECIAL CASES:
1. If point P lies on the axial line of the dipole i.e.  = 00
1  p
(3) becomes V
4 o  r 2 
2. If point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole i.e.  = 900
(3) becomes V 0
s
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. te
Equipotential surfaces: (M-18)
An equipotential surface is that surface at every point of which electric potential is the same.
No
Properties of equipotential surfaces:
* No work is done in moving the test charge from one point of equipotential surface to the other.
* For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric field at that
point.
Examples: Equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are concentric spherical surfaces centred at the
S
charge as shown in fig(a).

For a uniform electric field, say, along the X-axis the equipotential surfaces are planes normal to X-
axis.fig(2), for a dipole (fig 3) and for two equal positive charges fig (4)
P
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Relation between electric intensity and electric potential
(J-14, J-15, M-17, J-17)
E
Consider two equipotential surfaces A and B spaced closely as shown in figure. V-dv
VA = V  potential of A B V
dr
VB = (V- dV)  potential of B
dV  potential diference A
E  is electric intensity normal to A and B

dr  is perpendicular distance between A and B
PRADEEP & SUNIL

20
Work done in moving unit charge from B to A is, WBA = -E (dr)
By the definition , WBA = VA – VB = V – ( V- dV) = dV
-E dr = dV
dv
E
dr
Negative sign shows that the direction of electric field E is the direction of decreasing potential.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Potential energy in the absence of an external field
I. Potential energy of a system of two charges: (in the absence of an external field) (M-14, J-16)
Consider 2 point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r.
1 q1
The electric potential due to charge q1 at distance r is V1 
40 r
By definition, V1 is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a distance r from q 1
against the electric field due to q1. It is also equal to the potential energy of a unit positive charge at a
distance r from q1.
Then the potential energy of the charge q2 placed at a distance r from q1 will be
1 q1q 2
U  V1q 2  q1 r q2
40 r
s
1 q1q 2
U= te
4πε 0 r
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
II. Potential energy of a system of three charges: (in the absence of an external field)
No
Consider a system of three charges q1, q2 and q3 placed at A, B & C respectively.
q3
AB = r12 , BC = r23 and CA = r13 as in figure. C
r13 r23
No Work is done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to the position A , W1=0.
S
1 q1q 2 A B
Work done to bring q2 from infinity to B against the field of q1 is W2  q1 r12 q2
40 r12
Let V is potential at C at a distance r3 from q1 and r2 from q2
P
1 q1 1 q2
 V 
40 r3 40 r2
Work done in bringing q3 from infinity to C against the field of q1 and q2 is
 1 q 2q3 1 q1q3 
 W3    
 40 r23 40 r31 
The total work done will be stored as potential energy of a system of three charges U = W.
1  q1q 2 q 2q 3 q 3q1 
U=  + + 
4πε 0  r12 r23 r31 
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Potential energy in an external field
*I. Potential energy of a single charge: Consider the region of space having electric field E and the potential
V at a point P
The work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to the point P is W=qV.
This work is stored in the form of potential energy of charge q.  U  qV
PRADEEP & SUNIL

21
*II. Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external electric field: Let V1 and V2 be the potentials
due to an external electric field at two points separated by a distance r.
Let a charge q1 be brought from infinity and placed at the point where external potential is V1.
The work done against the external field is = q1 V1.
Next a charge q2 is brought from infinity and placed at the other point where the external
potential is V2.
Now the work done against the external field is = q2 V2 and the work done on q2 against the field due
1 q1q 2
to q1 is 
40 r
1 q1q 2
Therefore the total work done on q2 against two fields is  q 2 v2 
40 r
The potential energy of the system of 2 charges in the external electric field is equal to the total work done
in assembling the configuration of two charges in the external electric field. It is given by
1 q1q 2
U = q1V1 + q 2 V2 +
4πε 0 r
s
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Potential energy of a dipole in an external field: Potential energy of dipole is the energy possessed by the
te
dipole by virtue of its particular position in the electric field.
Expression for Potential energy of a dipole in an external field: (M-19)

No
Suppose an electric dipole of moment P is oriented at an angle  with the direction of uniform external
electric field E . Then the torque acting on the dipole is   PEsin 
Small amount of work done in rotating the dipole through a small

angle dθ against the torque is dw  d  PEsin  d
S
 Total work done in rotating the dipole from orientation

1 to 2 is
2
P
W   PE sin  d  PE   cos 2


1
1
W  PE cos 2  cos 1 

This work done is stored as the potential energy of the dipole.
U  PE cos 2  cos 1 
Note: Work is done only in rotating the dipole from the position perpendicular to the field to any other
position. Taking 1   / 2 and 2   W  PE cos   cos  / 2  PE cos   0
W  PE cos 
 U  PE cos 
PRADEEP & SUNIL

22
ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS
Conductor is a substance that can be used to carry electric charges from one place to the other. They
contain mobile charge carriers. All metals are good conductors of electricity.
Following are some important results regarding electrostatics of conductors.
1. Electric field inside a conductor is zero:

2. At the surface of a charged conductor, the electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every
point
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation:
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has the same value as
on its surface

5. The electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is E  nˆ
0
6.Electrostatic shielding is the phenomenon of protecting a certain region of space from external electric
field.This effect of electrostatic shielding can be used in protecting sensitive instruments from outside
electrical influence.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
s
DIELECTRICS AND POLARISATION
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances and they have no charge carriers.
te
There are two types of dielectric (i) Non-polar dielectrics (ii) polar dielectrics (M-22)
In non-polar dielectrics, the molecules are non-polar i.e. the centre of positive charge coincides with
the centre of negative charge.
No
The molecule has no permanent (intrinsic) dipole moment.
Ex:- Molecules of H2, O2, and CO2
In polar dielectrics, the molecules are polar i.e. the centre of positive charge and centre of negative
charge do not coincide.
S
They have a permanent (intrinsic) electric dipole moment.

Ex:- Molecules of water (H2O), CO and HCl
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
*Dielectric polarization: When a non-polar dielectric is held in an external
P
field E , the centre of positive charge and the centre of negative charge ±● +
●- ●
(electrons) in each molecule are pulled in opposite direction. Thus the non-
E=0 E≠0
polar molecule develops an induced dipole moment. The dielectric is said to
be polarised by the external field.
Definition of polarization: The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric is called the
polarization or Polarisation density vector.
For linear isotropic dielectrics, P  E or P  e E
Where  e is constant characteristic of the dielectric and it is known as electric susceptibility of the electric.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

23
*The polarisation of the dielectric modifies the original electric field inside it.
 and    arethe charge density on the plates

 p and   p  arethe polarised (induced )charge density onthe dielectric slab

E0   dielectric field in the abscence of dielectric
0

Eind  p  induced dielectric field in the dielectric
0
  p
E  E0  Eind   reduced electric field in the dielectric
0
Dielectric constant (K): it is the ratio of electric field in air or vacuum to the
reduced electric field in the dielectric medium.
E0  EP
K 
E   p
Note: 1. If the strength of applied external field on a dielectric is increased beyond a certain value, the
positive and negative charge centers in each molecule break up resulting in conducting charge carriers.
The dielectric loses its insulating property and starts to conduct. This phenomenon is known as ‘Dielectric
s
breakdown’.
te
2. The maximum value of strength of external field applied to a dielectric at which dielectric breakdown
takes place is known as ‘Dielectric Strength’ of the dielectric.
It is expressed in V/m. For air, dielectric strength is about 3000kV/m.
No
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE

Definition of capacitance: Capacitance of a conductor is the ratio of the charge given to the conductor to the
Q
raise in its potential i.e., C
S
V
SI unit of capacitance of a conductor is farad (F)
Define the unit of capacitance (Define 1 farad): If 1coloumb of charge added to the conductor to rise its
P
potential by 1 volt, then its capacitance is 1farad.
Capacitance of a conductor depends on

(1) The size and shape of the conductor.
(2) The dielectric medium surrounding the conductor.
(3) Presence of other conductors nearby.
Note: Capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius R surrounded by a dielectric medium of dielectric

constant K is C = 4πKε0 R .
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
capacitor: A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator. (J-14)
Capacitance of a capacitor: is the ratio of the charge of the capacitor to the potential difference between the
two conductors.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

24
Note: Capacitance depends on the shape, size and separation of the two conductors and also on the
nature of the dielectric separating the two conductors. (M-17, M-18, M-22)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Derive an expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor (5 mark) (M-15, M-20)
Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
A  the area of each plate.
d  the distance between the plates.
+Q and – Q  charges on the plates.
 and   surface charge densities.
Electric field in the region between the plates is

   1 Q
E    since   QA 
20 20 0 0 A
 V 
Potential difference between the plates is V  Ed  E  d 
Qd
V
0A
s
Q
 The capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is, C 
V
te
Q
C
 Qd 
 A 
 0
No
0 A
 C
d
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor in the presence of dielectric medium

S
(Effect of dielectric on Capacitance)

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having two large plates each of area A, separated by a distance d.
The charge on the plates is ±Q and the corresponding surface charge density is ( ).
P
When the gap between the plates is filled with air,

The field is Potential difference,
Capacitance is .
Let a dielectric slab be inserted in between the two plates in such a way that it fully occupies the
intervening space.
The net surface charge density on the plates is ( )
The modified field between the plates is
( )
Potential difference,
( ) where K is dielectric constant.
Where, , absolute permittivity of the medium and is the absolute permittivity of free space.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

25
Cd
Note: 1. From above equation, K  i.e. Dielectric constant is the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor
Ca
when a dielectric is present in between its plates to capacitance of the same capacitor when air is present
in between its plates.
2. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is (i) directly proportional to dielectric constant of the
dielectric medium; (ii) directly proportional to area of the plates; (iii) inversely proportional to
separation between the plates.
3. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slabs
0 A
C
 t t t 
d  (t1  t2  ....)   1  2  3 ... 
 K1 K 2 K3 
0 A
4. If a conducting slab of thickness is introduced, C  (since K = ∞ for conductors).
d t
5. For a spherical capacitor containing two spherical conductors of radius a and b (b > a), the expression
4 0 ab
for capacitance is C  K
ba
6. For a cylindrical capacitor having two cylindrical conductors, each of length l and radii a and b (b > a),
2 0l
s
the expression for capacitance is C  K
b
2.303log   te
a
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
No
Derive an expression for equivalent capacitance when number 0f Capacitors connected in series (5mark)
(J-18)
Let C1 and C2 be the capacitances of two capacitors connected in
series between a and b.
S
V  potential difference be applied across the combination.

q  the charge on each plate
P
q q
V1  ; V2   are the potential differences across the individual capacitors,
C1 C2
Then net potential V = V1 + V2
q q
V 
C1 C2
1 1 
V  q    → (1)
 C1 C2 
Let the system of capacitors be replaced by a single capacitor of equivalent capacitance Cs.
q
Then V → (2)
Cs
From equations (1) and (2), we get
q 1 1  1 1 1
q     
Cs  C1 C2  Cs C1 C2
PRADEEP & SUNIL

26
Definition: When a number of capacitors are connected in series, the reciprocal of the equivalent
capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitance.
1 1 1 1 1
Note: When n number of capacitors in series, then     ...... 
Cs C1 C2 C3 Cn
C
When n equal number of capacitors in series, then CS 
n
C1C2
When 2 capacitors in series, then CS 
C1  C2
Derive an expression for equivalent capacitance when number 0f Capacitors connected in parallel
(5mark)
Let C1 and C2 be the capacitances of two capacitors connected in parallel between a and b.
Let V be the p.d. applied between a and b.
Then the p.d. across the plates of all capacitors is same.
If Q1 = C1 V & Q2 = C2 V are the charges on the capacitors C1 and
C2 respectively,
The total charge on the combinations Q = Q1 + Q2
[ q  cv ]
s
Q = C1 V + C2 V
Q = (C1 + C2) → (1)
te
Let the system of capacitors be replaced by a single capacitor of equivalent capacitance C p, such that it
acquires the same charge q at the same potential difference V.
Then Q = CpV → (2)
No
From equations (1) & (2), we get CpV = (C1 + C2)V

 CP  C1  C2
Definition: The equivalent capacitance of a number of capacitors connected in parallel is always equal to
S
the sum of the individual capacitances.
Note: When n number of capacitors in series, then CP  C1  C2  C3...........  Cn

P
When n equal number of capacitors in series, then CS  nC

When 2 capacitors in series, then CS  C1  C2
Expression for energy stored in a capacitor (M-16, M-17, M-20)
Q2
 U
2C
Note: Consider a parallel plate capacitor of area A and the distance between the plates be d.
 E 2V
U 0 Expression for energy stored in a capacitor
2
2
U 0E
u  Expression for energy per unit volumein a capacitor
V 2
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
PRADEEP & SUNIL

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NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
PROBLEMS ON POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE
1. (a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 × 10-7 C located 9 cm away. (b) Hence
obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10-9 C from infinity to the point P. Does the answer
depend on the path along which the charge is brought? [NCERT]
Ans: a) 4 × 104 V b) 8 × 10-5 J No, work done will be path independent.
2. A regular hexagon of side 10 cm has a charge 5µC at each of its vertices. Calculate the potential at
the centre of the hexagon. [NCERT] Ans: 2.7 × 106 V
3. Two tiny spheres carrying charges 1.5µC and 2.5µC are located 30 cm apart. Find the potential and
electric field:
(a) at the mid-point of the line joining the two charges, and
(b) at a point 10 cm from this midpoint in a plane normal to the line and passing through the mid-
point. [NCERT]
s
Ans: (a) 2.4 × 105 V; 4.0 × 105 V/m from charge 2.5µC to 1.5µC.
(b) 2.0 × 105 V; 6.6 × 105 V/m in the direction that makes an angle of
te
about 69° to the line joining charge 2.5µC to 1.5µC.
4. Charges 2μC, 4μC and 6μC are placed at the three corners A, B and C of a square ABCD of side x
No
metre. Find what charge must be placed at the fourth corner so that net potential at the centre of the
square becomes zero. [J-16, M-23]
Problems on null point
5. Two charges 3 × 10-8 C and –2 × 10-8 C are located 15 cm apart. At what points on the line joining
S
the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero. [NCERT]
Ans: electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive charge on the side of the
P
negative charge.
6. Two charges 5 × 10-8 C and –3 × 10-8 C are located 16 cm apart. At what point(s) on the line joining
the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero. [NCERT]
Ans: 10 cm, 40 cm away from the positive charge on the side of the negative charge.
7. Two charges 30nC and -20nC are located 15 cm apart. At what points on the line joining the two
charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero.
[J-14, M-17]
8. Two point charges +1 nC and -4 nC are 1m apart in air. Find the positions along the line joining the
two charges at which resultant potential is zero. [M-15]
Problems on potential energy and work done

9. A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. Calculate the work done in taking a small charge of –2 ×
10-9 C from a point P (0, 0, 3cm) to a point Q (0, 4 cm, 0), via a point R (0, 6 cm, 9 cm). [NCERT]
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Ans: 1.2 J; the point R is irrelevant to the answer.
10. ABCD is a square of side 2m. Point charges of 5nC, 10nC and -5nC are placed at corners A, B, C
respectively. Calculate the work done in transferring a charge of 5nC from D to the point of
intersection of diagonals. [J-15]
11. ABCD is a square of side 4cm. Point charges of +2nC, -2nC and +3nC are placed at corners A, B, C
respectively. Calculate the work done in transferring a charge of +4nC from D to the centre of the
square. [M-18]
12. ABCD is a square of side 1m. Point charges of +3nC, -5nC and +3nC are placed at corners A, B, C
respectively. Calculate the work done in transferring a charge of 12μC from D to the centre of the
square. [J-19]
13. A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. Calculate the work done in taking a small charge of
-𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎-8 𝑪 from a point A (3 cm, 0, 0) to a point B (0, 4cm, 0) via a point C (3 cm, 4 cm, 0).
1
Given :  9 X 109 Nm2C 2 [M-22]
4 0
CAPACITORS
Problems on capacitance
s
14. In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate has an area of 6 × 10-3 m2 and
te
the distance between the plates is 3 mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is
connected to a 100 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the capacitor? [NCERT][M-14]
No
Ans: 18 pF, 1.8 × 10-9 C
15. What is the area of the plates of a 2 F parallel plate capacitor, given that the separation between
the plates is 0.5 cm? [NCERT] Ans: 1130 km2
16. A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a capacitance of 8 pF. What will be the
S
capacitance if the distance between the plates is reduced by half, and the space between them is filled
with a substance of dielectric constant 6? [NCERT] Ans: 96 pF
P
17. A spherical capacitor has an inner sphere of radius 12 cm and an outer sphere of radius 13 cm. The
outer sphere is earthed and the inner sphere is given a charge of 2.5µC. The space between the
concentric spheres is filled with a liquid of dielectric constant 32.
(a) Determine the capacitance of the capacitor. (b) What is the potential of the inner sphere?
(c) Compare the capacitance of this capacitor with that of an isolated sphere of radius 12 cm. Explain
why the latter is much smaller. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 5.5 × 10-9 F (b) 4.5 × 102 V (c) 1.3 × 10-11 F
18. A cylindrical capacitor has two co-axial cylinders of length 15 cm and radii 1.5 cm and 1.4 cm. The
outer cylinder is earthed and the inner cylinder is given a charge of 3.5µC. Determine the capacitance
of the system and the potential of the inner cylinder. [NCERT]
Ans: 1.2 × 10-10 F, 2.9 × 104 V
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19. In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate has an area of 8 × 10−3 m2 and
the distance between the plates is 2 mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is
connected to a 50 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the capacitor? (Absolute permittivity of
free space = 8.85 x 10-12 Fm-1) [J-17]
20. In a circular parallel plate capacitor, radius of each plate is 5 cm and they are separated by a
distance of 2 mm. Calculate the capacitance and the energy stored, when it is charged by connecting
the battery of 200 V. (ϵo = 8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1) [M-19]
Problems on combination of capacitors
21. Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are connected in series.

(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination? (b) What is the potential difference across
each capacitor if the combination is connected to a 120 V supply? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 3 pF (b) 40 V
22. Three capacitors of capacitances 2 pF, 3 pF and 4 pF are connected in parallel.
(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination? (b) Determine the charge on each capacitor if
the combination is connected to a 100 V supply. [NCERT]
s
Ans: (a) 9 pF (b) 2 × 10-10 C, 3 × 10-10 C, 4 × 10-10 C
te
23. A network of four 10µF capacitors is connected to a 500 V supply,
as shown in Fig. Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance of the
No
network and (b) the charge on each capacitor. [NCERT]
Ans: a) C = 13.3µF b) 1.7X10-3 C, 5.0X10-3 C
S
24. Obtain the equivalent capacitance of the network in Fig. For a 300 V
P
supply, determine the charge and voltage across each capacitor.

[NCERT]
Ans: Equivalent capacitance = (200/3) pF.
Q1 = 10-8C, V1 = 100 V ; Q2 = Q3 = 10-8 C
V2 = V3 = 50 V
Q4 = 2.55 × 10-8 C, V4 = 200 V
Problems on energy stored in a capacitors
25. (a) A 900 pF capacitor is charged by 100 V battery. a) How much electrostatic energy is stored by
the capacitor? (b) The capacitor is disconnected from the battery and connected to another 900 pF
capacitor. What is the electrostatic energy stored by the system? [NCERT]
Ans: a) 4.5 × 10-6 J b) 2.25 × 10-6 J
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26. A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V battery. How much electrostatic energy is stored in the
capacitor? [NCERT] Ans: 1.5 × 10-8 J
27. A 600pF capacitor is charged by a 200V supply. It is then disconnected from the supply and is
connected to another uncharged 600 pF capacitor. How much electrostatic energy is lost in the
process? [NCERT] Ans: 6 × 10-6 J
28. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have an area of 90 cm2 each and are separated by 2.5 mm.
The capacitor is charged by connecting it to a 400 V supply.
(a) How much electrostatic energy is stored by the capacitor? (b) Calculate the energy per unit
volume u. [NCERT] Ans: (a) 2.55 × 10-6 J (b) u = 0.113 J m-3
29. Energy stored in a system consisting of two capacitors in series and connected across 4kV line is
8J. When the same two capacitors are in parallel across the same line, energy stored is 36J. Find the
capacitance of the capacitors. [M-16]
30. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have an area of 100 cm2 each and are separated by 3 mm.
The capacitor is charged by connecting it to a 400V supply. Calculate (a) the energy stored in the
capacitor (b) if a dielectric constant 2.5 is introduced between the plates of the capacitor, then find the
s
energy stored and also change in the energy stored. [J-18]
te
No
S
P
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Current electricity
Electric current: The rate of flow of electric charges through any cross section of a conductor is a measure of
electric current.
let charge Q crosses through a cross section of a conductor in time t, then
Q
Electric current , I 
t
Direction of electric current: the direction of flow of positive charge gives the direction of electric current.
SI unit of electric current is ampere (A)
Definition of 1 ampere: Current through a conductor is said to be 1 ampere if one coulomb charge flow
through any cross-section of the conductor in one second.
Ohm’s Law (M-17, J-18,M-22)

Statement: The steady current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between its ends, provided temperature & other physical conditions remain constant.
i.e. VI
or V  IR
s
Where R  is constant and is known as resistance of a conductor.
te
Electrical resistance: Resistance of a conductor is the opposition offered to the flow of electric charge in a
conductor
V
No
According to Ohm’s law V=IR i.e. R =
I
Definition of resistance: The electric resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to the ratio of the
potential difference across the ends of a conductor to the current.
S
Resistance of a conductor depends on

1. Length of the conductor.
2. Area of cross section.
P
3. Temperature.
Unit of resistance is ohm (
Definition of one ohm: The Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 if the potential difference of is
required to maintain a current of 1Ampere in it.
Resistivity (or) Specific Resistance (  ): Experimentally it is found that at constant temperature the resistance
of a conductor is,
1) Directly proportional to its length, i.e. (R  L)
1
2) Inversely proportional to the area of cross section (R  )
A
L L
i.e. R  (OR) R  
A A
Where   Resistivity (or) specific resistance
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Resistivity (Specific resistance)    : of a conductor is defined as the resistance of a material of a
conductor of unit length and unit area of cross section. (M-19)
SI unit of Resistivity (or) specific resistance is ohm-metre (   m )
1
Conductance (G): The reciprocal of resistance i.e. G  SI unit is mho (or) siemen (S)
R
Conductivity (  ): The reciprocal of resistivity i.e. SI unit is mho/meter (or) siemen/meter.

Current density ( j ): The electric current per unit area taken normal to the direction of current is known as
current density.
I
Current density, j
A
SI unit of current density is A/m2
Derive the relation j   E (equivalent form of ohm’s law) (J-17)

If E is the magnitude of the uniform electric field in the conductor whose length is l and V is the potential
difference across its ends, then
s
From ohm’s law
V  IR te
Il  l V  ……(2)
El   R  A and E  l 
A
No
I
E=
A
I
E= j ( j )
A
E
∴ j j  E (equivalent form of ohm’s law)
S
(or)

Limitations of ohm’s law: (J-14, J-15, M-15, M-10)

P
1) Ohm’s law holds good only if all the physical conditions remain the same.
2) It is not applicable for semiconductors, vacuum tubes.
3) It is not applicable for conductors at very low & very high temperatures.
Ohmic devices: Devices which obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic devices. (J-17)
e.g. metal, voltmeter, ammeter etc.
Non-ohmic devices: Devices which donot obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic devices.
e.g. semiconductors, discharge tubes, transistors, diodes etc.
Drift Velocity ( Vd ) : The average velocity acquired by free electrons in the presence of external electric
field is called as drift velocity. (J-14, M-18)
Drift velocity is of the order of 10 ms 1
4
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33
Eeτ
Derive an expression for drift velocity of electrons Vd = (M-16, J-16, M-19 ,M-22)
m
Consider electrons inside the conductor moving in random direction.

Let there be N electrons and velocity of ith electron is Ui , then the average velocity of electrons is zero
 0 ………..(1)
1 N
i.e. (U ) i avg
N
U
i 1
i
Due to the applied electric field E , acceleration produced in the electrons,

eE
a 
m
where e and m  are charge and mass of electron
th
Consider again i electron at a given time t. let ti be the time elapsed after its last collision. If Ui was its
velocity immediately after last collision, then its velocity Vi at time ti is
Vi = Ui + ati
The average velocity of the electrons at time t is the average of all the Vi and the average time between
collision is  .
i.e. (Vi )avg = (Ui )avg + a(ti)avg
s
 eE  te
Vd  0   
m
eE
Vd    this is the expression for drift velocity
No
m
Mobility ( ): The magnitude of drift velocity acquired by an electron per unit electric field is called mobility
of the electron.
Vd
Mobility  
S
E
2
Its SI unit is m
Vs
P
Relaxation time (τ): It is the average time elapsed between two successive collisions.
Derive an expression for current (I = nAeVd)

Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area A and E is the electric field. In a time t electrons drift from one
end of the conductor to another end, through a distance of x Vd t .
Let The number of electrons / volume = n
The number of electrons = n (volume)

= n (distance) (area)
The number of electrons = n (Vd t ) A
Total charge on electrons = (number of electrons) e

Q = n (Vd t ) A e
Q
 Current through the conductor, I=
t
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34
n(Vd t ) Ae
I=
t
I  n Ae Vd This is the expression for current
ne2
Derive an expression for conductivity (   ) (J-15, J-18, M-20)
m
Consider current through a conductor, I = nAeVd
where, n  number density
A  area of cross-section
 eE 
Vd  drift velocity,  Vd 
 m 
 eE 
 I = nAe  
 m 
nAe 2 E
I=
m
I ne2 E

A m
s
ne E
2
 I
j  j
te 
m  A
ne2 E
E ( j   E)
m
No
ne2
 This is the expression for conductivity
m
Temperature dependence of resistivity: (M-22)

S
In metals: resistivity increases with increase in temperature.

Note: Resistivity at a given temperature is given by ρ= ρ0 [1+α(T-T0 )]
P
where 0  is the resistivity at a temperature T0
  is the temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
In semiconductors: resistivity decreases with increase in temperature.

Temperature dependence of resistance:
As the temperature increases, resistance of a conductor also increases.
Temperature co-efficient of resistance: The resistance of a conductor increases with increase in
temperature, If Rt is the temperature at t 0 c & R0 is the temperature at 00 c then,
R= R0 [1+αt]
Where, ‘ ’ is a constant called ‘temperature co-efficient of resistance of the conductor.
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35
Note: If R1 & R2 are the resistances of a conductor at temperature t10 c & t2 0 c , then we have,
R2  R1
 / 0C
R1 (t2  t1 )
Combination of resistors:
Resistors are connected in two ways
1) Series combination 2) Parallel combination.
s
Series Combination: Resistors are said to be in series if they are connected end to end.
On applying a potential difference across the combination same current flows through each resistor.
te
Equivalent resistance of number of resistors connected in series:
No
R S   R1  R 2 
S
Note: The effective resistance of number of resistors in series is equal to sum of the individual resistances.
For n resistors in series RS  R1  R 2  R 3  ...  R n
P
For n identical resistances are connected in series then R S  nR
Parallel combination:
Number of resistors are said to be in parallel when they are connected between two points such that p.d
across each resistor is the same.
Equivalent resistance of number of resistors connected in parallel: (M-14, M-15)
1 1 1
 
R P R1 R 2
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36
Note: The reciprocal of the effective resistance of number of resistors in parallel is equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of individual resistances.
1 1 1 1 1
For n resistors in parallel     ... 
R P R1 R 2 R 3 Rn
R
For n identical resistors in parallel R p =
n
R1 R 2
For 2 resistors in parallel R p =
R1 + R 2
Electrical energy: The work done by a source to maintain a current in the electrical circuit is known as
electrical energy.
Electrical energy is given by E = VIt
Electrical power: It is defined as the heat energy produced per unit time in an electrical device of resistance.
(or) It can also be defined as the rate of doing electrical work.

Electrical power, P = VI
It is a scalar quantity
s
SI unit of electrical power is watt (W)
te
Cells: It is device used to maintain the steady current in an electrical circuit.
Electro motive force (emf) ℰ : of a cell is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a cell
No
when no current is drawn from it.
Terminal potential difference (V): of a cell is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a
cell when current is drawn from it.
S
Internal resistance (r): of a cell is the resistance of electrolyte of the cell.
Derivation of current drawn by an external resistance:

Consider a simple circuit in which resistance R is connected to a cell of emf ℰ internal resistance r as shown.
P
I is the steady current flowing through it.
The potential difference across the terminals of a cell is

V = p.d. across P and A + p.d. across N and B + p.d. across A and B
V = (V+ + V- ) - Ir
V = ℰ - Ir  (1)
potential difference across R is

V = IR  (2)
equate (1) and (2), we get
IR = ℰ - Ir
ε
I=  (3) expression for current drawn by external resistance
R+r
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37
εR
Substitute (3) in (2), we get V= this is the expression for p.d. across R
R+ r
Equivalent emf of two cells when cells are connected in series:
Consider two cells are connected in series as shown in fig.

1 ,  2  emf’s of two cells
r1 , r2  internal resistance of the two cells.
I  same current through the cells
VA , VB and VC  the potentials at A, B and C respectively.
p.d. across AB is VAB = VA – VB = ℰ1 – Ir1 ( V = ℰ – Ir)
p.d. across BC is VBC = VB – VC = ℰ2 – Ir2
p.d. across AC is VAC = VA – VC = (VA – VB) + (VB – VC)
= (ℰ1 – Ir1) + (ℰ2 – Ir2 )
= (ℰ1+ ℰ2 ) – (Ir1 + Ir2)
s
VAC = VA – VC = (ℰ1+ ℰ2 ) – I (r1 + r2)
te  (1)
The two cells are replaced by a single equivalent cell between AC of emf ℰequi and internal resistance requi,
then
VAC  equi  Irequi  (2)
No
Compare (1) and (2), we get
εequi = ε1 + ε2 and requi = r1 + r2
For n cells in series εequi = ε1 + ε2  ......  εn and requi = r1 + r2  .....  rn

S
Equivalent emf of two cells when cells are connected in parallel : (M-18, M-19)
Consider two cells are connected in parallel as shown in fig.
1 ,  2  are emf’s of the two cells
P
r1 , r2  are the internal resistance of the two cells.

I1 , I2  be the current through the cells
V1 , V2  are the potential at B1 and B2 respectively.
p.d. across the first cell is V = V1 – V2 = ℰ1 – I1r1
1  V
 I1 
r1
p.d. across the second cell is V = V1 – V2 = ℰ2 – I2r2
2  V
 I2 
r2
Main current, I = I1 +I2
ε1 -V ε2 -V
I= +
r1 r2
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38
ε1 V ε2 V
I= - + -
r1 r1 r2 r2
ε ε   1 1 
I =  1 + 2  -V  +   1
 r1 r2   r1 r2 
The two cells are replaced by a single equivalent cell between AC of emf ℰequi and internal resistance requi,
then
V  equi  Irequi
equi  V
 I
requi
   1 
 I   equi   V     2
 requi   requi 
Compare (1) and (2), we get
εequi ε1 ε 2 1 1 1
= + and  
requi r1 r2 requi r1 r2
εequi ε1 ε 2 ε
For n number cells connected in parallel = + .......+ n
s
requi r1 r2 rn
te
KIRCHOFF’S LAW
Electrical Network: Electrical network is the combination of various circuit elements & electrical sources.
No
Node (or) Junction: Node or Junction of an electrical network is a point where more than two
conductors meet.
Loop (or) Mesh: Loop or Mesh of an electrical network is a closed path for the flow of current.
S
Kirchhoff’s first law (or) Kirchhoff’s Current law (or) KCL (or) node law:
Statement: The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a node in an electrical network is zero.
P
I  0
Let I1 ,I2 ,I3 and I4 are the currents through different conductors meeting
then I1  I2  I3  I4  I5  0
I1  I2  I3  I4  I5
Note: By convention current entering a node is taken as (+) and current leaving a node is taken as ( -)
Kirchhoff’s law is based on the law- Conservation of charge.
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39
Kirchhoff’s second law (or) Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (or) KVL: (J-17, M-18)
Statement: In a current loop of an electrical network the algebraic sum of
the emf’s and potential difference across different elements is equal to
zero.
that is     IR  0
    IR
apply KVL for theloop ABCDA
1   2  I1R1  I 2 R 2  I3 R 3  I4 R 4
Note: Kirchoff’s II law is based on the law of Conservation of Energy.

Kirchoff’s II law is applicable only for a closed path or for a loop.
Wheatstone’s Network (or) Bridge:

It is the arrangement of four resistors used to compare two unknown resistances. If one of the resistances is known the
other can be found.
Derive an expression for Balancing condition for Wheatstone’s bridge:(M-14, J-14, M-16, J-16, M-17, M-22)
Wheatstone’s network consists of four resistances P, Q, R & S connected in the form of a quadrilateral ABCD.
s
A sensitive galvanometer of resistance ‘G’ is connected between B & D.
A cell of emf ε is connected across A & C te
I g  current through the galvanometer
Apply KCL for the node B
I1  Ig  I3  1
No
Apply KCL for the node D

I 2  Ig  I 4   2 
Apply KVL for the loop ABDA
I1P  Ig G  I2 R  0   3
S
Apply KVL for the loop BCDB

I3Q  I4S  Ig G  0   4 
Under the balanced condition, Ig  0
P
Equation (1,2,3 and 4) becomes,
I1  I3   5 I2  I4   6 
I1P  I2 R   7  I3Q  I4S  8
Dividing equation (7) by (8),
I1P I 2 R
 [Since I1  I3 and I2  I4 ]
I3Q I 4S
P R
= This is the balancing condition.
Q S
****************
PRADEEP & SUNIL

40
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON CURRENT ELECTRICITY
PROBLEMS ON RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY
1) A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section 6.0 ×
10-7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 Ω. What is the resistivity of the material at the
temperature of the experiment? [NCERT] Ans: 2.0x10-7 Ωm
2) 100mg mass of Nichrome metal is drawn into a wire of area of cross section 0.05mm2. Calculate the
resistance of this wire. Given density of Nichrome 8.4 x103 kgm-3 and the resistivity of the material is
1.2 x 10-6 Ω [March-18]
PROBLEMS ON DRIFT VELOCITY AND CURRENT

3) Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper wire of cross-sectional area
1.0 × 10-7 m2 carrying a current of 1.5 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes roughly one
conduction electron. The density of copper is 9.0 × 103 kg/m3, and its atomic mass is 63.5 u. [NCERT]
Ans: 1.1 × 10-3 m s-1
4) The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor estimated as 8.5 × 1028 m-3. How long
does an electron take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long to its other end? The area of cross-
section of the wire is 2.0 × 10-6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A. [NCERT]
Ans: 2.7x104 s (7.5 h)
s
te
5) A wire of length 2m, diameter 1mm and resistivity 1.963 × 10-6 Ω m is connected in series with a
battery of emf 3V and internal resistance 1Ω . Calculate the resistance of the wire and the current in
the circuit. [J-16]
No
PROBLEMS ON TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

6) An electric toaster uses nichrome for its heating element. When a negligibly small current passes
through it, its resistance at room temperature (27.0 °C) is found to be 75.3Ω. When the toaster is
connected to a 230 V supply, the current settles, after a few seconds, to a steady value of 2.68 A. What
S
is the steady temperature of the nichrome element? The temperature coefficient of resistance of
nichrome averaged over the temperature range involved, is 1.70 × 10-4°C-1 [NCERT]
Ans: 847 °C
P
7) At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω. What is the
temperature of the element if the resistance is found to be 117 Ω, given that the temperature
coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70 × 10-4 °C-1 [NCERT]
Ans: 1027 ºC
8) A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at 27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at 100 °C. Determine the
temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver. [NCERT] Ans: 0.0039 ºC-1
9) The resistance of the platinum wire of a platinum resistance thermometer at the ice point is 5 Ω
and at steam point is 5.23Ω. When the thermometer is inserted in a hot bath, the resistance of the
platinum wire is 5.795Ω. Calculate the temperature of the bath. [NCERT] Ans: 345.65 °C
10) A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of 3.2 A
which settles after a few seconds to a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of the
heating element if the room temperature is 27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome
averaged over the temperature range involved is 1.70 × 10-4 °C-1. [NCERT] Ans: 867 ºC
PRADEEP & SUNIL

41
PROBLEMS ON COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
11) A network of resistors is connected to a 16 V battery

with internal resistance of 1Ω, as shown in Fig.
(a) Compute the equivalent resistance of the network.
(b) Obtain the current in each resistor. (c) Obtain the
voltage drops VAB, VBC and VCD. [NCERT]
Ans: a) 7Ω
b) the current in the 12Ωresistor is (2/3) A,
while the current in the 6 Ω resistor is (4/3) A.
c) 4V, 2V and 8V
12) Determine the current drawn from a 12V supply with

internal resistance 0.5Ω by the infinite network shown in Fig.
Each resistor has 1Ω resistance.
Ans: Hint: Let X be the equivalent resistance of the infinite
network. Clearly, 2 + X/(X +1) = X which gives X = (1+3) Ω;
therefore the current is 3.7 A.
s
te
13) (a) Three resistors 2 Ω,3 Ω , and 4 Ω are combined in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination? (b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 10 V and negligible internal
resistance, obtain the potential drop across each resistor. [M-16]
No
14) (a) Three resistors 4Ω, 6Ω and 8 Ω are combined in parallel. What is thekj? total resistance of the
combination? (b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 25 V and negligible internal
resistance, determine the current through each resistor, and the total current drawn from the battery.
[J-17]
S
15) When two resistances are connected in series with a cell of emf 2V and negligible internal
resistance, a current of 2/5A flows in the circuit. When the resistances are connected in parallel, the
main current is 5/3A. Calculate the resistances. [M-17]
P
16) Two resistors of resistance 12Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel to a battery of 12V. (a) Calculate
the equivalent resistance of the network. (b) Obtain the current in 12 Ω and 6Ω resistors. [J-14]
17) Two resistors are connected in series with 5V battery of negligible internal resistance. A current
of 2A flows through each resistor. If they are connected in parallel with the same battery a current of
25/3 A flows through combination. Calculate the value of each resistance. [M-19]
18) In the given diagram, calculate (i) the main current through the circuit and (ii) also current
through 9Ω resistor. [J-18]
PRADEEP & SUNIL

42
19) Three resistors 2 Ω, 3 Ω and 6 Ω are combined in parallel. What is the total resistance of the
combination? The combination is connected to a battery of emf 2V and negligible internal resistance.
Determine the current through each resistor and total current drawn from the battery.
Ans: 2A [M-19]
PROBLEMS ON CELL
20) The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the internal resistance of the battery is 0.4 Ω,
what is the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery? [NCERT] Ans: 30 A
21) A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the current in the
circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the battery when
the circuit is closed? [NCERT] Ans: 17 Ω, 8.5 V
22) Two resistors of resistances 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel with a battery of emf 6V and
internal resistance 1Ω.Calculate the main current through the circuit and current through 3Ω and 6Ω.
23) A battery of internal resistance 3Ω is connected to 20Ω resistor and potential difference across the
resistor is 10V. If another resistor of 30Ω is connected in series with the first resistor and battery is
again connected to the combination, calculate the emf and terminal p.d across the combination.
[M-14]
24) Two identical cells either in series or in parallel combination, gives the same current of 0.5A
s
through external resistance of 4 Ω . Find the emf and internal resistance of each cell. [J-15]
te
PROBLEMS ON KCL, KVL AND WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE
No
25) Determine the current in each branch of the
network shown in Fig. [NCERT]
Ans: I1 = 2.5A, I2 =5/8A, I3 = 7/8A

S
P
26) Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in

Fig. [NCERT]
Ans: Current in branch AB = (4/17) A, in BC = (6/17)
A, in CD = (–4/17) A, in AD = (6/17) A, in BD. = (–2/17) A, total
current = (10/17) A.
27) A battery of 10 V and negligible internal resistance is connected across the diagonally opposite
corners of a cubical network consisting of 12 resistors each of resistance 1Ω Fig.. Determine the
equivalent resistance of the network and the current along each edge of the cube. [NCERT]
Ans: 5/2R
PRADEEP & SUNIL

43
28) The four arms of a Wheatstone bridge have the following
resistances: AB = 100Ω, BC = 10 Ω, CD = 5 Ωand DA = 60 Ω. A
galvanometer of 15Ω resistance is connected across BD. Calculate
the current through the galvanometer when a potential difference
of 10 V is maintained across AC. [NCERT]
Ans: 4.87 mA
29) Two cells of emf 2V and 4V and internal resistance 1 Ω and 2 Ω respectively are connected in
parallel so as to send the current in the same direction through an external resistance of 10 Ω . Find
the potential difference across 10 Ω resistor. [M-15]
30) In the following circuit, find the current I. [M-22] Ans: 0.4A
s
te
No
ADDITIONAL HOME WORK QUESTIONS
31) The terminals of a cell of emf 1.5 V are connected to the ends of a 10 Ω coil. If the current in the
circuit is 140 mA, calculate the internal resistance of the cell.
32)Three resistors of resistance 12Ω, 8Ω and 4Ω are connected as shown in

S
the circuit diagram. Calculate the current in each branch of the circuit.
E=4V, r=2/3
P
33) The number density of conduction electrons is 9.5x1028 m-3. Calculate

the time taken by an electron to drift from one end of the wire 4m long to
the other end. The area of cross-section of the wire is 1.8x10-6 m2 and is
carrying a current of 5 ampere.
35) A uniform copper wire of length 2 m and cross-sectional area 5×10-7m2 carries a current of 2 A.
Assuming that there are 8×1028 free electrons per m3 of copper; calculate the drift velocity of
electrons. How long will an electron take to drift from one end of the wire to the other?
36) Two resistors of 8Ω and 12 Ω are connected in series across a battery of potential difference 10
volt. Calculate the current in the circuit, when another unknown resistance is connected in parallel
with the two resistors across the same battery, the current in the circuit changes to 2.5 A. Calculate
the unknown resistance.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

44
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
Magnetic field produced by electric current
When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced in the region surrounding the
conductor.
It is first observed by Prof. H.C.Oersted, he demonstrated it by keeping a magnetic needle above a
conductor. The deflection in the needle was observed when current passed through it. The direction in
which deflection produced is given by Ampere’s swimming rule.
Right hand clasp rule (Right hand thumb rule)

The direction of the magnetic field around the straight conductor carrying current is found using right hand
thumb rule.
Statement: If a straight current carrying conductor is imagined to be held in the right hand such that the
thumb pointing in the direction of current, then curled fingers gives the direction of the magnetic field.
s
Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field te(J-14, J-16, M-19)
Consider a charge q moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field of strength B.
The force experienced by this moving charge is given by F = qvB sinθ
No
or F  q(v x B)
where θ  is the angle between the velocity of moving charge and the direction of magnetic field.
Case (i): The force is maximum, when θ = 90° Fmax = qvB

S
Case (ii): The force is minimum, when θ = 0o or θ = 180° Fmin = 0 (M-22)

P
Definition of magnetic field B: The strength of the magnetic field is defined as the force experienced by a
moving charge of unit magnitude with unit velocity in a perpendicular magnetic field.
Units of magnetic field ( ⃗ )
1. In C.G.S. system, unit of magnetic field strength is gauss (G).
2. In SI, unit of magnetic field strength is tesla (T).
Note: 1 gauss(G) = 10-4 T
Define1tesla: The force experienced by a moving charge of 1C with a velocity of 1ms-1 in a perpendicular
magnetic field is said to be 1tesla (T).
Note: Consider the magnetic force, F  q(v x B) the direction of this force is perpendicular to both and
⃗ . Thus, angle between the force and the displacement of the charge is 900.
Hence, work done by the magnetic force on the charge is given by zero. i.e. W = . = F S cos 900 = 0.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

45
Force on a current carrying conductor:
Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length l.
The number of charge carriers /volume = n
The number of charge carriers N = n(volume)
N = n (Al)
The total charge, q = Ne = n (Al)e
I  steady current
vd  be the drift velocity of the charge
B  external magnetic field
θ  is the angle between length of the conductor and direction of magnetic field
The force on these charges is F = qvB sin 
F = (nAl)e vd B sin  [ I = nAevd]
F = I l B sinθ
In vector form F  I( x B)
s
Case (i): The force experienced by the current carrying conductor is maximum when it is placed
te
perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e., θ = 90° Fmax = B I l
Case (ii): The force experienced will be zero when the conductor is placed parallel or anti parallel to the
No
direction of magnetic field. Fmin = 0.
Fleming’s left hand rule:

Stretch the left hand such that the fore finger, the central finger and the thumb are mutually perpendicular to
S
each other. When fore-finger points in the direction of magnetic field and central finger points in the
direction of current (moving charge), then the thumb gives the direction of the force acting on the conductor.
P
Moving charge in a magnetic field

Case I. A moving charged particle does not experience any force (F = 0) if its motion is parallel (   0o ) or
anti -parallel (   180o ) to the magnetic field. And the path of the charged particle is straight line
Case II. When charged particle moves at right angle to the magnetic field.(5 mark)
A charge moving perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field experiences a force so that it undergoes
uniform circular motion.
(i) Radius of circular path: For a charge of q moving in a magnetic field of strength B, in a circular path of
radius r with a linear speed v, having mass m, the centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force.
Hence, FCPF  FMAGNETIC
PRADEEP & SUNIL

46
mv 2
 qBv
r
mv
r
qB
rαv (Radius directly proportional to velocity)

(ii) Time period (T): The time period of revolution of the charge in a circular
2r
path is given by T
v
2m
T
qB
Time period is constant
qB
(iii) Frequency (f): The frequency of revolution of the charge in a circular path is given by  
2m
qB
(iv)Angular frequency,  = 2 = 2 ( )
2 m
s
qB
= This angular frequency is called gyro frequency.
te
m
CaseIII: When the charged particle moves at an angle to the magnetic field (other than 00, 900 and 1800)
No
When a moving charge enters a magnetic field with a velocity v, at an angle other than 0o 180o or 90o, it
undergoes a helical path.
 Pitch: The linear distance travelled by the charged particle
S
in one rotation is called pitch of the helix i.e. pitch of the helix,
p  vcosθ T
2 m
p  vcosθ
P
qB
2πmv
p cosθ
qB
Lorentz force: (J-17)

When a charged particle having charge q moves in a region, where both electric field ⃗ and magnetic
field ⃗ exist, it experiences a net force called Lorentz force ( ).
i.e. Lorentz force, = force on charge due to electric field + Force on charge due to magnetic field
F  FE  FM
 
F  qE  q v  B
F  q  E   v  B 
 
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47
Biot –Savart’s law (Laplace’s law)
Laplace’s law is used to determine the strength of the magnetic field at a
point near a current carrying conductor.
Laplace’s law states that the magnetic field dB at a point P due to a current
element is directly proportional to the
i) strength of the current (I)
ii) length of the element, (dl)
iii) sine of the angle between the element and the line joining the point to the element, (sin) and
iv) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point and the current element, (r2)
Consider a conductor
XY  conductor length
I  current through the conductor
s
P  be a point at a distance r from the conductor.
From Biot-savarts law dB 

r2
te
Idl sin 
μ0 Idlsinθ
No
dB =
4π r 2
0
where is constant of proportionality,  o =4  x 10-7 Hm-1 is called permeability of free space.
4
Magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current:
S
(M-14, M-15, M-17, M-18, M-19)

Consider a circular coil of n turns
P
r  radius
I  current through the coil
AB
P  point on the axis of a coil at a distance ‘x’ from the dBcosα M
a
centre of the coil O r α
Step I: Consider a pair of diametrically opposite elements α dBsinα
I O x P dBsinα
AB and CD of length dl.
The magnetic field at P due to the element AB is given by dBcosα N
   IdlSin     Idl CD
dB =  o  =  o 2 along PM ( θ = 90°)
 4  a  4  a
2
The field at P due to the element CD is given by

   Idl
dB =  o  2 along PN
 4  a
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48
Step II: Resolve dB into dB cos α along y axis and dB Sin α along x axis.
The components along y- axis cancel each other and the components along x-axis add up.
Hence the field at P due to elements AB and CD = 2 dB Sin α along OP
Step III: The magnetic field at P due to one turn of coil B =  2dBsin α
   Idl
=  2  o  2 sin α where sin α = r / a
 4  a
   Ir
= 2  o  3  dl
 4  a
   2 Ir  circumference 
=  o  3 r   dl   r 
 4  a  2 
   2Ir
2
Resultant field, B =  o  3
 4  a
   2nIr
2
For n turns of coil, B=  o 
 4  a
3
From figure a2 = r2 + x2 2
 a = (r + x )
2 1/2 3
 a = (r +x )
2 2 3/2
s
   2nIr
2
 B=  o  2
 4  (r  x )
2 3/ 2
te
along the axis OP
No
Direction of B : If the current flow in clockwise direction then the direction of magnetic field is along the
axis and away from the observer, it is towards the observer when the current flows in the anticlockwise
direction.
S
Magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying circular coil:

From the equation of magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current
P
   2nIr
2
B=  o  2
 4  (r  x )
2 3/ 2
   2nIr 2
At the centre x=0, hence B=  o 
 4  r
3
o nI
B
2r
Ampere’s circuital law: (M-15, J-14)
The line integral of magnetic field B around any closed path in air is equal to μ o times the total current
enclosed by the path
According to Ampere circuital law  B.dl = μ I
o net
PRADEEP & SUNIL

49
where  B.dl  is line integral of magnetic field B around any closed path
I net  is the net current enclosed by the path.
Applications of Ampere’s circuital law
(i) Magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor

(J-15, M-18)
Consider an infinitely long straight conductor.
I
I  current through the conductor B
r dl
P  point at a distance r from the conductor O P
r  radius of circular loop
dl  the small element chosen
The magnetic field B act on the same direction

Hence from Ampere’s circuital law  B.dl = μ I o
 Bdl cos 0 = μ I
o
s
o
B  dl = μ o I
B (2πr)= μ o I
te
μoI
No
B=
2πr
The solenoid
Solenoid is a long wire wound in the form of a helix with the closely
S
spaced turns insulated from each other. Its length is very large
compared to its radius.
 Inside the solenoid the magnetic field is uniform and parallel
P
to the solenoid axis.

 Outside the solenoid the magnetic field is very small and assumed to be zero.
To determine the magnetic field inside the solenoid

Consider a solenoid
I  the current flowing in the solenoid
n  the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid., a
abcda  rectangular closed loop is chosen as shown.
StepI: The line integral of B over a closed path is given by
b c d a
 B. dl =  B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl

a b c d
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50
c a
 B.dl   B.dl  0
b d
( the anglebetween B and dl is 90o )
c
and  B.dl  0
d
( the magnetic field outsidethe solenoid is 0)
b
Hence  B.dl  B l .....................(1)
a
Step II: According to ampere’s circuital law,
 B.dl =  0  net current enclosed by loop ABCD.

 B.dl =  0  number of turns in the loop ABCD  I
 B.dl =  0nlI………………. (2)

from (1) and (2), we have
Step III: Bl  o I enc
Bl  o  nIl 
B = μo n I
s
where n = N/L where N is the number of turns in the length of the solenoid L.
te
The toroid (M-16)
No
A solenoid in the form of a ring is called toroid.
S
B  μ o nI expression for the magnetic field due to a toroid
Force between two parallel conductors carrying currents

P
When two parallel current carrying conductors are close together they exert force on one another. If the
direction of currents is same there exists a force of attraction between the two. If currents are in opposite
directions, the conductors repel each other.
Expression for Force between two parallel conductors carrying currents and hence define
1ampere. (J-15, M-16, J-16, J-17, J-18, M-19, M-20)
a b
Consider two infinitely long parallel conductors carrying current I1 & I2 respectively in
the same direction as shown. Let‘d’ be the distance of separation of two conductors.
The magnetic field at any point P on the conductor b due to current I1 in conductor a is
Ba
 I F
Ba = o 1 into the plane of paper P
2 d
Due to this magnetic field, the conductor b experiences a force which given by d
Fb = Ba I2 l
I1 I2
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51
 I 
=  o 1  I 2 l
 2 d 
  I I l
or Fb =  o  1 2
 2  d
is the expression for force experienced by the conductor b towards a.
Note: 1) Fb = –Fa forces are mutual.

2) Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel currents repel. (M-14, J-14)
Definition of ampere
  I I l
From F =  o  1 2
 2  d
4 x 10 7
When I1 = I2 = 1A, d = 1 m, when the conductors are in vacuum, Fl = = 2 x 10-7 N/m
2
s
1ampere: is defined as that steady current which when flows through two infinitely long straight conductors
te
separated by a distance of 1m in air or vacuum experiences a force of 2 x 10 -7 N per meter length of each
conductor.
No
Torque on a rectangular Current Loop in a magnetic field (M-22)

Consider a rectangular loop ABCD placed in an external magnetic field of strength B.
a and b  length and breadth respectively
S
I  current flowing through the coil

A conductor of length l experiences a force of
F = BIl sinθ in an external magnetic field B.
P
When the plane of the loop is in the direction of the magnetic field:
The forces on the sides BC and AD are FBC = FAD = 0
The forces on the sides AB and DC are given by
FAB = BIl sin 90o = BIl into the plane of the paper
FCD = BIl sin 90o = BIl out of the plane of paper
The two forces FAB and FCD constitute couple. Hence the loop rotates. The rotating effect of the loop is
measured by torque.
Torque on the loop, τ = one of the forces x arm of the couple
τ = F x b = BIl x b
τ = B I A where A is area of the loop
For n turns of wire in the loop, τ = nBIA
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52
When the area vector (normal to the plane of the loop) makes an angle with B:
When the area vector (normal to the plane of the loop) makes an angle θ with B. The
force on the two sides of the loop FAB and FCD constitute couple. F
arm of couple
Torque on the loop, τ = one of the forces x arm of the couple
= F x bsinθ [ from the diagram, sinθ = arm of couple / b] b B
θ θ
= BIl x b sinθ n
= B I A sinθ where A is area of the loop F
For n turns of wire in the loop, τ = nBIAsinθ
Note: Torque is minimum when θ = 0° when the plane of loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field and it
is maximum when the plane of the loop is parallel to the magnetic field.
Magnetic dipole moment (magnetic moment) m :

The product of current I flowing through the loop and the area enclosed A by the loop is termed as magnetic
s
moment. M  IA
Its SI unit is magnetic moment A-m2
te
It is always directed towards normal to the current loop.
No
Hence torque on the current loop is given by τ = MBsinθ
Where, M = nBA for a loop of n turns.
Magnetic orbital dipole moment of a revolving electro (atom as a magnetic dipole):

S
 e 
Note: In vector notation, l    L
 2me 
P
l e
Note: From eqn.(2)  gyro magnetic constant.
L 2me
Note: According to Bohr’s quantization law, angular momentum of electrons is given by

h
L= n , where n=1,2,3……..and h is Planck’s constant.
2
Then eqn. (2) becomes e nh  eh 
l   n
2me 2  4 m 
if n = 1, then l (minimum)=  eh  , which is Bohr magneton. It is also denoted by  B .

 4 m 
Bohr magneton: can be defined as the orbital magnetic moment of an electron circulating in the innermost
 eh 
orbit of the atom. B = 
i.e.  4 m 
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53
Moving coil galvanometer
Moving coil galvanometer is a device used to detect and measure very low currents.
Principle: A current carrying loop experiences a torque in a uniform magnetic field.
Description:
It consists of a rectangular coil having n turns of copper wire wound on a
nonmagnetic frame. A cylindrical piece of soft iron is placed inside the
coil without touching it. This intensifies the magnetic field. The whole
set up is placed between two concave magnets which makes the
magnetic field radial. The coil is connected to a fine hair spring, to
which a pointer is pivoted. The pointer is free to move over the scale.
Theory
I  current through the coil it deflects in the magnetic field.
The deflecting torque acting on the coil is given by, τd = nBIA
B  the magnetic field A  area of the coil.
s
When the coil deflects, the hair spring exerts a restoring torque which tries to bring the coil to its original
position.
Restoring torque, τd = k θ
te
where K  is the couple per unit twist.
Hence at equilibrium, deflecting torque = restoring torque
No
nBIA = k θ
 k 
I 
 nBA 
I 
S
i.e., the current is directly proportional to the deflection of coil.

P
Sensitivity of a galvanometer:
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if a small current flowing through the coil of galvanometer produces a
large deflection in it.
I. Current sensitivity (J-18)
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer per unit
current flowing through it.
  ( NAB) NAB
i.e. current sensitivity =  i.e. current sensitivity =
I k k
SI unit of current sensitivity is div/A
II. Voltage sensitivity: Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the
galvanometer per unit voltage applied to it.
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  NAB
i.e. voltage sensitivity =  i.e. voltage sensitivity =
V IR kR
SI unit of voltage sensitivity is div/volt
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter with the help of shunt: (M-15)

The introduction of ammeter should not alter the current to be measured in the circuit. The resistance of
ammeter should be low. To decrease the effective resistance of the Galvanometer, a low resistance called
shunt resistance ‘S’ is connected in parallel with the Galvanometer.
This modified version of the Galvanometer is called ammeter. The value of ‘S’ to be connected
across the Galvanometer depends on the current to be measured. If I is the current to be measured and Ig is
the current for which the Galvanometer gives full scale deflection, then
IS
Ig 
GS
I g G  S   I S
s
Ig G
S
I  Ig te
Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter: (M-17, J-17)
No
A Galvanometer as it is cannot be used as a voltmeter since the resistance of the galvanometer is low. To
increase the effective resistance of the Galvanometer, a high resistance R is connected in series with the
Galvanometer. The value of R to be connected in series with the galvanometer depends on the p.d to be
S
measured. If V is the p.d. to be measured then.

V = Ig (G +R)
P
G+R=
R= –G Where Ig  is the current through galvanometer for full scale deflection.
Galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance
Note: The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero

The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.
 The two reasons to show that, ‘the galvanometer as such can not be used as an
ammeter’.(M-22)
The high resistance of Galvanometer can disturb the original current flowing through the coil
The high current present in the circuit can destroy the coil windings present in the galvanometer
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NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
Problems on force on a charge and current carrying conductor
1. What is the magnitude of magnetic force per unit length on a wire carrying a current of 8 A and
making an angle of 30º with the direction of a uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T?
[NCERT] Ans: 0.6 N m-1
2. A 3.0 cm wire carrying a current of 10 A is placed inside a solenoid perpendicular to its axis. The
magnetic field inside the solenoid is given to be 0.27 T. What is the magnetic force on the wire?
[NCERT] Ans: 8.1 × 10-2 N; direction of force given by Fleming’s left-hand rule
3. The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at a certain place is 3.0 ×10-5 T and the
direction of the field is from the geographic south to the geographic north. A very long straight
conductor is carrying a steady current of 1A. What is the force per unit length on it when it is placed
on a horizontal table and the direction of the current is (a) east to west; (b) south to north?
[NCERT] Ans: a) 3 × 10-5 N m-1 downwards b) zero
s
4. A straight horizontal conducting rod of length 0.45 m and mass 60 g is suspended by two vertical
wires at its ends. A current of 5.0 A is set up in the rod through the wires. (a) What magnetic field
te
should be set up normal to the conductor in order that the tension in the wires is zero? (b) What will
be the total tension in the wires if the direction of current is reversed keeping the magnetic field same
No
as before? (Ignore the mass of the wires.) g = 9.8 m s-2. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) A horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.26 T normal to the conductor in such a direction
that Fleming’s left-hand rule gives a magnetic force upward. (b) 1.176 N.
S
5. A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is suspended in mid-air by
a uniform horizontal magnetic field B. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
P
[NCERT] Ans: 0.65T
6. A uniform magnetic field of 1.5 T exists in a cylindrical region of radius10.0 cm, its direction parallel
to the axis along east to west. A wire carrying current of 7.0 A in the north to south direction passes
through this region. What is the magnitude and direction of the force on the wire if,
(a) the wire intersects the axis,
(b) the wire is turned from N-S to northeast-northwest direction,
Ans: (a) 2.1 N vertically downwards
(b) 2.1 N vertically downwards
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Problems on moving charge in a magnetic field
7. What is the radius of the path of an electron (mass 9 × 10-31 kg and charge 1.6 × 10-19 C) moving at
a speed of 3 ×107 m/s in a magnetic field of 6 × 10-4 T perpendicular to it? What is its frequency?
Calculate its energy in keV. ( 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J). [NCERT] Ans: 2 MHz, 2.5 keV
8. An electron emitted by a heated cathode and accelerated through a potential difference of 2.0 kV,
enters a region with uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T. Determine the trajectory of the electron if the
field (a) is transverse to its initial velocity, (b) makes an angle of 30º with the initial velocity.
[NCERT] Ans: (a) Circular trajectory of radius 1.0 mm normal to B.
(b) Helical trajectory of radius 0.5 mm with velocity component 2.3 × 107 ms-1 along B.
9. In a chamber, a uniform magnetic field of 6.5 G (1 G = 10-4 T) is maintained. An electron is shot into
the field with a speed of 4.8 × 106 m s-1 normal to the field. Explain why the path of the electron is a
circle. Determine the radius of the circular orbit. Obtain the frequency of revolution of the electron in
s
its circular orbit. Does the answer depend on the speed of the electron? Explain. (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C,
me = 9.1×10-31 kg) [NCERT]
te
Ans: 4.2 cm
No
Problems on Biot –Savart’s law (B due to circular current coil)
10. A circular coil of wire consisting of 100 turns, each of radius 8.0 cm carries a current of 0.40 A.
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field B at the centre of the coil? [NCERT] Ans: 3.1 × 10-4 T
S
11. Consider a tightly wound 100 turn coil of radius 10 cm, carrying a current of 1 A. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the coil? [NCERT] Ans: 6.28 × 10-4 T
P
12. Two concentric circular coils X and Y of radii 16 cm and 10 cm, respectively, lie in the same vertical
plane containing the north to south direction. Coil X has 20 turns and carries a current of 16 A; coil Y
has 25 turns and carries a current of 18 A. The sense of the current in X is anticlockwise, and
clockwise in Y, for an observer looking at the coils facing west. Give the magnitude and direction of the
net magnetic field due to the coils at their centre. [NCERT] Ans: 1.6 × 10-3 T towards west
13. A wire of length 0.26 m is bent to form a circular loop. If 2A of current is flowing through this loop,
calculate the magnetic field due to this loop at a point P, which is at a distance of 0.15m from its centre
on its axis. [March-2018]
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14. A circuit copper coil of mean radius 6.284 cm has 20 turns. If a current of 2A is passed through
this coil, find the magnitude of the magnetic field at its centre. Also find the magnetic dipole moment
of this current coil. [March 2022] Ans: B=4 X10-4 T and M=0.49 Am2
15. The magnetic fields at two points on the axis of a circular coil at a distance of 0.05m and 0.2m from
the centers are in the ratio 8:1. Find the radius of the coil.
16. A and B are two identical coils, of diameter 0.134m having 10 turns each. They are placed
concentrically with their planes at right angles to each other. A current of 1A flows through each coil.
Calculate the resultant magnetic field at their common centre.
Problems on B due to solenoid, toroid and straight conductor
17. A long straight wire carries a current of 35 A. What is the magnitude of the field B at a point 20 cm
from the wire? [NCERT] Ans: 3.5 × 10-5 T
18. A long straight wire in the horizontal plane carries a current of 50 A in north to south direction.
s
Give the magnitude and direction of B at a point 2.5 m east of the wire.
te
[NCERT] Ans: 4 × 10-6 T, vertical up
19. A horizontal overhead power line carries a current of 90 A in east to west direction. What is the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field due to the current 1.5 m below the line?
No
[NCERT] Ans: 1.2 × 10-5 T, towards south

20. A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is made up of 500 turns. It carries a current of 5
A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid? [NCERT] Ans: 6.28 × 10-3 T
S
21. A closely wound solenoid 80 cm long has 5 layers of windings of 400 turns each. The diameter of
the solenoid is 1.8 cm. If the current carried is 8.0 A, estimate the magnitude of B inside the solenoid
P
near its centre. [NCERT] Ans: 2.5 × 10-2 T

22. A solenoid 60 cm long and of radius 4.0 cm has 3 layers of windings of 300 turns each. A 2.0 cm
long wire of mass 2.5 g lies inside the solenoid (near its centre) normal to its axis; both the wire and
the axis of the solenoid are in the horizontal plane. The wire is connected through two leads parallel to
the axis of the solenoid to an external battery which supplies a current of 6.0 A in the wire. What value
of current (with appropriate sense of circulation) in the windings of the solenoid can support the
weight of the wire? g = 9.8 m s-2. [NCERT] Ans: 108 A
Problems on two parallel conductors carrying current
23. Two long and parallel straight wires A and B carrying currents of 8.0 A and 5.0 A in the same
direction are separated by a distance of 4.0 cm. Estimate the force on a 10 cm section of wire A.
[NCERT] Ans: 2 × 10-5 N; attractive force normal to A towards B
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58
24. The wires which connect the battery of an automobile to its starting motor carry a current of 300
A (for a short time). What is the force per unit length between the wires if they are 70 cm long and 1.5
cm apart? Is the force attractive or repulsive? [NCERT] Ans: 1.2 N m-1; repulsive.
Problems on torque
25. A 100 turn closely wound circular coil of radius 10 cm carries a current of 3.2 A. (a) What is the
field at the centre of the coil? (b) What is the magnetic moment of this coil? The coil is placed in a
vertical plane and is free to rotate about a horizontal axis which coincides with its diameter. A uniform
magnetic field of 2T in the horizontal direction exists such that initially the axis of the coil is in the
direction of the field. The coil rotates through an angle of 90º under the influence of the magnetic field.
(c) What are the magnitudes of the torques on the coil in the initial and final position?
[NCERT] Ans: a) 2 × 10-3 T b) 10 Am2 c) 20 N m
26. A square coil of side 10 cm consists of 20 turns and carries a current of 12 A. The coil is suspended
s
vertically and the normal to the plane of the coil makes an angle of 30º with the direction of a uniform
te
horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.80 T. What is the magnitude of torque experienced by the
coil? [NCERT] Ans: 0.96 N m
No
27. A circular coil of 20 turns and radius 10 cm is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T normal
to the plane of the coil. If the current in the coil is 5.0 A, what is the (a) total torque on the coil, (b)
total force on the coil, (c) average force on each electron in the coil due to the magnetic field? (The coil
S
is made of copper wire of cross-sectional area 10-5 m2, and the free electron density in copper is given
to be about 1029 m-3.) [NCERT]
P
Ans: (a) Zero, (b) zero, (c) force on each electron is evB = IB/(nA) = 5 × 10-25 N
28. (a) A circular coil of 30 turns and radius 8.0 cm carrying a current of 6.0 A is suspended vertically
in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 1.0 T. The field lines make an angle of 60º with
the normal of the coil. Calculate the magnitude of the counter torque that must be applied to prevent
the coil from turning. (b) Would your answer change, if the circular coil in (a) were replaced by a
planar coil of some irregular shape that encloses the same area? (All other particulars are also
unaltered.) [NCERT] Ans: (a) 3.1 Nm, (b) No, the answer is unchanged because
the formula = N I A × B is true for a planar loop of any shape.
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Problems on conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter
29. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 12 Ωand the metre shows full scale deflection for a current
of 3 mA. How will you convert the metre into a voltmeter of range 0 to 18 V?
[NCERT] Ans: Resistance in series = 5988 Ω
30. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 15 Ω and the metre shows full scale deflection for a current
of 4 mA. How will you convert the metre into an ammeter of range 0 to 6 A?
[NCERT] Ans: Shunt resistance = 10 m Ω
31. A galvanometer of resistance 80Ω requires a current of 1mA for full scale deflection. How to
convert it into an voltmeter of range 0-10V and an ammeter of range 0-5A.
32. A galvanometer having coil of resistance 12 Ω gives full scale deflection for a current of 4 mA. How
can it be converted into a voltmeter of range 0-24V? [July 2016]
s
te
No
S
P
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60
Magnetism and matter
The bar magnet:
The bar magnet may be rectangular shaped rod having north and
south pole separated by a small distance.
Properties of bar magnet:

1. Property of attraction: Poles of bar have ability to attract small pieces of
magnetic materials like Ni, cobalt iron etc.,
2. Property of alignment: A magnet, when suspended freely comes to rest
along geographical N-S pole.
3. Unlike poles attract and like poles repel each other.
4. Property of pairs: The poles of the magnet cannot be separated (isolated). i.e. magnetic monopoles do not
exist.
5. Property of induction: A magnet can induce magnetism when an iron, cobalt or nickel rod is placed nearer
a bar magnet, the bar magnet induces magnetism in the rod.
s
6. Repulsion is the surest test of magnetism.
te
Magnetic field lines: magnetic field is an imaginary curve, the tangent at any point of which gives the
direction of magnetic field
No
The magnetic field of a bar magnet resembles the magnetic field produced by a solenoid. (M-14)
S
P
Properties of magnetic field lines: (J-14, M-15)

1. Magnetic field lines are continuous and closed curves (forms closed loop) from N-pole to S-pole outside
the magnet and from S-pole to N-pole inside the body of the magnet.
2. The tangent at any point on the magnetic field line gives the direction of the net magnetic field ( B ) at that
point.
3. Two magnetic field lines do not intersect or cross each other. If they so, then at the point of intersection,
there will be two directions of the magnetic field at a single point, which is not possible.
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61
4. The number of field lines crossing normally per unit area, represents the magnetic field B at that points.
(Also known as magnetic flux density)
5. Widely spaced field lines represent weak magnetic field and closely spaced lines represent the strong
magnetic field.
Torque on a magnetic dipole(Bar magnet) placed in uniform magnetic field

Torque,   m  B
Magnitude of torque,   mB sin  
where m→is magnetic dipole moment
B→ is uniform magnetic field
θ→ is the angle between magnetic dipole moment and magnetic field
Determination of B using compass needle by oscillation method:
I
The time period of oscillations is T  2
mB
s
4 2 I
Magnetic field B  te
mT 2
No
Expression for Potential energy of a dipole in an external field: (M-18)

U  mBcos 2  cos 1 
S
This work done is stored as the potential energy of the dipole.
Note: when 1   / 2 and 2  

P
U  mBcos   cos  / 2  mBcos   0
U  mB cos 
Note: potential energy, U= 0 at θ = 90º,

potential energy is minimum, Umin = –mB at θ = 0º (most stable position)
potential energy is maximum, Umax = +mB at θ = 180º (most unstable position).
Gauss’ Law in Magnetism: (J-16)

Gauss law in magnetism states that, net magnetic flux through any closed
surface is zero.
Consider a small vector area element S of closed surface S.
The magnetic flux  through S is given by       B S  0
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62
Magnetization or Intensity of magnetization(M): The degree to which a substance is magnetized when
placed in the magnetizing field. (M-16)
(or) Magnetic dipole per unit volume of the substance
mnet
M
V
Magnetic intensity (or) Intensity of magnetizing field (H): The degree to which a magnetic field can
magnetize a magnetic substance. (or) it the ratio of magnetizing field to the permeability of free spac
B
H 0
0
Magnetic permeability(μ): The extent to which magnetic field lines can enter a substance is known as
Magnetic permeability.
(or) it the ratio of magnetic induction to the Intensity of magnetizing field
B

H
Relative permeability: It is the ratio of magnetic induction inside the material to the flux density in vacuum
s
B
r  te
B0
Magnetic susceptibility(χ): It is the property of a substance which shows how easily the substance can be
No
magnetized when placed in magnetic field. (M-14, M-19)
Magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of the magnetization (M) to the intensity of magnetizing field (H).
M
x
H
S
It has no unit. Higher the value of χ for a material means it is more easily magnetized.
Relation between µr and χ :

P
Total magnetic field (B) in a solenoid having material core is the sum of the magnetic field in vacuum (B0)
and the magnetic field due to material (Bm)
i.e. B = B0 + Bm
But B0  0 H and Bm  0 M
 B  0  M  H 
B M 
by H  0   1
H H 
  0    1

  1
0
r    1
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63
Magnetic materials:
Faraday classified the materials into three groups according to their magnetic properties. They are
Diamagnetic materials , Paramagnetic materials and Ferromagnetic material
Distinguish between Diamagnetic materials , Paramagnetic materials and Ferromagnetic material

(J-14, M-15, J-15, J-16, J-17, M-15, M-16, J-18, M-17, M-19, M-20, M-22)
Ferro magnetic Para magnetic Diamagnetic

The materials which are strongly The materials which are weakly The materials which are weakly
magnetized in the direction of the magnetized in the direction of the magnetized in a direction opposite
applied field are known as applied field are known as to the applied field are known as
ferromagnetic materials. paramagnetic materials. diamagnetic materials.
Example : Iron, nickel, cobalt, Example : Aluminium, chromium, Example : gold, silver, copper,
alnico manganese, platinum, calcium, zinc, lead, bismuth, mercury etc.,
antimony, sodium, lithium etc.,
They are strongly attracted by a They are weakly attracted by a They are weakly repelled by a
magnet. magnet. magnet.
A freely suspended ferromagnetic A freely suspended paramagnetic A freely suspended diamagnetic
rod quickly sets itself along the rod slowly sets itself along the rod slowly sets itself at right
direction of external magnetic direction of external magnetic angles to the direction of external
field. field. magnetic field.
s
When they are placed in a When they are placed in a When they are placed in a
magnetic field, the magnetic field magnetic field, most of the
te magnetic field, the magnetic field
lines prefer to pass through them. magnetic field lines prefer to pass lines do not prefer to pass through
through them. them.
Permeability is much more than Permeability is more than unity, Permeability is less than unity, i.e.
unity, i.e. μ >>1 i.e. μ >1 μ <1
No
Magnetic flux density (B) inside a Magnetic flux density (B) inside a Magnetic flux density (B) inside a
ferromagnetic material is much paramagnetic material is larger diamagnetic material is less than in
larger than in air. than in air. air.
The sample gets strongly The sample gets weakly The sample gets weakly
magnetized in the direction of magnetized in the direction of magnetized in the direction
S
magnetizing field. magnetizing field. opposite to the direction of

magnetizing field.
Magnetisation has large positive Magnetisation has small positive Magnetisation has small negative
value. value. value.
P
Susceptibility has a large +ve Susceptibility has a small +ve Susceptibility has a small -ve
value, i.e. χ>>1 value, i.e. χ>1 value, i.e. χ<1
They obey curie’s law. They obey curie’s law. They do not obey curie’s law.
They move from weaker to They move from weaker to They move from stronger to
stronger magnetic field. stronger magnetic field. weaker magnetic field.
Meissner effect: The phenomenon of expelling the magnetic field lines by the diamagnetic material is called
the Meissner effect.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Definition of EMI: The phenomenon of induction of emf (and hence current) in a circuit due to change in
magnetic flux linked with it is called electro magnetic induction.
[Michel faraday and Joseph Henry through their experiments showed that electric current can be produced
by varying magnetic field]
Electromagnetic induction is the basis of the working of power generators, dynamos, transformers etc.
EXPERIMENTS OF FARADAY AND HENRY
Experiment 1 : Current induced by a magnet (coil - magnet experiment) (M-16, J-18)
The observations about the deflections in the galvanometer

(G) are,
1) There is a deflection when the magnet is moved

toward the coil.
2) The deflection is opposite if the magnetic is moved
s
away.
3) Faster movements result in a larger deflection. te
4) There is a deflection even if the coil is moved relative
to the magnet.
5) There is no deflection if there is no relative movement.
No
This experiment shows that the change in the magnetic flux causes induced emf and hence a
defection in (G).
Experiment 2: Current Induced By Current (coil - coil experiment).
The observations about the deflection in the ‘G’ are

S
1) There is a defection when the key ‘S’ is closed.

2) When ‘S’ is opened, the defection is opposite.
P
3) When there is a steady current in the primary. There is no

deflection.
4) There is deflection even if the secondary coil is moved relative to
the primary with ‘S’ closed.
This shows that a change in flux causes induced emf and hence
deflection in ‘G’.
Experiment 3: Current Induced By Changing Currents
1) When the key K is pressed, the galvanometer shows momentary

deflection and returns to zero immediately.
2) When the key K is kept pressed continuously, there is no

deflection in the galvanometer
3)When the key K is released the galvanometer again shows

momentary deflection, but in the opposite direction and returns to zero immediately.
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65
4)The galvanometer deflection increases dramatically when the iron rod is inserted into the coils along the
axis and the key is pressed of released
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (J-14, M-18, M-16, M-17)

Statement: The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linked with the circuit.
Explanation: If dB is the change in magnetic flux in a small time interval dt,
dB
the induced emf is given by 
dt
Lenz’s law: This helps to find the direction of induced emf. (M-15, J-16, M-17, J-18, M-14, M-20)
Statement: The direction of induced current in a coil is such that it opposes the cause which is produces it.
(It is based on law of conservation of energy)
Explanation: When a bar magnet with its north pole moved toward a coil, the induced current flows in the
coil nearer to the magnet acts like north pole and hence the magnet is repelled.
s
When the magnet is moved away from the coil, current te
reverses its direction and there by the face acts like South Pole.
Due to this the magnet is attracted.
d B
No
If   is the induced emf &  rate of change of flux,
dt
dB
Then 
dt
S
Magnetic flux: The magnetic flux through a plane area ds placed in a uniform magnetic field B can be
P
B B . ds
written as
B Bds cos
Where θ is the angle between B and ds
Significance of Lenz’s law: It is based on law of conservation of energy (M-22)
Motional emf: The emf induced across the ends of the conductor, when it is moved across the magnetic field
is called motional emf. (J-17)
Derive an expression for Motional emf: (J-14, M-15, J-16, M-17)
Consider a long, straight conductor PQ

l  length of a conductor
v  velocity of conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field B
Let the conductor moved through a distance dx in a small time interval dt.
dS = dx  Area covered by the conductor
PRADEEP & SUNIL

66
The change in magnetic flux across the conductor is d  BdS  B dx.
d Bldx
The magnitude of the emf induced in the conductor is   
dt dt
dx
Since v  is the velocity of the conductor.
dt
  B v This is the expression for motional emf
Self induction: It is the phenomenon in which an emf is induced in a coil due to the change in current in the
same coil. (J-15)
Co-efficient of self induction (or) Self inductance [L]:

When a current flows through a coil the magnetic flux is proportional to the
current.
If B is the magnetic flux linked with a coil when a current I flows through it,
then B  I
s
B  LI
te
Where L  is a constant, known as coefficient of self induction (or) self inductance of the coil.
When current in the coil changes, the magnetic flux linked with the coil also changes and emf is
induced in the coil.
No
dB d(LI)
The emf induced in the coil is   
dt dt
dI
 ε = -L This is the expression emf in terms of self- inductance of a coil.
dt
S
Define of self inductance of a coil: is numerically equal to the emf induced in it when the current is changing
at a rate of 1 A/s in the same coil. (J-16)
P
The SI unit of self inductance is henry (H)
Definition of 1 henry: Self inductance of a coil is one henry if one volt emf is induced in the coil when
current changes at a rate of one ampere per second.
Derive an expression for Self-inductance of a solenoid:
Consider a long solenoid

A  cross-sectional area
l  length
n  no. of turns per unit length N  l
N = nl  Total number of turns.
I  current flowing in the solenoid
The magnetic field due to the solenoid is B  o nI
The total magnetic flux linked with the solenoid is N  NBA
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67
N  (n )(o nI)A  o n 2 A I
But magnetic flux, N  LI
 LI  o n 2 A I
L = μo n2 Al expression for Self-inductance of a solenoid
Note: If the solenoid has a core of some magnetic material of relative permeability μr, then
Self inductance is given by L = μr μo n Al

2
Physical significance of self-inductance: It is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics (inertia

of electricity)
Note: 1. The self-inductance of a coil depends upon no. of turns per unit length, area of cross-section
and the length of the coil (J-18, M-19)
2. The self- induced emf always opposes any change in current in the circuit. Hence it is called back
emf. Work needs to be done against this back emf in establishing the current.
s
Mutual induction: It is the phenomenon in which an emf is induced in one coil due to the variation of
te
current in the neighbouring coil.
Coefficient of mutual induction (or) mutual inductance [M]:

Let B be the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil when a current I
No
flows through the primary coil.
Then 2  I1
2  M 21I1
S
Where M  is constant called the co-efficient of mutual induction

(OR) Mutual inductance of 2 w.r.to 1
The emf induced in secondary coil is
P
d2 d(M 21I1 )

2  
dt dt
ε 2 = -M 21
dI1
This is the expression emf in terms mutual inductance of a coil.
dt
Definition mutual inductance [M]: The mutual inductance of two coils is equal to the emf induced in one
coil (secondary) when current changes at a rate of 1 ampere/second in the other coil (primary).
The SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H)
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68
Derive an expression for Mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids:
Consider two coaxial solenoids S1 and S2 each of length
n1 and n2  the number of turns per unit length of S1 and S2
r1 and r2  the radius of S1 and S2
I2  current through S2
B2 = μ0n2I2  magnetic field in S2 due to current I2
Magnetic flux through S1 is N11  N1B2 A1

where N1  n1 is total number of turns in S1 and A1  r12 is the cross
sectional area of S1
 N11  (n1 )(0 n 2 I2 )(r12 )

N11  0 n1n 2 r12 I2  1
By the definition, magnetic flux through S1, N11  M12 I2   2
Where M12  the mutual inductance S1 w.r.t S2
From (1) and (2) we get M12 I2  0 n1n 2 r12 I2
s
long coaxial solenoids
te
M 12 = μ0 n1 n2 πr12 l Expression for Mutual inductance of two
Note: Mutual inductance of two coils depends on their geometry, their separation and relative orientation.
No
Note: If a magnetic material of relative permeability μr is present inside the solenoids, then
M = μr μo n1 n2 πr12 l
S
Derive an expression for Energy stored in an inductor: (M-14, J-15)

Work needs to be done against the back emf in establishing the current. This work done is stored as
magnetic potential energy.
P
Let dW be the work done in establishing a current I in the coil in a time dt.
Then dw   dq
 dq 
dw   ( I dt )  current I  
 dt 
dI  dI 
dw  L ( I dt )  emf   L 
dt  dt 
The total work done in establishing the current from 0 to I is

I
I
 I2  1
W   dW   LIdI  L    LI 2
o  2 0 2
Magnetic potential energy, U=W
1
U = LI 2 Expression for Energy stored in an inductor
2
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69
GENERATOR:
A generator or a dynamo is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle of AC generator: It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. (M-22)
The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Fleming’s right hand rule: If we stretch the first three fingers of the right hand along three mutually
perpendicular directions such that the forefinger (index finger) points in the direction of the magnetic field
and the thumb (main finger) points in the direction of motion of the conductor, then the central finger
(middle finger) would give the direction of the induced current.
AC Generator construction: Following are the main parts of AC Generator
(i) Field magnet: The magnetic field In which the coil is to rotate is
produced by the field magnet NS. In small dynamo, permanent magnets
are used. In commercial generator, an electromagnet is used.
(ii) Armature: It consists of a coil abcd of a large number of turns of

insulated copper wire wound on a laminated soft iron core. It is
s
mechanically rotated about an axis perpendicular to the magnetic field
with the help of a shaft. te
(iii) Slip rings: There two hollow metal rings R1 and R2 fixed rigidly
on the same shaft which is used to rotate the coil. The rings rotate
No
with the rotation of the coil.
(iv) Brushes: There are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods B1 and B2 which are stationary. But they
are always in contact with the rotating rings.
Working: When the armature rotates with its axis perpendicular to the magnetic field B , the magnetic flux
S
linking the coil abcd changes and an emf is induced in the coil. Therefore induced current flows in the coil,
and in the external circuit connected to the coil through the brushes and the slip rings. The emf is taken
across the external circuit ‘R’
P
Derive an expression for instantaneous emf in an ac generator (or) Theory of ac generator: (M-20)
Consider a coil of N turns and cross-sectional area A placed with its
plane perpendicular to the magnetic field B , so that θ = 0o at t = 0.
As the coil rotates magnetic flux  will keep changing continuously.
Because of this, an emf will be induced in the coil.
As the coil rotates with constant angular velocity  ,

The angle θ between the magnetic field B and normal to the plane of the
coil figure at an instant of time t is given by   t
The magnetic flux linking the coil at any instant of time t is given by
B  NAB cos   NAB cos t

From Faraday’s law, the emf induced in the coil is given by
dB d
   (NAB cos t)   NAB( sin t)
dt dt
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70
That is,   NAB sin t
ε = ε0 sin  ωt  instantaneous value of emf

Where 0  NAB  is the maximum value of induced emf
I = I o sin  ωt  instantaneous value of current
0 NAB
Where I0    is the maximum value of induced current
R R
s
te
No
S
P
PRADEEP & SUNIL

71
NUMERICALS PROBLEMS ON ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION
Problems on induced emf and current
1) A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance 0.5Ω is placed vertically in the east-west plane. A uniform
magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up across the plane in the north-east direction. The magnetic field is decreased to
zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate. Determine the magnitudes of induced emf and current during this time-interval.
[NCERT] Ans: 2mA
2) A circular coil of radius 10 cm, 500 turns and resistance 2Ω is placed with its plane perpendicular to the
horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. It is rotated about its vertical diameter through 180° in 0.25
s. Estimate the magnitudes of the emf and current induced in the coil. Horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field at the place is 3.0 × 10-5 T. [NCERT] Ans: 1.9 × 10-3 A
3) A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.0 cm 2 placed inside the solenoid normal to
its axis. If the current carried by the solenoid changes steadily from 2.0 A to 4.0 A in 0.1 s, what is the induced
emf in the loop while the current is changing? [NCERT] Ans: 7.5 × 10-6 V
s
te
4) An air-cored solenoid with length 30 cm, area of cross-section 25 cm-2 and number of turns 500, carries a
current of 2.5 A. The current is suddenly switched off in a brief time of 10-3 s. How much is the average back emf
induced across the ends of the open switch in the circuit? Ignore the variation in magnetic field near the ends of
No
the solenoid [NCERT] Ans: 6.5 V
5) The current in a coil of self inductance 5mH changes from 2.5A to 2.0A in 0.01S. Calculate the value of
induced emf. [M-16]
S
6) The magnetic flux linked with the coil varies as   3t 2  4t  9 . Find the magnitude of emf induced at t = 2
second. [J-17]
P
7) A long solenoid with 20 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.5 cm2 placed inside the solenoid normal to its
axis. If the current carried by the solenoid changes steadily from 0.2 A to 0.6 A in 0.1 s, calculate the induced
emf in the loop while the current is changing [M-18]
Problems on motional emf

8) A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2 cm with a small cut is moving out of a region of uniform
magnetic field of magnitude 0.3 T directed normal to the loop. What is the emf developed across the cut if the
velocity of the loop is 1 cm s-1 in a direction normal to the (a) longer side, (b) shorter side of the loop? For how
long does the induced voltage last in each case? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 2.4 × 10-4 V, lasting 2 s
(b) 0.6 × 10-4 V, lasting 8 s
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72
9) A jet plane is travelling towards west at a speed of 1800 km/h. What is the voltage difference developed
between the ends of the wing having a span of 25 m, if the Earth’s magnetic field at the location has a
magnitude of 5 × 10-4 T and the dip angle is 30°. [NCERT] Ans: 3.125 V
10) A metallic rod of 1 m length is rotated with a frequency of 50 rev/s, with one end hinged at the centre and
the other end at the circumference of a circular metallic ring of radius 1 m, about an axis passing through the
centre and perpendicular to the plane of the ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field of 1 T parallel to the
axis is present everywhere. What is the emf between the centre and the metallic ring? [NCERT] Ans: 157 V
11) A 1.0 m long metallic rod is rotated with an angular frequency of 400 rad s-1 about an axis normal to the
rod passing through its one end. The other end of the rod is in contact with a circular metallic ring. A constant
and uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T parallel to the axis exists everywhere. Calculate the emf developed between
the centre and the ring. [NCERT] Ans: 100 V
12) A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m long is rotated with a speed of 120 rev/min in a plane normal
s
to the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field HE at a place. If HE = 0.4 G at the place, what is the
te
induced emf between the axle and the rim of the wheel? Note that 1 G = 10-4 T.
[NCERT] Ans: 6.28 × 10-5 V
No
13) A circular coil of radius 8.0 cm and 20 turns is rotated about its vertical diameter with an angular speed of
50rads-1 in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 3.0x10-2 T. Obtain the maximum and average emf
induced in the coil. If the coil forms a closed loop of resistance 10Ω, calculate the maximum value of current in
the coil. Calculate the average power loss due to Joule heating. Where does this power come from? [NCERT]
S
Ans: 0.603 V, zero, 0.0603 A, 0.018W, The induced current causes a torque opposing the rotation of the
coil. An external agent (rotor) must supply torque (and do work) to counter this torque in order to keep the coil
P
rotating uniformly. Thus, the source of the power dissipated as heat in the coil is the external rotor.
14) A horizontal straight wire 10 m long extending from east to west is falling with a speed of 5.0 m s-1, at right
angles to the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field, 0.30x10-4 Wb m-2.
(a) What is the instantaneous value of the emf induced in the wire?
(b) What is the direction of the emf?
(c) Which end of the wire is at the higher electrical potential? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 1.5 × 10–3 V, (b) West to East, (c) Eastern end.
15) A conductor of length 3m moving in a uniform magnetic field of strength 100T. It covers a distance of 70m
in 5 Sec. Its plane of motion makes an angle of 300 with direction of magnetic field. Calculate the emf induced in
it. [M-19]
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73
Problems on self inductance and mutual inductance
16) Current in a circuit falls from 5.0 A to 0.0 A in 0.1 s. If an average emf of 200 V induced, give an estimate of
the self-inductance of the circuit. [NCERT] Ans: 4H
17) A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in one coil changes from 0 to 20 A in
0.5 s, what is the change of flux linkage with the other coil? [NCERT] Ans: 30 Wb
18) Current in a coil falls from 2.5A to 0 A in 0.1 second, inducing an emf of 200V. Calculate the value of self
inductance. [M-15]
19) The current in a coil falls from 25 mA to 0 mA in 1 ms and induces an emf of 10 V in it. Find the
self-inductance of the coil. [M-22]
Problems on ac generator
20) Kamla peddles a stationary bicycle the pedals of the bicycle are attached to a 100 turn coil of area 0.10 m2.
The coil rotates at half a revolution per second and it is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.01 T
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. What is the maximum voltage generated in the coil? [NCERT]
s
Ans: 0.314 V
te
21)A circular coil of radius 10cm and 25 turns is rotated about its vertical diameter with angular speed of 40
radian per second in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 5x10-2 T. Calculate the maximum emf
induced in the coil. Also find the maximum current in the coil if the resistance of the coil is 15Ω. [M-18]
No
S
P
PRADEEP & SUNIL

74
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Period (T): It is the time taken to complete one cycle.

Frequency (f): It is the no. of cycles per second.
  2f   angular frequency.
Instantaneous value: The value of alternating current or voltage at any instant of time ‘t’ is called the
instantaneous value.
I  I 0 sin(t ) , V  V0 sin(t )
Here I and V are the instantaneous value of current and voltage.
Maximum (or) peak value: The maximum value attained by V or I during one cycle is called the peak
value.
V0 and Io are the peak value of V and I.
Mean value (average value) of alternating current: The mean (or average) value of alternating current
over a half cycle is defined as that steady current which would send the same amount of charge through a
circuit in the same time half cycle,as is send by the alternating current in the same time.
s
2 2 2
mean  peak Vm  V0 and I m  I 0 te
  
Root mean square value (r m s value) :The root mean square value of (rms value) of alternating current is
defined as that value of steady current (dc) which would generate the same amount of heat in a given
No
resistance in a given time, as is done by the alternating current when passed through the same resistance for
the same time.
1 1 1
rms  peak Vrms  V0 and I rms  I0 (M-14)
2 2 2
S
Phase ( ): phase of ac represent the state of vibration.

AC circuits
P
AC circuit with pure resistor:
Consider resistor of resistance R connected in series with AC source.

The applied voltage is V  V0 sin t 
The current through the resistor is given by
V V0 sin t 
I 
R R
PRADEEP & SUNIL

75
I  I 0 sin t  V and I are in phase
Power in purely resistive circuit:

when an alternating current passes through a resistor, there is dissipation of electrical energy, and there is
joule heating effect.
The instantaneous power dissipated in a resistor is
P = VI = V0 I0 sin2 t
The average power over one cycle of alternating current is
T
V I0 0 sin 2 tdt T
̅=
 sin tdt
0 2
T
=
 dt
0
0
 1  cos 2t 
T T
T
but  sin 2 tdt =   dt 
0 
0
2 2
VI T VI V I
therefore, P  0 0  0 0  0 0
T 2 2 2 2
P  Vrms I rms thereis an average power dissipationin pure resistiveckt
(or) ̅ = I2rmsR [since Vrms = Irms R]
s
AC circuit with pure inductor (M-15, M-22)
te
No
S
Consider a pure inductor of inductance ‘L’ connected to an AC source.
Voltage across the source be V  V0 sin(t )

P
Apply Kirchhoff’s law     IR

  0  R  0 for pureinductor 
V   0
dI  dI 
V L
dt
0     L dt 
Vo
dI  sin t  dt
L
V
 dI   Lo sin t  dt
V  cos t  
I  0  
L  
V0  
I sin  t  
L  2
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76
 
I  I 0 sin  t  
 2
V
where I 0  0 is the peak value of current.
L
i.e, in a pure inductor voltage leads current by
Inductive reactance ( X L ): It is the opposition to the flow of ac by an inductor.
V0
We have I0 
L
V0
 L
I0
X L  L Inductive reactance
SI unit of inductive reactance is ohm (  )
Note: 1 X L  L  2 f 
s
XL  f
2 For steady DC (f = 0 ) X L  0 , hence a pure inductor offers zero opposition for DC
te
Power in a purely inductive circuit:
No
Instantaneous power
P  VI
   
P  V0 sin t    I 0 sin  t   
  2 
S
VI
P  V0 I 0 sin t  cos(t )   0 0 sin  2t 
2
Average power over one cycle of alternating current is
T
P
 V I
0 0 sin 2 tdt
P 0
T
 dt
0
T T
VI
P   0 0   sin 2tdt  0 since  sin 2 tdt  0
2T 0 0
The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero.
AC circuit with capacitor:
Consider a pure capacitor of capacitance C connected to an AC source.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

77
Voltage across the source be V  V0 sin(t )
dq d (CV )  q
The instantaneous current is given by I    C 
dt dt  V
dV d V0 sin  t  
I C C
dt dt
I  CV0  cos  t 
 
I  CV0  sin  t  
 2
 
I  I 0 sin  t   where I 0  CV0 peak value of current
 2
In a pure capacitor, current leads voltage by
Capacitive reactance ( X c ): is the opposition to the flow of AC by a capacitor.
We have I 0  CV0
s
V0 1

I 0 C te
1
XC  capacitive reactance
C
SI unit of capacitive reactance is ohm (  )

No
1 1
Note: 1 XC    M - 20 
C C 2 f
1
XC 
f
S
2 For steady DC (f = 0 ) X C   hence a pure capacitor offers infinite opposition for DC

P
Power in a purely capacitive circuit:

The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is
P  VI
   
P  V0 sin t    I 0 sin  t   
  2 
VI
P  V0 I 0 sin t  cos(t )  0 0 sin  2t 
2
The average power over one cycle is
T
V I0 0 sin 2 tdt T T
̅= 0
T
=  sin 2tdt = 0 since  sin 2tdt = 0
 dt
0
0 0
The average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

78
LCR series circuit (Phasor-diagram solution): (M-18, M-19)
Consider an AC circuit containing a resistor R inductance
L and capacitance C connected in series as shown,
V  V0 sin(t )  voltage across the source
I  Instantaneous current in the circuit.
VL, VC and VR  potential difference across inductor,

capacitor and resistor respectively.

VL = I XL  Voltage leads the current by
2

Vc = I Xc  Voltage leads behind I by
2
VR = IR  Voltage and current are in phase.
Let VL > Vc
From the figure, OA=VR AB = (VL - VC)
s
The magnitude of the resultant voltage: The diagonal OB gives the resultant Voltage V
te
From the OAB
OB 2  OA2  AB 2
No
V 2  VR 2  VL  VC 
2
V 2  I 2 R 2   IX L  IX C 
2
V 2  I 2 R2  I 2  X L  X C 
2
S
V 2  I 2  R2   X L  X C  
2
 
V  I  R2   X L  X C  
2
 
P
V IZ
where Z  R 2   X L  X C 
2
called impedance
The direction of the resultant voltage:
VL  VC I  X L  X C 
fromthe OAB tan   
VR IR
tan  
 X L  XC 
R
Impedance: It is the total opposition offered to an AC by the elements in LCR circuit.

V V V
Z  R 2   X L  X C   0  rms  m SI unit of impedance is ohm (  )
2
I 0 I rms I m
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Resonance: At certain frequency they become equal. i.e, XL = XC. Due to this XL - XC =0. And hence
impedance becomes minimum. As a result of this the current becomes maximum. (J-18)
Resonant frequency( f 0 ): The frequency at which the inductive reactance becomes equal to capacitance is
called resonant frequency( f 0 ).
At resonance 1. The impedance is minimum and it is only due to resistor.

2. The current through the circuit is maximum.
Expression for resonant frequency: (J-14,M-22)

At resonance the inductive reactance XL and the capacitive reactance become equal XC
X L  XC
1
2f 0 L 
2f 0C
1
f02 
 2 
2
LC
1
f0  This is the expression for resonant frequency.
s
2 LC
Power in AC circuits:
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Power is the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated.
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It is given by the product of applied voltage across the circuit and the current through the circuit.
i.e instantaneous power, P = VI
when an alternating voltage V=V sin t is applied to a series LCR circuit, the current is given by I = I0 sin
t   
 X  XL 
S
V0
where I 0  and   tan 1 C
Z R
R 2   X C  X L  is the impendence of the circuit.
2
Z=
P
Power in LCR circuit:

The instantaneous power supplied by the source is
p = VI = (V0 sin t )  (I0 sin t    ) = V0I0 sin t [sin t cos + cos t sin  ]
= V0I0 sin2 t cos  + V0I0 sin t cos t sin  .
if the instantaneous is assumed to remain constant for a very small time dt, then work done over a complete
cycle is given by
V I sin 
T T T
W   V0 I 0 sin 2 t cos   V0 I 0 sin t cos t sin   dt W  V0 I 0 cos   sin 2 tdt  0 0 0 sin 2tdt
0 0
2
T T
T
it can be proved that  sin 2tdt = and  sin 2tdt =0
0
2 0
T
 W = V0I0 cos  
2
the average power over a complete cycle is
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W V0 I 0 cos  V0 I 0
P     cos 
T 2 2 2
P  Vrms I rms cos 
phase angle between V and I
Here cos  is called power factor LCR circuit.
 For AC circuit containing resistor = 0, and cos (0) = 1. Hence power loss is maximum.
 For AC circuit containing inductor or capacitor = 900 or cos (90) = 0. Hence power loss is
minimum. These circuits are called wattles circuits. The corresponding current is called wattles
current.
R
 power factor is given by cos   [power factor is the ratio of resistance to impedance] (J-17)
Z
Transformers: These are the devices which are used to increase or decrease the AC voltage. (M-16, M-17)
It works on the principle of mutual induction. (J-15)
It consists of two coils namely primary and secondary
coils wound on same laminated core. The alternating
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voltage can to be altered is applied across primary coil
and altered voltage is obtained across secondary coil.
Working: (J-16)
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As the current through primary varies the
magnetic flux linked with secondary coil changes. As a result alternating emf of same frequency is induced
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across secondary. The magnitude of this emf depends on voltage across primary and number of turns in the
primary and secondary coils.
VP and VS  are Voltages across primary and secondary.
NP and NS  are number of turns in the respective coils.

S
VP N P
Then 
VS NS
P
Turns ratio: it is the ratio of no. of turns in the secondary to the no. of turns in the primary
VS NS
T 
VP N P
Step – up transformer:If the voltage across the secondary is more than of the primary then it is called step
up transformer.
Step- down transformer:If the voltage across the secondary is less than that of primary then it is called
stepdown transformer.
For step – up transformer: Vs > Vp, Ns > Np and T > 1
For step – down transformer: Vs < Vp , Ns < Np and T < 1
For an ideal transformer, input power = out put power
Vp Ip = Vs Is
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But no transformer is 100% efficient due to many losses in the energy
VSIS  VP IP
output power
Efficiency 
input power
VS IS

VP I P
Sources of power loss in transformer (J-15, M-16, M-17, M-18, M-19, M-20, M-22)
1) Heating of wire due to its resistance: this is also called copper loss or joule heat loss.
2) Flux leakage b/n primary and secondary.
3) Hysteresis loss: soft iron core is used to minimize this.
4) Eddy current loss in the core: the core is laminated to minimize this.
***************
Transmission of electrical power:

It is desired that the transmission of power should be done with least loss of power, whenever a
current is passed through a transmission wire heat is generated because of the resistance of the wire. This
s
heat is not reversible. It is a loss.
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The value of current should be made minimum. This is done by using step up transformer at the
generation station. Voltage is stepped up upto (60,000V) so that the current is low. This high voltage and
low current AC is transmitted to the target place, where its voltage is stepped down to the required value
(220V)
No
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NUMERICALS PROBLEMS ON ALTERNATING CURRENT
Problems peak, mean and rms (voltage/current)

1) The peak voltage of an ac supply is 300 V. What is the rms voltage? (b) The rms value of current in an ac
circuit is 10 A. What is the peak current? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 212.1V (b) 14.1A
Problems on pure resistor circuit

2) A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find (a) the resistance of the bulb; (b) the peak voltage of
the source; and
(c) the rms current through the bulb. [NCERT] Ans: a) 484Ω, b) 311V, c) 0.45A
3) A 100Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. (a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit?
(b) What is the net power consumed over a full cycle?[NCERT] Ans: (a) 2.20 A (b) 484 W
Problems on pure inductor circuit

4) A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the inductive reactance and rms current
in the circuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz. [NCERT] Ans: 7.85Ω
5) A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the
circuit. What is the net power absorbed by each circuit over a complete cycle. Explain your answer.
s
[NCERT] Ans: 15.9 A, Zero
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6) A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the inductive reactance and r.m.s current
in the circuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz. [J-14]
No
Problems on pure capacitor circuit

7) A 15.0µF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the capacitive reactance and the current (rms
and peak) in the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the current?
[NCERT] Ans: 212Ω, 1.04A, 1.47A
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8) A 60 µF capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the
circuit. What is the net power absorbed by each circuit over a complete cycle. Explain your answer.
[NCERT] Ans: 2.49 A, Zero
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Problems on LCR circuit

9) A resistor of 200Ω and a capacitor of 15.0µF are connected in series to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac source. (a) Calculate
the current in the circuit; (b) Calculate the voltage (rms) across the resistor and the capacitor.
[NCERT] Ans: 291.5Ω, 220V
10) A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series LCR circuit in which R =
3Ω, L =25.48 mH, and C = 796µF. Find (a) the impedance of the circuit; (b) the phase difference between the
voltage across the source and the current; (c) the power dissipated in the circuit; and (d) the power factor.
Suppose the frequency of the source can be varied. (e) What is the frequency of the source at which resonance
occurs? (f) Calculate the impedance, the current, and the power dissipated at the resonant condition.
[NCERT] [M-23] Ans: a) 5Ω, b) 53.10, c) 4800W, d) 0.6, e) 35.4 Hz, f) 3Ω, 66.7A, 13.35 Kw
11) A coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100Ω is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the coil?
(b) What is the time lag between the voltage maximum and current maximum?
[NCERT] Ans: (a) 1.82 A, (b) 3.2 ms
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12) A 100µF capacitor in series with a 40Ω resistance is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the circuit?
(b) What is the time lag between the current maximum and the voltage maximum?
[NCERT] Ans: (a) I0 = 3.23 A (b)1.55 ms
13) A series LCR circuit connected to a variable frequency 230 V source. L = 5.0 H, C = 80µF, R = 40Ω.
(a) Determine the source frequency which drives the circuit in resonance.
(b) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the amplitude of current at the resonating frequency.
(c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three elements of the circuit. Show that the potential drop
across the LC combination is zero at the resonating frequency.
[NCERT] Ans: (a) 50 rad s-1 (b) 40 Ω, 8.1 A c) zero
14) A circuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60µF capacitor in series is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
The resistance of the circuit is negligible.
(a) Obtain the current amplitude and rms values.
(b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across each element.
(c) What is the average power transferred to the inductor?
(d) What is the average power transferred to the capacitor?
(e) What is the total average power absorbed by the circuit?
(f) Suppose the circuit has a resistance of 15Ω. Obtain the average power transferred to each element of the
circuit, and the total power absorbed. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) I0 = 11.6 A, Irms = 8.24 A, (b) 437 V, (c) zero, (d) zero, (e) Total average power absorbed is
s
zero.
(f) Average power to R = I2rmsR = 791W, Average power to L = Average power to C = 0 Total power
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absorbed = 791W
No
15) An inductor and bulb are connected in series to an AC source of 220V, 50 Hz ac source. A current of 11A
flows in the circuit and phase angle between voltage and current is π/4 radian. Calculate the impedance and
inductance of the circuit. [J-16]
16) A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series LCR circuit in which R =
3 Ω , L = 25.48 mH, and C = 796 μF. Find (a) the impendence of the circuit; (b) the phase difference between
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the voltage across the source and the current (c) the power factor (d) Average power dissipated in the circuit.
[M-15]
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17) A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 285 V is applied to a series LCR circuit in which R = 5 Ω , L = 28.5 mH,
and C = 800 μF. Find (a) resonant frequency (b) Calculate the impedance, current and power dissipated at
resonance. [J-17]
18) A resistor 100 Ω , a pure inductance coil of L = 0.5 H and capacitor are in series in a circuit containing an ac
of 200V, 50 Hz. In the circuit current is ahead of the voltage by 30o. Find the value of the capacitance.
[J-15]
19) A 20Ω resistor, 1.5 H inductor and 35µF capacitor are connected in series with a 220V; 50 Hz ac supply.
Calculate the impendence of the circuit and also find the current through the circuit. [J-18]
20) A source of alternating emf of 220V, 50 Hz is connected in series with a resistance of 200 Ω and inductance
of 30μF. Does the current lead or lag the voltage and by what angle? [M-17]
21) A resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are connected in series with a 120V, 100Hz ac source. Voltage leads
the current by 35° in the circuit. If the resistance of the resistor is 10W and the sum of inductive and capacitive
reactance is 17 Ω, calculate the self-inductance of the inductor
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Problems on resonance and quality factor
22) A charged 30µF capacitor is connected to a 27 mH inductor. What is the angular frequency of free
oscillations of the circuit? [NCERT] Ans: 1.1x103 s-1
23) Obtain the resonant frequency of a series LCR circuit with L = 2.0H, C = 32µF and R = 10Ω. What is the Q-
value of this circuit? [NCERT] Ans: 125 s-1 , 25
24) A series LCR circuit with R = 20Ω, L = 1.5 H and C = 35µF is connected to a variable-frequency 200 V ac
supply. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is the average power
transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle? [NCERT] Ans: 2,000 W
25) A series LCR circuit with L = 0.12 H, C = 480 nF, R ected to a 230 V variable frequency
supply.
(a) What is the source frequency for which current amplitude is maximum. Obtain this maximum value.
(b) What is the source frequency for which average power absorbed by the circuit is maximum. Obtain the
value of this maximum power.
(c) For which frequencies of the source is the power transferred to the circuit half the power at resonant
frequency? What is the current amplitude at these frequencies?
(d) What is the Q-factor of the given circuit?
[NCERT] Ans: (a) ω0 = 4167 rad s-1; f0 = 663 Hz; Imax = 14.1A
(b) f0 = 663 Hz ; pmax = 2300W ;
(c) f = 648 and 678; Imax = 10A
s
(d) Q = 21.7
te
26) Obtain the resonant frequency of a series LCR circuit with L = 4.0 H, C = 27 μF and R = 8.4 Ω .What is the Q-
value of this circuit? Also find the band width. [M-14, M-16]
No
Problems on transformer
27) A power transmission line feeds input power at 2300 V to a stepdown transformer with its primary
windings having 4000 turns. What should be the number of turns in the secondary in order to get output power
at 230 V?
[NCERT] Ans: 400
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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
According to Ampere’s circuital law, the line integral of the magnetic field B around any closed
path is equal to μ0 times the total current threading the closed path. That is,  B dI   I
0 where I is the net
current threading the surface bounded by a closed path C. Maxwell in 1864 found an inconsistency in this
relation.
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT: The current due to changing electric field is called displacement current.
dE
Expression for displacement current: ID  0
dt
Ampere-Maxwell law:
Modified form of Ampere’s circuital law
Bd   0 (I  I D )
 d 
Bd  0  I  0 E 
 dt 
d
 B d  0 I  00 dtE
s
This relation is also known as Ampere-Maxwell law. te
I  conduction current.
ID  displacement current.
No
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are those waves in which there are sinusoidal variation of electric and
magnetic field vectors at right angles, to each other as well as at right angles to the direction of wave
propagation.
Note: Electromagnetic wave theory was proposed by James Clerk Maxwell
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Electromagnetic wave theory was experimentally verified by Hertz

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1. Name the components of electromagnetic spectrum.

Gamma rays, X-rays, ultra-violet rays, visible light, infrared rays, micro waves and radio waves.
2. Who discovered gamma rays?
Henri Becquerel in 1852.
3. Who discovered X-rays?
William Roentgen in 1895.
4. Who discovered ultraviolet rays?
JW Ritter in 1801.
5. Who discovered infra-red radiations?
W.Hershel in 1800.
6. Who discovered microwaves?
Hertz.
7. Who discovered radio waves?
Marconi.
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8. List the properties of electromagnetic waves.
 They are transverse waves
 They consists of varying electric and magnetic fields
 Electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the
direction of motion.
 They can travel in vacuum (non-mechanical waves)
 Electromagnetic waves exhibit properties such as reflection, refraction, interference and
polarization.
 Electromagnetic waves travel with the velocity of light in vacuum (i.e.,3× m/s)
 Electromagnetic waves have wide range of frequencies and wavelengths.
 Radiations of different frequencies react differently with matter.
 The differences in properties of electromagnetic waves are due to their different
frequencies.
1
 Expression for light in vacuum C 
0 o
9. List the applications of gamma rays.
s
 Gamma rays are used in the treatment of cancer.
 They act as a catalyst in the manufacture of some chemicals.
te
 They are used in gamma ray microscope.
 They are used to produce photoelectric effect.
 They are used in radiography.
No
10. What is radiography?

It is the technique used to detect cavity in castings, cracks in welding and flaws in the machine
parts.
11. List the applications of X-rays.
S
 Fracture of bones can easily be located by X-ray photograph.

 X-rays are used to locate the foreign bodies such as bullets, coins, pins, etc. in human body.
 X-rays are used in the treatment of cancer and some skin diseases.
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 Used in radiography.
 They are used in the study of crystal structure.
12. List the applications of ultraviolet rays.

 Ultraviolet radiations are used to activate some chemical reactions.
 They excite fluorescence in many substances. Ex. Fluorescent tubes.
 Used to distinguish between real and artificial gems.
 Used as sterilizers (to kill bacteria)
 Used in the treatment of rickets, diseases of bone and skin diseases.
 UV radiations of low frequencies are useful in the synthesis of vit-D in our body.
 They are useful in the operation of photoelectric alarms.
 Used in LASIK surgery.
(rickets is a softening of bones in children due to the deficiency of vit-D )
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13. List the applications of visible light.
 It useful to produce the sense of vision.
 Used to design optical instruments.
14. List the applications of infrared (IR) rays.

 IR spectrum is used for identification and in the determination of molecular structure.
 Used in taking the long distance photography.
 Used in military vehicles for night vision.
 IR photography is used in detecting enemy concentration, in examining old paintings and in
the detection of forgery of old paintings.
 They are used in search lights and telescopes.
 In medical field, they are useful in the diagnosis of superficial tumors, dislocation of bones
and in the treatment of sprains.
 It stimulates the blood circulation.
 Used in the TV remote.
 IR radiations from the sun are used in solar energy devices.
15. Mention the applications of microwaves.

 They are used in radars (Radio Detection and Ranging).
s
 Used in satellite communication. te
 Used in microwave oven.
 Used in the analysis of molecular structure.
16. List the uses of radio waves.

No
 Shorter wavelength radio waves are used in communication system(radio, satellite and TV)
 Longer wavelength used in radio broadcasting.
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OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Optics: It is a branch of physics which deals with the properties and nature and source of light.
Optics is broadly classified into two types:
 Geometrical optics
 Physical optics
Geometrical optics: It is a branch if optics which deals with the concept of light.
This explains reflection, refraction and dispersion of light.
Physical optics: It is a branch of optics which deals with the wave nature of light.
This explains interference, diffraction and polarization.
Homogenous medium: is one which has an uniform composition and density. Ex: Glass, water.
Heterogeneous medium: is one which has a variable density and different composition. Ex: Crystal etc.
Isotropic medium: Is one which velocity is same in all direction. Ex: Glass, water, air.
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Anisotropic medium: Is one which speed of light is different in different direction. Ex: Calcite.
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Ray of light: It is a straight line along which light energy is transmitted is called ray of light.
Beam of light: A collection of rays of light is called beam of light.
No
Parallel beam of light: A beam of light in which separation between consequent rays remains constant.
Image: The point in which the rays of light form an object get converged or appear to be diverged after a
refraction or reflection is called image of an object.
Real image: If the rays originating from a point actually meet at another point after reflection or refraction,
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that point is called real image point.

Virtual image: The point from which the rays of light form an object appear to diverge is called as virtual
image.
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Reflection of light: When a light is incident on the surface a part of light is turned back to the same medium
this is called reflection.
Laws of reflection of light
First law: The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface lie in the same plane.
Second law: Angle incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
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Reflection at spherical mirror
Spherical mirror: A spherical mirror is a part of reflecting surface.
Concave mirror: It is a part of a hollow sphere having outer part silvered and the inner part as a reflecting
surface.
Convex mirror: It is a part of a hollow sphere having inner part silvered and the outer part as a reflecting
surface.
Important terms related to thin spherical mirrors
Pole (P): The middle point of spherical mirror is called the pole.
Radius of curvature (R): Radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius of sphere of which the mirror
forms a part.
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Principal axis: The straight line joining the pole [P] and centre of curvature [C] of the spherical mirror is
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called principal axis.
Normal: The normal to the spherical mirror at any point is the line joining that point to the centre of
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curvature.
Principal focus: A narrow parallel beam of light incident on a mirror close to a fixed point or appear to
diverge from a fixed point in the principal axis this point is called principal focus.
Focal length(f): Focal length of the spherical mirror is the distance of the principal focus [f] from pole [p] is
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called focal length.
Focal plane: The plane through the principal focus & perpendicular the principal axis is known as focal
P
plane.
R
Relation between focal length and radius if curvature (or) show that f =
2 [M-18, J-19, M-23]
Consider a spherical concave mirror.

R  is the radius of curvature
C  be the centre of curvature.
Consider a paraxial ray striking the mirror at M
CM  normal to the mirror at M
θ  be the angle of incidence
From the figure MCP = θ , MFP =2θ
MD MD
From  MCD, tan    1 From MFD, tan 2    2
CD FD
For small angle, θ and tan2θ 2θ

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Then (1)& (2) becomes
MD MD
 2 
CD FD
MD MD
2   2(FD)  (CD)
CD FD
CD
FD 
2
R
f
2
Sign convention for spherical mirrors (OR) Cartesian sign convention:
s
1. All distances are measured from the pole of the spherical mirror along the principal axis.
te
2. The distance measured in the same direction as the incident light are taken as positive & distance
measured opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as negative.
No
3. The height measured upward with respect to x-axis and normal to the principal axis of the mirror are
taken as positive the height measured downward are taken negative.
Image formation in case of mirrors:

1. The ray from point which is parallel to the principal axis, reflected ray goes through focus of the mirror.
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2. The ray incident at any angle at the pole, the reflected ray follows law of reflection.
3. The ray passing through the focus, the reflected ray parallel to the principal axis.
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4. The ray passing through the centre of curvature, the reflected ray retraces the path.
Relation between u, v & f (OR) Mirror equation :
Consider a concave mirror, the image formation of an object AB as shown in the figure.
MN  aperture
AB  image of an object AB
P  pole
PF = f  focal length
PC = R  radius of curvature
PB = V  image distance
PB = U  object distance
Δ ABF & MPF are similar.
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91
AB BF

MP FP
AB BF
  1  PM  AB 
AB FP
 ABP and  ABP are also similar.
AB BP
   2
AB BP
BF BP
Compare (1) & (2), we get 
FP BP
BP  FP BP

FP BP
From the figure  BP   v, FP  f , BP  u  substitute in the above equation

v  f v

f u
vf v

f u
s
v v
1   by v
f u te
1 1 1
= +
f v u
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Linear magnification: It is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
hi v
m 
ho u
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Note:
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(a) For concave mirror forming virtual image (b) The convex mirror which is always form virtual image
Note: When image is real m is negative, When image is virtual m is positive.
If |m|>1 image formed is enlarged.
If |m|<1 image formed is diminished.
Practical applications of spherical mirrors

1. A convex mirror is used as a reflector in street lamps.
2. A convex mirror is used as a drivers mirror in all vehicles
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3. A concave mirror is used as a reflector in search lights, head lights of vehicles etc.,
4. A concave mirror is used as shaving mirror and makeup mirror.
Refraction of light at plane surface:

A ray of light bends when it travels from one medium to another medium of different optical densities is
called refraction of light.
IO = Incident ray, N = Normal, OR=Refracted ray
i  angle of incidence
r  angle of refraction
d  i r  angle of deviation
Note: For normal incidence there is no refraction i=0, r =0
Laws of refraction: [J-14]
First law: Incident ray, refracted ray & normal drawn to the surface at the point of incidences, all are lie in
s
the same plane.
te
Second law (OR) Snell’s law: Ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant for
a given pair of media and for a given wavelength.
No
sin i
 constant
sin r
sin i
1 n 2
sin r
Where 1 n 2  relative refractive index of med(2) w.r.t med(1)

S
Note: Limitations of Snell’s law
 Snell’s law is not holds good for normal incidence For i = 0, r = 0

P
 It is not applicable for double refraction.
sin i
Note : 1 n 2
sin r
sin i n 2

sin r n1
n1 sin i = n 2 sin r  1
If med (1) is air then, n1  1, n 2  n

sin i
(1) becomes n where, n  Absolute refractive index
sin r
PRADEEP & SUNIL

93
Relative refractive index : It is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in med (1) to the velocity of light
in med (2)
n2
1 n2 
n1
Absolute refractive index: It is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in air to the velocity of light in a
given medium.
c
n
v
Note:
1) When light travels from one medium to another medium its speed & wave length
changes but frequency doesn’t changes. [J-18]
n 2 1 v1
2)  
n1  2 v 2
s
Consequences of refraction:
te
1) Apparent position of sun: The sun is visible little before the actual sunrise & little after actual the
sunset due to refraction of light through the atmosphere.
2) Twinkling of stars: The rays of light from the stars enters at earth atmosphere it passes through medium
No
change in R I the layers of atmosphere are not stationary. Hence image of the star keep changing position.
Thus gives the impression that star is twinkling.
3) Lateral Shift : It is the perpendicular distance b/n the incident ray & the emergent ray.
t sin  i  r 
S
Ls  This is the expression for the lateral shift.

cos r
P
Note: Factors affecting the Lateral shift

1. Lateral shift increases with increase in thickness(t)
2. Lateral shift increases with angle of incidence(i)
3. It increases with relative refractive index (n)
Condition for lateral shift :
1. Two refracting surfaces should be parallel.
2. Slab should be homogenous.
4) Normal Shift: The distance through which an object appears to be shifted when placed in one medium &
observed from another medium normally.
 1
Sn  t 1   This is the expression for normal shift
 n
real depth
Note: 1. n
apparent depth
PRADEEP & SUNIL

94
2. Apparent depth of an object when it is viewed normally through a combination of media of
t t
refractive indices n1 and n2 respectively of thickness t1 and t2 is given by, AD = 1 + 2
n1 n2
Note: Factors affecting Normal shift
1. It increases with increase in thickness.
2. It increases with increase in RI.
Total Internal Reflection : [J-16,M-17]
s
When the ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from normal. For a particular angle
te
of incidence the ray just grazes the surface ( r  900 ) corresponding angle of incidence called critical angle.
If the angle of incidence increased beyond critical angle, the ray gets reflected back into the denser medium.
This phenomenon is called Total Internal reflection (T I R).
No
Critical angle: It is the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction is 900 [J-17]
Conditions for T I R : [J-15,M-17,J-17]

1. Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
S
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle.
Relation between refractive index and critical angle:

P
Consider a ray of light travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium. rar
Let C be the critical angle for the given pair of media. 90o er
A B
From the law of refraction, n1 sin i = n2 sin r, C
dens
n1 sinC = n2 sin 90o er
n2
 sin C  [sin 90o=1]
n1
For a denser medium of refractive index n, n1 = n and n2 = 1 for air.
1
 n
sin C
Hence refractive index of a medium is equal to reciprocal of the sine of the critical angle.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

95
Applications/ Illustrations of total internal reflection: [M-14]
1. Total reflecting prism: These are isosceles right angle prism made of glass they are used to turn the
incident beam of light through 900 ,1800 & also to invert the image.
2. Optical fiber: An optical fiber is thin transparent fiber of a glass or plastics, which consists of mainly two
parts core and cladding. Core is made up of higher RI, cladding is made up of lower RI.
The ray entering one end of the fiber and emergence from the other end travelling zigzag path due to series
of TIR the ray follows a fiber even if the curved
Application of optical fiber: [J-16]

1.They are used to observe internal parts of the human body and mechanism.
2.They are used in computers for data transfer.
s
3. Used to diminish enlarged images.
4. Used for decorate purposes. te
5. They are used to transmit light signals from one point to another point in communication.
Refraction of light through a spherical surface

No
Spherical surface: It is a refracting medium whose curved surface is a part of a sphere.

Concave Spherical surface: A spherical refracting surface which is concave towards rarer medium.
Convex Spherical surface: A spherical refracting surface which is convex towards rarer medium.
S
Real object: If the object rays on the spherical surface are actually diverge from a point that point is called
real object.
P
Virtual object: If the incident rays on the spherical surface are appears to be converged to a point that point
is called virtual object.
Real image: If a refracted rays actually converged to a point then that point is called real image.
Virtual image: If the refracted rays from the spherical surface are appears to be diverged from a point that
point is called virtual image.
Object space: The region or space on one side of spherical surface in which incident rays are present is
called object space.
Image space: The region or space on one side of spherical surface in which refracted rays are present is
called image space.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

96
Refraction at a single spherical surface: [M-18]
Figure shows the geometry of formation of image I of an object O on the principal axis of a spherical
surface.
C  centre of curvature
R  radius of curvature
i  angle of incidence
r  angle of refraction
The rays are incident from a medium of

refractive index n1, to another of refractive
index n2.
NM will be taken to be nearly equal to the

length of the perpendicular from the point N on the principal axis.
We have, for small angles,
MN MN MN
tan     tan    tan    
OM MC MI
s
From the NOC Similarly,from the NCI
i     r te
MN MN
i  r 
OM MC
MN MN
r 
MC MI
No
According to Snell’s law

n1 sin i = n2 sin r [For small angles sin i i and sin r r]
 n1 i = n2 r
S
 MN MN   MN MN 
n1     n2   
 OM MC   MC MI 
n1 n n n
P
 1  2  2
OM MC MC MI
n1 n n n
 1  2  2
OM MC MC MI
n1 n n n
 2  2  1
OM MI MC MC
n1 n n  n1
 2  2
OM MI MC
Apply sign convention (OM= -u, MI= +v and MC= +R) ,we get
n1 n 2 n 2  n1
 
u v R
n2 n1 n2 - n1
- =
v u R
 RI of image space RI of object space Difference in RI 

 image distance  object distance  Radius of curveture 
 
PRADEEP & SUNIL

97
n1 n2
Note: In the above equation is the power the spherical surface.
R
Lens : It is an optical medium bonded by two spherical surfaces or one spherical & one plane surface.
Convex lens : A lens, which is thicker at the center & thin at the edges.
It converges a parallel beam of light incident on it, It is also known as converging lens.
Concave lens : A lens, which is thinner at the center & thick at the edges is called Concave lens.
It diverges a parallel beam of light incident on it. It is also known as diverging lens.
Principal axis : of a lens is a straight line passing through centre of curvature of the spherical surfaces.
Optic centre : of a lens is a fixed point situated on the principal axis & inside the lens such that any ray
passing through it will have the emergent rays parallel to its corresponding incident rays.
Principal focus : when a narrow beam of light is incident on a lens close & parallel to its principal axis,
after refraction the rays converges to a fixed point (convex lens) or appears to diverge from a fixed point
(concave lens) on the principal axis of a lens. This fixed point is called principal focus of the lens.
Principal focus is real for convex & virtual for concave lens.
Focal length (f) : It is the distance b/n its optic centre & its principal focus.
s
Note: focal length is for convex,
te
for concave.
Thin lens : If the thickness of the lens is negligible to its radii of curvature the lens is called thin lens.
No
Refraction through thin lens (or) Len’s makers formula : [J-15,J-16,M-17,J-17,M-19,M-22]

Consider a thin lens of placed in air
R1 & R 2  radii of curvature of the two surfaces ABC & ADC.
S
O  point object
OA  paraxial ray incident on the surface ABC undergoes
P
refraction & emerges along AI .

I  real image
n1 & n 2  refractive index of the medium on the right and left
side of ADC
The formation of the image I is consider in two stages.

(i) Refraction at ABC : In the absence of ADC surface, the refracted
ray would have gone straight to meet the principal axis at I1
n n n  n1 
Using the formula,  2  1  2
v u R 
n1  n1 , n 2  n 2 , u  u, v  v, R  R 1
n 2 n1 n 2  n 1
   1
v u R1
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98
(ii) Refraction at ADC : For this surface, I may be regarded as a
virtual object & its real image formed in the medium of RI n1
n1  n 2 , n 2  n1 , u  v, v  v, R  R 2
n1 n 2 n1  n 2
 
v v R2
n 1 n 2   n 2  n1 
   1
v v R2
Adding (1) & (2)
 n 2 n1   n1 n 2   n 2  n 1     n 2  n1  
 v  u    v  v     R    
     1   R2 
n1 n1 1 1 
    n 2  n1    
u v  1
R R 2 
1 1 n  1 1 
    2  1     1
u v  n1   R1 R 2 
s
If the object is at infinity in air medium, then n1  1, n 2  n, v  f & u  

1 1 1
   n  1  
 f
1 
   2
 R1 R 2 
te
1  1 1 
=  n - 1  -
No
 This equation is known as lens makers formula.
f  R1 R2 
1 1 1
From 1 &  2  = - This equation is called thin lens formula
f v u
S
Linear magnification: It is the ratio size of the image to the size of the object
hi v
i.e. m = =
P
ho u
Note: 1. m is positive for virtual image.

2. m is negative for real image.
To find the image of an object by a lens:

It is convenient to choose any two of the following rays:
1. A ray from the object parallel to the principal axis of the lens after refraction passes through the second
principal focus F′ (in a convex lens) or appears to diverge (in a concave lens) from the first principal focus F.
2. A ray of light, passing through the optical centre of the lens, emerges without any deviation after
refraction.
3. A ray of light passing through the first principal focus (for a convex lens) or appearing to meet at it (for a
concave lens) emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
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99
Power of a lens: It is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges a beam of light falling at
unit distant from the optical centre. [M-15,M-16,M-17]
1
Power, P =
f
The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D)
Define 1 diopte: The power of a lens of focal length of 1 metre is one dioptre.
Note: Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens.
s
Equivalent focal length of Two lenses in contact: [M-16,J-18]
Consider two thin lenses are in contact

te
L1 & L2  two lenses
f1 & f 2  focal length of L1 & L2
No
O  object on the principal axis.
u  object distance.
v  image distance
S
Image formation takes place in two stages.

(i) Refraction at L1 : In the absence of L 2 , I1 is the real image of the object at a distance v1.
1 1 1 
Using the formula    
P
f v u 
u  u, v  v1 , & f  f1
1 1 1
   1
f1 v1 u
(ii) Refraction at L 2 : for lens L 2 , I1 is the virtual object & is the real image after refraction.
Therefore u  v1 , v  v, & f  f2
1 1 1
    2
f 2 v v1
adding 1 &  2  , we get
1 1 1 1 1 1
    
v1 u v v1 f1 f 2
1 1 1 1
     3
v u f1 f 2
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100
For equivalent lens,
1 1 1
    4
v u f
From  3 &  4 
1 1 1
= +
f f1 f 2
Power, P  P1  P2
Thus reciprocal of the equivalent focal length of two thin lens in contact is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual focal length.
1 1 1 1 1
Note: Equivalent focal length of n thin lenses in contact, = + +  ... +
f f1 f 2 f 3 fn
Equivalent power of n thin lenses in contact, P  P1  P2  P3 ...  Pn
Refraction through prism
s
A + D
sin 
Expression for refractive index n in terms of A & D (OR) Derive prism formula n =
te  2 
A
sin  
2
[M-15,M-17,M-23]
No
ABC  Principal section of the prism
A  angle of the prism
n  refractive index of the prism
PQ  incident ray
RS  Emergent ray
S
At the surface AB
i1 & r1  angle of incidence and refraction
P
At the surface AC
i 2 & r2  angle of incidence and emergence
In the cyclic quadrilateral AQNR ˆ  QNR

A ˆ  1800
In  QNR ˆ  1800
r1  r1  QNR
Comparing the above equations, we can write
A  r1  r2  1
Total deviation = deviation at Q + deviation at R.

d   i1  r1    i 2  r2 
d   i1  i 2    r1  r2 
d  i1  i 2  A   2 
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101
As the angle of incidence is gradually increase, the deviation first decreases, becomes minimum &
then increases again. For any deviation d there are two values of i1 & i 2
At minimum deviation d = D
i1  i2  i & r1  r2  r
A
Then, (1) becomes A  2r r
2
AD
(2) becomes D  2i  A i 
2
sin i
FromSnell's law n
sin r
 A+ D
sin 
n=  2 
 A
sin  
2
Thin prism : A prism of small refracting angle A  100 is called thin prism.
Deviation produced by thin prism : D  A  n  1
s
where D  Minimum deviation te
A  Angle of the prism
n  refractive index
Angular dispersion ( : between any two colures is the difference b/n their deviations.
No
  A  nv  nR 
A  Angle of the prism
n  refractive index
Mean deviation : The mean deviation of any two colures is the mean of their deviation.
S
nv  nR
d mean  A  n  1 where n 
2
P
Dispersive power (  ): of a medium for a pair of colures is defined as the ratio of angular dispersion to the
mean deviation b/n two colures.
angular dispersion  nV  nR
Dispersive power,    VR 
mean deviation d mean n 1
Optical instruments
Simple microscope: Simple microscope is a converging lens of a small focal length.
PRINCIPLE Simple microscope: An object placed between the optical center and the focus of the convex
lens, forms a virtual, erect and magnified image on the same side of the lens.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

102
Magnifying power of simple microscope: [M-19] 1.
For distinct vision:
D
Magnifying power, m  1 
f
Where D  Near point

f  focal length
2. For normal vision (Eye focused at infinity):
D
Magnifying power, m 
f
Where D  Near point

f  focal length
Compound microscope:
It consists of two lenses, one compounding the effect of the other.
PRINCIPLE: When an object is placed in front of a convex lens at a distance between Fo and 2Fo; the real,
inverted and magnified image is formed on the other side of this lens. If this image lies within the focal
s
length of another convex lens E of large aperture then the image acts as an object for this lens. The final
te
image produced by this lens is virtual, inverted and highly magnified.
Magnifying power of compound microscope: [M-15]

No
1. When the final image formed at the near point:
 L  D
m    1  
 f0   fe 
S
Where L  length of tube

fo  focal length of objective
fe  focal length of eyepiece
D  near point
P
1. When the final image formed at infinity:
 L D
m    
 f0   fe 
Where L  length of tube

fo  focal length of objective
D  near point
PRADEEP & SUNIL

103
Telescope: Telescope is an optical instrument used to observe the distant objects.
Types of telescopes: (a) Refracting telescope (b) Reflecting telescope
1. Astronomical telescope (Refracting telescope):

Construction: It consist of two convex lenses placed co-axially . The lens facing the object is objective lens
has large focal length. The other lens through which the image is observed is eyepiece. It has small aperture
and has small focal length. The tube having eyepiece can be moved in and out of the tube holding objective
lens with the help of rack and pinion arrangement.
PRINCIPLE : Principle of astronomical telescope can be discussed by considering two extreme cases
(a) Distinct vision: When the objective lens of the telescope is directed towards the object, a real and
inverted image is formed at the focal plane of the objective lens. The position of the eyepiece (E) is adjusted
in such a way that the final image is formed at a distance of least of distinct vision.
(b) Normal vision: when the final image is formed at infinity, the telescope is said to be in normal
adjustment. The position of the eyepiece is adjusted in such a way that the final image of the object is
virtual, inverted and highly magnified as shown in fig.
s
Magnifying power of astronomical telescope: [M-17]
te
f0
m
fe
No
Where fo  focal length of objective

Length of telescope is, L  f0  f e

S
Limitations of refracting type telescope:

1. The refracting type telescope (using lenses) suffers
P
from spherical and chromatic aberrations. Due to these aberrations, the final image of the object is coloured
and blurred.
2. The objective lenses of very large aperture are very difficult to manufacture.
Cassegrain type telescope (Reflecting type telescope):
It consists of a concave mirror of large aperture with a

circular hole in its centre. A small convex mirror is placed
in front of the objective of the telescope. The final image is
observed through an eyepiece E placed in front of the hole
of the objective.
A parallel beam of light from the distant star falls on the
objective which converges it towards its principal focus.
The reflected beam of light is intercepted by the convex
mirror. The convex mirror forms an inverted image which is seen through the eyepiece.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

104
Advantages and disadvantages of telescope:
Advantages:
(1) Reflecting type telescopes using parabolic mirrors are free from chromatic and spherical aberrations.
Hence sharp image of the object is formed.
(2) Mirror weighs much less than a lens of similar quality.
(3) Full back of a mirror can be supported on its rim only.
(4) Since the mirrors used in reflecting type telescopes reflect the whole light falling on them, so the image
formed by these telescope is quite bright.
(5) The parabolic mirrors of large aperture can be easily manufactured.
Disadvantages:
(1) These type of telescopes need frequent adjustments and hence inconvenient to use.
(2) They cannot be used for general purposes.
(3) The viewer has to sit either near the focal point of the main mirror or another mirror is required to deflect
the light to the viewer.
s
te
No
S
P
PRADEEP & SUNIL

105
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON RAY OPTICS
PROBLEMS ON REFLECTION
1] An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 15 cm.
Find the position, nature, and magnification of the image in each case.
[NCERT] Ans: (i) v = -30cm, m = -3, The image is magnified, real and inverted.
(ii) v = 15cm, m = 3, The image is magnified, virtual and erect.
2] A small candle, 2.5 cm in size is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature
36 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp image?
Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer to the mirror, how would the
screen have to be moved?
[NCERT] Ans: v = –54 cm. The image is real, inverted and magnified. The size of the image is 5.0 cm.
3] A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Give the location
of the image and the magnification. Describe what happens as the needle is moved farther from the
s
mirror.
te
[NCERT] Ans: v = 6.7 cm. Magnification = 5/9, i.e., the size of the image is 2.5 cm. As u → ∞; v → f (but
never beyond) while m → 0.
PROBLEMS ON REFRACTION THROUGH CURVED SURFACEN, SHIFT

No
4] Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (n = 1.5 and radius of curvature =
20 cm). The distance of the light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. At what position the image is
formed? [NCERT] Ans: v = +100 cm
S
5] A small pin fixed on a table top is viewed from above from a distance of 50 cm. By what distance
would the pin appear to be raised if it is viewed from the same point through a 15 cm thick glass slab
held parallel to the table? Refractive index of glass = 1.5. Does the answer depend on the location of
the slab? [NCERT] Ans: The pin appears raised by 5.0 cm the answer is independent of the
P
location of the slab
6] A tank is filled with water to a height of 12.5 cm. The apparent depth of a needle lying at the bottom
of the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4 cm. What is the refractive index of water? If water is
replaced by a liquid of refractive index 1.63 up to the same height, by what distance would the
microscope have to be moved to focus on the needle again? [NCERT] Ans: 1.33; 1.7 cm
7] A transparent cube of side 15 cm contains an air bubble in it. When viewed normally through one
face, the bubble appears to be at 6 cm from the surface. When viewed normally through the opposite
face the distance appears to be 4 cm. Find the actual distance of the bubble from the second face and
the refractive index of the material of the cube. Ans: [ 6 cm, n = 1.5]
PROBLEMS ON TIR
8] A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth of 80cm. What is the area
of the surface of water through which light from the bulb can emerge out? Refractive index of water is
1.33. (Consider the bulb to be a point source.) [NCERT] Ans: 2.6 m2
PRADEEP & SUNIL
106
9] Light from a luminous point at the bottom of a glass slab of thickness 3cm strikes the upper surface.
The rays which are totally reflected at the top surface outline a circle of radius 2.4 cm. Find RI of glass.
PROBLRMS ON LENS
10] (i) If, f = 0.5 m for a glass lens, what is the power of the lens? (ii) The radii of curvature of the
faces of a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm. Its focal length is 12 cm. What is the refractive
index of glass? (iii) A convex lens has 20 cm focal length in air. What is focal length in water?
(Refractive index of air-water = 1.33, refractive index for air-glass = 1.5.)
[NCERT] Ans: (i) +2 dioptre (ii)n = 1.5 (iii)+ 78.2 cm.
11] Find the position of the image formed by the lens combination given in the Fig.
s
te
[NCERT] Ans: 30 cm to the right of the third lens.
12] Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both faces
of the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal length is to be
No
20cm? [NCERT] Ans: R = 22 cm
13] A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam 12
cm from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (a) a convex lens of focal length 20 cm,
and (b) a concave lens of focal length 16cm?
S
[NCERT] Ans: (a) f = +20 cm. Image is real and at 7.5 cm from the lens on its right side
(b) f = –16 cm. Image is real and at 48 cm from the lens on its right side
P
14] An object of size 3.0 cm is placed 14cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21 cm. Describe
the image produced by the lens. What happens if the object is moved further away from the lens?
[NCERT] Ans: v = 8.4 cm, image is erect and virtual. It is diminished to a size 1.8 cm. As u → ∞, v → f
(but never beyond f while m → 0).
15] What is the focal length of a convex lens of focal length 30 cm in contact with a concave lens of
focal length 20 cm? Is the system a converging or a diverging lens? Ignore thickness of the lenses.
[NCERT] Ans: A diverging lens of focal length 60 cm
16] The radii of curvature of two surfaces of a convex lens are 0.2m and 0.22m. Find the focal length of
the lens if refractive index of the material of lenses 1.5. Also find the change in focal length, if it is
immersed in water of refractive index 1.33. [J- 18]
17] Two lenses of focal lengths 0.20m and 0.30m are kept in contact. Find the focal length of the
combination. Calculate the powers of two lenses and combination. [M-14]
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107
18] A converging lens of refractive index 3/2 and of focal length 15 cm in air, has the same radii of
curvature for both sides. If it is immersed in a water of refractive index 4/3. Find the focal length.
19] Two Plano- convex lenses are placed in contact such that their curved surfaces are facing each
other. The radius of curvature of the curved surfaces is 0.10cm and 0.15m respectively. The space
between them is filled with water of refractive index 1.33. If the refractive index of glass is 1.5 find the
focal length of the combination.
20] A converging lens of refractive index 1.5 and of focal length 15 cm in air, has the same radii of
curvature for both sides. If it is immersed in a water of refractive index 1.33. Find the focal length.
PROBLEMS ON PRISM
21] A prism is made of glass of unknown refractive index. A parallel beam of light is incident on a face
of the prism. The angle of minimum deviation is measured to be 40°. What is the refractive index of
the material of the prism? The refracting angle of the prism is 60°. If the prism is placed in water
(refractive index 1.33), predict the new angle of minimum deviation of a parallel beam of light.
[NCERT] Ans: n ≅ 1.53 and Dm for prism in water ≅ 10º
22] At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of a prism of refracting angle 60° so that
s
it just suffers total internal reflection at the other face? The refractive index of the material of the
te
prism is 1.524. [NCERT] Ans: 30°
23] Two convex lenses of focal lengths 0.20 m and 0.30 m are kept in contact. Find the focal length of
the combination. Calculate powers of two lenses and combination. [M-14]
No
24] An equilateral prism produces a minimum deviation of 400. What is the R.I of the material of the
prism? Calculate the angle of incidence. [J-14]
25] At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of an equilateral prism, so that it just
S
suffers total internal reflection at the other face? The refractive index of the material of the prism is
1.5 [M-20]
26] A ray of light passes through an equilateral glass prism such that the refracted ray inside the
P
prism is parallel to its base. Calculate the a) angle of deviation of the ray
b) speed of light ray inside the prism. [M-22]
27] Calculate the angle of minimum deviation produced by an equilateral prism of refractive index
1.65.
28] At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of a prism of refracting angle 600, so that
it first suffers total internal reflection at other face? The refractive index of the prism is 1.524.
29] A prism of angle 600 produces angle of minimum deviation of 400 . What is its R.I? Calculate angle
of incidence.
30] A ray of light is incident on one face of an equivalent prism of glass having refractive index 1.55 at
an angle of 40°; calculate the angle of deviation produced by the prism.
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WAVE OPTICS
Huygens principle
1. Every point on the given wave front (called primary wave
front) acts as a source of secondary wavelets, which travel in
all directions with the velocity of light in the medium.
2. A surface touching these secondary wavelets, tangentially in
the forward direction at any instant gives the new wavefront at
that instant. This is called secondary wave front.
Wavefront
It is the locus of all points in phase at a distance from a light source.
Wavefronts can be classified into
(i) Spherical wavefront
s
For a point source of light, at small distances the wavefront is said to be spherical.
(ii) Cylindrical wavefront
te
For a linear source, at small distances the wavefront is said to be cylindrical.
(iii) Plane wavefront
No
For a point source or linear source, at large distances any wavefront is considered to be plane.
Figures (a), (b) and (c) represent wave front and rays of light corresponding to plane wave from, diverging
spherical wave front and converging spherical wave front respectively.
S
P
Reflection on the basis of wave theory

In the figure, AB is a plane wave front incident on a reflector MN at an angle i. Let the secondary wavelets
from B strike MN at C in t seconds.
 BC = v × t  (1)
where v  velocity of light in the medium.
The secondary wavelets form A will travel the same distance
(v × t) in the same time. Therefore, with A as centre and (v × t) as
radius, draw an arc at E, so that AE = (v× t)
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109
CE is the secondary wavefront propagating after t seconds.
Angle of incidence, i = BAC and angle of reflection, r  ECA
In ACE and ACB, AC is common, BC = AE = (v × t) and B  E  900
 are congruent
 BAC  ECA
 i  r
This proves the first law of reflection.
Refraction on the basis of wave theory

XY  is a plane surface that separates a denser medium of
refractive index n from a rarer medium
V1 & V2  are the velocity of light in rarer and denser medium
v1
n  refractive index
v2
s
AB is a plane wave front incident on XY at BAC  i .
Let the secondary wavelets from B strike XY at C in t seconds.
 B C =  V1  t 
te
The secondary wavelets from A travel in the denser medium with a velocity V2 and would cover a distance
No
 V2  t  in t seconds. Therefore, with A as centre and radius equal to  V2  t  , draw an arc at E to obtain the
secondary wavefront EC.
Let ACE  r , angle of refraction.
S
BC v1  t
In ACB, sin i  
AC AC
AE v2  t
P
In ACE, sin r  
AC AC
sin i v1
  n
sin r v 2
This proves Snell’s law of refraction.
INTERFERENCE
Interference: The phenomenon of modification in the distribution of light energy when two or more light
waves superpose on one another is called interference.
Eg: Coloured pattern on a soap bubble, coloured patch on wet roads due to oil spill etc.
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110
Coherent sources: The two sources emit light waves of same frequency, same wavelength and same phase
or constant phase difference are said to be coherent sources. Interference can occur only with coherent
sources.
Condition for sustained interference
Well defined and observable interference pattern can be obtained if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The two superposing waves must be in phase or must have constant phase difference.
2. The two light waves must have same wavelength.
3. The amplitude of the waves must be equal or almost equal.
4. The two sources producing the waves must be very narrow.
5. The two sources producing the waves must be very close to each other.
Theory of interference
Consider two light waves of same wavelength travelling in the same direction. Let a1 and a2 be their
amplitudes. Their displacements at any instant of time t is given by
y2  a 2 sin  t  
s
y1  a1 sin t and
where   is the phase difference between the two waves te

  2f  angular frequency f  is frequency of the waves.
According to the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement of the waves is
No
y  y1  y 2  a1 sin t  a 2 sin  t   
y  a1 sin t  a 2 sin  t  cos   cos  t  sin 
y  a1 sin t  a 2 sin  t  cos   a 2 cos  t  sin 
y   a1  a 2 cos  sin  t   a 2 cos  t  sin 
S
Take R cos   a1  a 2 cos   1 and R sin   a 2 sin    2 

the aboveequation becomes
y  R cos  sin  t   R sin  cos  t 
P
y  R cos  sin  t   sin  cos  t  

y  R sin  t   
Where R  the amplitude of the resultant wave
Expression for the amplitude of the resultant wave

Squaring and adding equations (1) and (2), we get
R2cos2 θ + R2sin2 θ = (a1+ a2cos  )2 + (a2sin  )2
R2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = a12 + a22 cos2  + 2 a1 a2cos  + a22 sin2 
i.e., R2 = a12 + a22 + 2 a1 a 2 cos 
or R= a12 +a 2 2 +2a1a 2cos resultant amplitude
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111
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we get
a 2 sin
tanθ =
a1 + a 2cos
where θ  is the phase difference between the resultant wave and the first wave.
Note: The relationship between intensity I and amplitude A is given by
I  A2
i) Condition for constructive interference
When crest of one wave superpose on crest of another wave constructive interference takes place. Hence in
constructive interference amplitude of the resultant wave is maximum.
From R= a12 +a 2 2 +2a1a 2cos
R is maximum when cos  = +1, or  = 0, 2, 4, 6…….2n.
Phase difference   2n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………
Path difference x  n
s
The maximum amplitude is given by
R max = a12 +a 2 2 +2a1a 2
te
R max  a1 +a 2
No
ii) Condition for destructive interference

Amplitude of the resultant wave is minimum during destructive interference. This occurs when crest of a
wave superpose on trough of another wave.
S
From R= a12 +a 2 2 +2a1a 2cos
R is minimum when cos  = -1, i.e.  = , 3, 5…….

P
Phase difference    2n  1  where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………

Path difference x   2n  1
2
The minimum amplitude is given by

R min = a12 +a 2 2 -2a1a 2
R min  a1 -a 2
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Young’s double slit experiment
It consists of a narrow slit S which is illuminated by a
monochromatic light. Two narrow slits A and B are placed
equidistant from S. Screen S is placed at a certain distance from the
slits as shown. The wave front sent by S reaches the slits A and B
simultaneously. The two slits act as coherent sources. These waves
superpose gives rise to interference pattern on the screen. When crest
of one wave superpose on crest of another produces a bright fringe.
crest
S1
When crest of one wave superpose on trough of another or vice- trough
versa, produces a dark fringe on the screen. Thus the interference pattern consists of alternate dark and
bright fringes of equal thickness.
The condition for constructive interference is path difference = n
λ
The condition for destructive interference is path difference = (2n + 1)
2
s
Intensity distribution curve maxima.
te
Imax.
No
2  0  2
minima
S
Fringe width: The distance of separation between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called fringe
width.
P
Expression for fringe width

Distance of nth bright fringe form the central bright fringe
nλD
xn 
d
D
 This is the expression for width of bright fringe
d
Distance of nth dark fringe form the central bright fringe

(2n+1)λD
xn 
2d
λD
β= This is the expression for width of dark fringe
d
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113
From the above equations it is clear that the bright and dark fringes are equally spaced.
Note:
1. The expression for the resultant intensity when two waves of intensities I1 and I2 superpose on one
another is I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I 2 cos 
2. Imax = ( I1 + I 2 )2
3. Imin = ( I1 - I 2 )2
2
w 1 I1 a 1
4. The ratio of width of two slits is given by = =
w 2 I 2 a 22
5. In Young’s double slit experiment, for a nth bright fringe, the order of the fringe is n [eg., for a 2 nd
fringe, n= 2] whereas for nth dark fringe, the order of the fringe is (n-1) [ eg. for a 2nd fringe, n = 1]
6. Coherent sources are realized in practice are using i) Lloyd’s mirror ii) Fresnel’s biprism
β λ
7. Angular width of a fringe, θ = =
D d
s
DIFFRACTION
te
The phenomenon of bending of light around small obstacles and hence its spreading into the geometrical
No
shadow region is called diffraction.
Diffraction at a single slit P

The experimental set up to obtain A
S
diffraction at a single slit is as

S O
shown. A monochromatic source
L1 B
S is placed at the principal focus
P
of the convex lens L1. The rays

L2
from the source are made to fall Slit Screen
on the lens and the emergent plane wavefront is made to incident on the slit AB. When the wavefront arrives
at AB, secondary wavelets emerging from it move towards the lens L2. Due to superposition of these waves,
diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen which is placed at the focal plane of the converging lens L2.
The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright band called central maximum. Alternate dark and bright
bands are formed on both sides of the central maximum. The dark bands are called minima and the less
bright bands are called secondary maxima. The brightness of the bright bands is not uniform. The intensity
of the bright bands goes on decreasing on both the sides of the central maximum. Hence at O always a bright
band is produced. At P band formed can be either bright or dark that depends on the path difference. If the
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114

path difference between AP and BP is (2n + 1) , a bright band is formed. If the path difference between
2
AP and BP is nλ dark band is formed.
The intensity distribution curve of the diffraction pattern
I
Principal maximum
Secondary maxima
minima
o P Q R
Note:
1) Condition for diffraction minima
Path difference, d Sinθ = n λ
Where n = 0, 1,2,3…… d  is the width of the slit
s
θ  is the angular position of the point
2) Condition for diffraction maxima

te
Path difference, d Sinθ = (2n + 1)
2
No
2 D
3) Width of central maximum =
d
2
4) Angular width of central maximum,  = 2θ =
d
S
Difference between interference and diffraction

Interference Diffraction
1. It is the phenomenon in which the modification 1. It is the phenomenon of bending of light around
P
in the distribution of light energy due to the small obstacles and hence its encroachment into the
superposition of two or more waves. geometrical shadow region
2. Interference is due to the superposition of two 2. Diffraction is due to the superposition of
waves emerging from two coherent sources. secondary wavelets emerging from different parts
of same wavefront.
3. Interference fringes are of equal width. 3. Diffraction bands are of unequal width.
4. Intensity of all bright fringes is uniform. 4. Intensity of each bright band varies.
5. Condition for bright fringe is path difference 5.Condition for bright band is
 
= n λ, for a dark fringe, path difference =  2n  1 path difference =  2n  1 and for a dark fringe,
2 2
path difference = nλ
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115
POLARISATION
The phenomenon of restricting the electric field vibrations of light in a single plane is called polarization.
Light being an electromagnetic radiation, is transverse in nature.
Experiment to demonstrate transverse nature of light

Experimental arrangement as shown. Consider two tourmaline crystals A and B cut parallel to their
crystallographic axes and placed parallel to each other. Unpolarised light from the monochromatic source is
made to fall normally on the crystal A. The following observations are made.
1. No change in the intensity of light transmitted from A when it is rotated about the direction of propagation
of light.
2. No change in the intensity of light transmitted from B when both A and B is rotated together about the
direction of propagation of light.
3. Keeping A fixed when B is rotated, the intensity is maximum only when both A and B are parallel to each
other. When B is perpendicular to A the intensity becomes zero. In between the intensity varies from zero to
s
a maximum.
te
If the light is longitudinal in nature, there would have been no change in the intensity of the emergent light
when B was rotated. The above observations confirm that light is transverse in nature.
No
Unpolarised light A B Plane polarised light
S
polarizer analyser
Unpolarised light A B
P
No light
polarizer analyser
Representation of unpolarised and plane polarised light
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Fig (i) and (ii) represent unpolarised light
Fig (iii) represents plane polarised light with its vibrations in the plane of paper
Fig (iv) represents plane polarised light with its vibrations perpendicular to the plane of paper
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116
Malus’ law
A beam of plane polarized light is incident on the analyzer, the intensity of light transmitted from the
analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between the planes of transmission
of the polarizer and analyzer.
According to Malus’ law
Intensity of light transmitted from the analyzer I  Io cos2 
where Io  is the intensity of the light entering the analyzer
  angle between the planes of polarizer and analyser
Uses of polaroids
1. Polaroids are used to produce and analyse plane polarised light.
2. They are used in sunglasses.
3. They are used to view the three dimensional pictures.
4. They are used in headlights of vehicles to reduce glare.
s
5. They are used in the window panes of trains and aeroplanes to control the intensity of light.
te
6. They are used to cut off the dazzling light of the approaching vehicles.
7. Used in the study of optical properties of certain metals.
8. They are used to increase the colour contrast in old paintings.
No
******************
S
P
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117
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON WAVE OPTICS
Problems on Young's double slit experiment (fringe width and distance of nth fringe)
1] Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre away. What is the
fringe separation when blue-green light of wavelength 500 nm is used? [NCERT] Ans: 0.5mm
2] In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is placed 1.4
m away. The distance between the central bright fringe and the fourth bright fringe is measured to be
1.2 cm. Determine the wavelength of light used in the experiment. [NCERT] Ans: 600nm
3] A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain interference
fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment. (a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the
screen from the central maximum for wavelength 650 nm. (b) What is the least distance from the
central maximum where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide?
[NCERT] Ans: 1950 (D/d)nm, 2600(D/d) nm
4] In a double-slit experiment the angular width of a fringe is found to be 0.2° on a screen placed 1 m
away. The wavelength of light used is 600 nm. What will be the angular width of the fringe if the entire
experimental apparatus is immersed in water? Take refractive index of water to be 4/3.
s
te [NCERT] Ans: 0.150
5] In double-slit experiment using light of wavelength 600 nm, the angular width of a fringe formed on
a distant screen is 0.10. What is the spacing between the two slits? [NCERT] Ans: 0.344mm
No
6] A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting diffraction
pattern is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first minimum is at a distance of 2.5
mm from the centre of the screen. Find the width of the slit. [NCERT] Ans: 0.2mm
7] In Young’s double-slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity of light
S
at a point on the screen where path difference is λ, is K units. What is the intensity of light at a point
where path difference is λ/3 ? [NCERT] Ans: K/4
8] In a young’s double slit experiment the distance between the slits is 1mm. the fringe width is found
P
to be 0.6mm. When the screen is moved through a distance of 0.25m away from the plane of the slit,
the fringe width becomes 0.75mm. Find the wavelength of the light used. [M-15]
9] A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 420 nm and 560 nm is used to obtain interference
fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is 0.3 mm and the distance
between the slits and the screen is 1.5 m. Compute the least distance of the point from the central
maximum, where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide. [J-15]
10] In young’s double slit experiment, fringes of certain width are produced on the screen kept at a
distance from the slits. When the screen is moved away from the slits by 0.1m, fringes width increases
by 6 x 10-5 m. The separation between the slits is 1mm. calculate the wavelength of the light used.
[M-16]
11] In the young’s double slit experiment by using a source of light of wavelength 4500 Å, the fringe
width is 5mm. If the distance between the screen and plane of the slits is reduced to half, what should
be the wavelength of light to get the fringe width of 4mm? [J-16]
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118
12] Light of wavelength 6000Å is used to obtain interference fringes of width 6mm in Young’s double
slit experiment. Calculate the wavelength of light required to obtain fringe width of 4mm when the
distance between the screen and slits is reduced to half of its initial value. [M-17]
13] In young’s double slit experiment distance between the slits is 0.5mm, when the screen is kept at a
distance of 100cm from the slits, the distance of the 9th bright fringe from the centre of the fringe
system is 8.835mm. Find the wavelength of light used. [J-17]
14] In young’s double slit experiment the slits are separated by 0.28mm and the screen is placed at a
distance of 1.4m away from the slits. A distance between the central bright fringe and 5th dark fringe
is measure to be 1.35cm. Calculate the wavelength of light used. Also find the fringe width if the screen
is moved 0.4m towards the slit, for the same experimental setup. [M-18]
15] In a Young’s double slit experiment wave length of light used in 5000 Å and distance between the
slits is 2mm, distance of screen from the slits is 1m. Find fringe width and also calculate the distance
of 7th dark fringe from central bright fringe. [M-19]
16] Two slits separated by 1 mm in Young’s double slit experiment are illuminated by the violet
light of the wavelength 400 nm. The interference fringes are obtained on the screen placed at
1 m from the slits. Find the fringe width. If the violet light is replaced by the red light of the
s
wavelength 700 nm, find the percentage change in fringe width . [M-22]
te
17] A rigid beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 500nm and 400nm is used to obtain
interference fringes in young’s double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is 0.3mm and
the distance between the slits and screen is 1.5m. Compute the least distance of the point from the
No
central maximum, where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide.
18] In young’s double slit experiment, the distance between the slits is 1.2mm and the screen is 0.75m
from the slits. If the distance of the 5th fringe from the central fringe on the screen is 1.8mm. Calculate
the wavelength of light used. What will be the distance of the 5th dark fringe from the centre of the
S
screen?
19] In Young’s double slit experiment the distance of the screen from the slits is 0.5m and the distance
between the slits is 1.5mm. If the distance of the fourth bright fringe from the center of the screen is
P
0.8 mm. Calculate the wavelength of light used. What will be the distance of the fifth dark fringe from
the central point on the fringe?
20] In a Young’s double slit experiment light of wavelength 620nm is used to Illuminate slits of width
0.3mm. A screen is placed at a distance of 0.9m. Calculate fringe width (b) distance between 5th and
9th bright fringe on screen.
21] In Young’s double slit experiment the screen is at distance of 1.25m from the slit. When the slits
are illuminated by a light of wavelength 546nm, the width of 20 fringes is 8mm. Find the separation
between the slits. Find also the width of 20 fringes if yellow light of wavelength 594nm is used.
22] In Young’s double -slit experiment the slit separation is 0.3mm and wavelength of light used is
6500 A0. A screen is placed 1m away from the slits. Calculate (a) Distance of the 3rd bright fringe and
(b) Distance of the 2nd dark fringe from the central bright fringe.
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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
Electron emission: On supplying energy to metal surface, the free electrons in the metal surface leave the
metal surface .This phenomenon of electron leaving the metal surface is called emission.
Types of electron emission (M-14, M-19)
1. Thermionic emission: When a metal is heated to a suited temperature it liberates electrons. The
phenomenon of librating electrons by supplying heat energy is called thermionic emission.
2. Photo electric emission: The phenomenon of emission electrons from the surface of a metal with
absorption of light or photon having suitable frequency is called photo electric effect.
3. Secondary emission:The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal when it is
bombarded with high-energy electrons is called secondary emission.
4. Field emission: The phenomenon of emission of electron from the surface of a metal under the influence of
electric field is called field emission.
s
Hertz’s Observation: While studying the production of EM Waves by means of spark discharge, he found
te
that the high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated
by uv light from an arc lamp. when uv light is incident on the metal surface, some electrons near the surface
absorb energy and overcome the attraction of positive ions in the material, they escape from the surface of
No
the metal.
Hallwach’s and Lenard’s observations. (J-15)

S
Lenard observed that when UV radiation are made to strike the emitter plate, current was recorded in the
external circuit. When UV radiation were stopped, the current flow also stopped. Thus indicate that the
negatively charged particles emitted when UV rays strike the metal. These attracted towards the anode
P
caused electric current in the circuit

Hallwach observed the following when zinc plate was illuminated by UV rays
(i) Negatively charged zinc plate becoming neutral.
(ii) Neutral zinc plate turning into positively charged plate.
(iii) Positively charged plate enhancing its positive charge.
Hallwach and Lenard together observed that these was no photoemission if the frequency of is less than a
frequency called threshold frequency. The value of threshold frequency depends on the nature of the
material of the emitter.
Photoelectric effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface when light of suitable frequency is made to
incident on it is known as photoelectric effect
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Photo metals: The metals which exhibit photo electric effect are called photo metals.
Eg. Na, K, Mg (alkali metal)
Experimental study of photoelectric effect Radiation
Experimental set up consists of

G  evacuated glass tube with a side window o o
C o o A
Cathode C  is connected to negative terminal of a battery o o
o o o
Anode A  is connected to negative terminal of a battery electrons
G
A  micro ammeter connected in series
K
Rh  rheostat
V
V  Voltmeter
Rh
K  reversing key
h
Ba  Battery
Ba
s
When light of suitable frequency is made to incident on the cathode, photoelectrons are liberated. These
electrons accelerated towards the anode. The electrons flow in the external circuit results in electric current.
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The micro-ammeter records the photoelectric current.
The experiment is performed by varying the quantities like frequency, intensity of incident radiation, applied
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potential and using different photo emissive material.
Experimental observations: (M-16, M-17, J-18, M-19, J-20)

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Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent: Above threshold frequency, the

intensity of radiation is varied and the photoelectric current is recorded each current
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time. The strength of photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity

of radiation and it is independent of frequency of radiation.
intensity
Effect of potential on photoelectric current: With the increase in positive

anode potential photoelectric current increases and becomes maximum. It I2>I1
I2
current
remains constant (or saturates) for the further increase in potential. I1
When anode is made negative and slowly its negative potential is increased,
the photoelectric current decreases and becomes zero at a fixed potential
called stopping potential (V0). Stopping potential is the measure of Vo 0
-V Potential
maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons.
It is directly dependent on frequency of radiation and is independent of intensity of radiation.
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Photoelectric
Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential: current
Incident radiation of same frequency and different intensities are ν3>ν2>ν1

plotted against potential. The stopping potential is greater for higher ν3 ν2 ν
1
frequency radiation
-V03 -V02 -V01 O

-V Potantial(V)
Important terms associated with Photoelectric effect (J-15, J-16, J-17, M-20)
1. Threshold frequency (  o ): It is the minimum frequency of incident radiation below which there is no
photo emission takes place.
2. Threshold wavelength (λo): It is the maximum wavelength of the incident radiation above which no
photoemission takes place.
3. Stopping potential (Vs): It is the minimum negative potential of anode for which the emitted electrons are
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prevented from reaching the anode. It is also called retarding potential.
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4. Work function (W): The minimum energy required just to liberate a free electron from the metal surface is
called photoelectric work function.
The relationship between threshold frequency νo and work function w is given by W = hνo
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Other related graphs of photoelectric effect

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Vo Slope = h/e
KEmax Slope = h KEmax
P
νo
νo W/e frequency νo frequency
W frequency
Note:
1.The slope of the graph of KEmax versus frequency gives Planck’s constant h and the intercept gives work
function.
2. The slope of the graph of stopping potential versus frequency gives the ratio of Planck’s constant to the
elementary charge (h/e).
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Laws of photoelectric emission
1. For every photo emissive material, there is a minimum frequency below which no photoemission
takes place. This minimum frequency is called threshold frequency.
2. Greater than the threshold frequency, the strength of the photoelectric current is directly proportional
to the intensity of incident radiation.
3. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of
incident radiation.
4. The photoemission is instantaneous. The time lag between the instant of light incident and current
recorded is about 10-9s.
Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect

According to Einstein the photoelectric effect is due to the collision between the incident photon and the free
electron inside the metal. During collision the free electron absorbs the photon and gains an energy. Certain
Minimum energy needed just to liberate a free electron from the metal surface is called photoelectric work
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function. The excess energy of the photon appears as the kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron.
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Energy of incident photon = Work function + Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron
E  W  KE
h  h o  1 2 mv max
2
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This equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. (M-20)

Other forms of Einstein’s photoelectric equation

hν = w + ½ mv2max
hν = hνo+ ½ mv2max
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hc hc
 = + ½ mv2max
λ λo
P
hc hc
 = + eVs
λ λo
Einstein’s explanation of laws of photoelectric emission (M-15)

1. From Einstein’s photoelectric equation h  ho  KEmax
or KEmax = h (ν - νo )
If ν  νo, kinetic energy will be negative or the velocity will become imaginary. Therefore the
photoemission is not possible. Hence a minimum frequency called threshold frequency is needed for the
photoemission.
2. Greater the intensity of incident radiation, the greater will be the number of photons in it. Hence, the
number of photons undergoing collision with the electrons increases resulting in larger photoelectric current.
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3. From Einstein’s photoelectric equation hν = W + ½ mv2max, it is clear that with the increase in frequency
of incident radiation the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases as the work function w is a
constant for a given material. Hence the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident radiation.
4. According to Einstein, photoemission is due to the elastic collision between photon and the free electron.
In this process all the energy of photon is transferred to the free electron at once. Hence the photo emission
is instantaneous.
Properties of photon: (J-16)

h
(1) Each photon has energy, E = hν and momentum, P=

where h is planck’s constant, ν and λ are the frequency and wavelength of radiation.
(2) Photon energy is independent of intensity of incident radiation.
(3) All photons travel with same speed in free space that is 3×108ms-1
s
(4) When photons travel from one medium to another the frequency remains constant.
(5) Wavelength & velocity of photons change when they travel from one medium to another.
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(6) Rest mass of photon is zero.
(7) Photons are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.
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Dual nature of matter and radiation
Dual nature of radiation:

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Radiation behaves sometimes as a wave, sometimes as a particle that is radiation has dual nature.
(i) The phenomena like interference, diffraction & polarisation can be explained by wave nature of radiation
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(ii) The phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton Effect can be explained by quantum nature of
radiation.
(iii) Phenomena like rectilinear propagation of light, reflection, refraction each can be explained on basis of
either wave nature (or) particle nature of radiation.
Wave nature of matter

de-Broglie’s matter wave hypothesis: (J-17)
de Broglie proposed hypothesis that like radiation, matter also exhibits dual nature i.e., the material particles
such as electrons behave like waves.
According to de Broglie, every moving particle is associated with a wave which controls the particle.
Matter waves: The waves associated with the material particles in motion are called matter waves.
de Broglie wave length: The wave length of matter waves is called de Broglie wave length.
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Expression for de Broglie wave length
Consider a photon of energy, E = h ν ……(1)
Where   is the frequency of radiation

h  is the Planck’s constant.
According to Einstein’s mass-energy relation, E = mc2…….(2)
From (1) & (2) we have, h = mc 2

hc
 mc 2 = mc2
λ
h

mc
The above equation is the expression for wavelength of a photon.
The de Broglie wave length (the wavelength of the material particle) is given by (M-17, J-17)
s
h
λ=
mv te
Where m & v are the mass & velocity of the material particle respectively.
Note : The different forms of de Broglie wavelengths are

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h
1) λ= Where p  is the momentum of the electron
p
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h 12.27A 0
2) λ= Where V  is the accelerating potential. For an electron, λ= (M-19, M-20)
2meV V
h
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3) λ= Where E  is the kinetic energy of the particle.

2mE
h
4) For a thermal neutron, λ=
3mKT
Where K  is the Boltzmann’s constant
T  is the absolute temperature of neutron.
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NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION
Problems on incident light (energy, frequency, wavelength)
1] Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power emitted is 2.0
×10–3 W. (a) What is the energy of a photon in the light beam? (b) How many photons per second, on
an average, are emitted by the source?
[NCERT] Ans: 3.98 × 10–19 J, 5.0 ×1015 photons per second
2] The wavelength of light in the visible region is about 390 nm for violet colour, about 550 nm
(average wavelength) for yellow-green colour and about 760 nm for red colour.(a) What are the
energies of photons in (eV) at the (i) violet end, (ii) average wavelength, yellow-green colour, and
(iii) red end of the visible spectrum? (Take h = 6.63×10–34 J s and 1 eV = 1.6×10 –19J.)
[NCERT] Ans: 3.19 eV, 2.26 eV, 1.64 eV
Problems on photoelectric effect
3] The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV. Find (a) the threshold frequency for caesium, and (b) the
wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60
s
V.
[NCERT] teAns: (a) 5.16X1014 Hz (b) 454nm
4] The work function of caesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency 6 ×1014Hz is incident on
the metal surface, photoemission of electrons occurs. What is the (a) energy of the incident photons
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(b) maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons. (c) Stopping potential, and (d) maximum speed
of the emitted photoelectrons? Given h = 6.63 X 10-34 Js, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C, me = 9.1 × 10-31kg [J-14]
[NCERT] Ans: (a) 0.34 eV (b) 0.34 V (c) 344 km/s
5] The photoelectric cut-off voltage in a certain experiment is 1.5 V. What is the maximum kinetic
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energy of photoelectrons emitted?

[NCERT] Ans: 1.5 eV = 2.4 × 10–19 J
6] In an experiment on photoelectric effect, the slope of the cut-off voltage versus frequency of
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incident light is found to be 4.12 × 10–15 V s. Calculate the value of Planck’s constant.
[NCERT] Ans: 6.59 × 10–34 J s
7] The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3 × 1014 Hz. If light of frequency 8.2 × 1014 Hz is
incident on the metal, predict the cut-off voltage for the photoelectric emission.
[NCERT] Ans: 2.0 V
8] The work function for a certain metal is 4.2 eV. Will this metal give photoelectric emission for
incident radiation of wavelength 330 nm?
[NCERT] Ans: No, because ν < νo
9] Light of frequency 7.21 × 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons with a maximum speed of
6.0 × 105 m/s are ejected from the surface. What is the threshold frequency for photoemission of
electrons? [NCERT] Ans: 4.73 × 1014 Hz
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10] Light of wavelength 488 nm is produced by an argon laser which is used in the photoelectric
effect. When light from this spectral line is incident on the emitter, the stopping (cut-off) potential of
photoelectrons is 0.38 V. Find the work function of the material from which the emitter is made.
[NCERT] Ans: 2.16 eV = 3.46 × 10–19J
11] Ultraviolet light of wavelength 2271 Å from a 100 W mercury source irradiates a photo-cell made
of molybdenum metal. If the stopping potential is –1.3 V, estimate the work function of the metal. How
would the photo-cell respond to a high intensity (∼105 W m–2) red light of wavelength 6328 Å
produced by a He-Ne laser ? [NCERT] Ans: 4.2 eV, The photo-cell will not respond
howsoever high be the intensity of laser light.
12] Calculate the maximum velocity of photoelectron emitted when light of frequency 3 x 1012 Hz is
incident on a metal surface of threshold frequency 2 x 1012 Hz.
Given h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js, mass of the electron = 9.1 x 10-31 kg. [J-09]
13] For a metal the maximum wavelength required for photoelectric emission is 210 nm. Find the
work function. If radiation of wavelength 150nm falls on the surface of the given metal, find the
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons. [A-09]
s
14] A photon of frequency 1.5 x 1015 Hz is incident on a metal surface of work function 1.672 eV.
Calculate the stopping potential. h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js. [M-10]
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15] Light of frequency 8.47x1014Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons with their maximum
speed of 7.5x105 ms-1 are ejected from the surface. Calculate the threshold frequency for the photo
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emission of electrons. Also find the work function of the metal in eV. Given h= 6.625 x 10 -34 Js and
mass of the electron = 9.1x 10 -31kg. [M-18]
16] Light of wavelength 430 nm is incident on a) nickel surface of work function 5 eV and b)
potassium surface of work function 2.3 eV. Find out from which metal electrons area emitted. Also
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calculate the maximum velocity of electrons emitted from this metal.
17] Find the maximum velocity of photoelectrons emitted by radiation of frequency 3X1015 Hz from a
photoelectric surface having a work function of 4.0 eV
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18] Light of frequency 8×1015 Hz is incident on a substance of photo electric work function 6.125 ev.
Calculate the max velocity of the emitted photoelectrons. Given: the mass of the electron = 9.1×10 -31
kg, Planck’s constant = 6.625×10-34 Js
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ATOMS
INTRODUCTION
Dalton was the first to postulate that matter is made of atoms which are indivisible.
The first atom model(plum-pudding model) was proposed by J.J. Thomson.
Thomson’s model failed to explain the origin of spectral series of hydrogen & other atoms. It also failed to
explain large angle scattering of α particles from thin metal foils.
ALPHA-PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT :

Alpha particles (of energy 5.5MeV) emitted
by a radioactive source (83Bi214) are
collimated into a narrow beam with the help
of a lead slit. The collimated alpha
particles is allowed to fall on a thin gold foil
of thickness 2.1x10-7m.The alpha particles
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scattered in different directions are observed
through a rotatable detector consisting of a
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zinc sulphide (ZnS) screen and a
microscope.The alpha particles produce bright flashes or scintillations on the ZnS screen. These are
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observed in the microscope and counted at different angles from the direction of the incident beam. The
angle of deviation θ of the alpha particle from its initial direction is called scattering angle.
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Observation: The graph obtained by plotting the number of

alpha particles scattered in a given time as a function of
scattering angle is as shown in figure. It is observed from the
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graph that
(i) most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold
foil. That means they do not suffer any collision with gold
atoms.
(ii) Only about 0.14% of the incident alpha particles are
scattered by more than 10.
(iii) about 1 in 8000 of the incident alpha particles is deflected by more than 900.
Conclusion: Rutherford said that, to deflect alpha particles backwards (by more than 900) , it must
experience a large repulsive force. This force could be provided if the greater part of mass of the atom and
its positive charge were concentrated tightly at its centre in a nucleus. If the alpha particles could get very
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close to the positive charge at the centre without penetrating it , then it would result in large deflection of the
alpha particle. Thus Rutherford’s assumption could explain the large angle scattering of alpha particles.
Distance of closest approach: It is the distance of alpha particle from the nucleus in which its kinetic energy
becomes zero.
1 2 ze2
d
4 0 k
Where z  Atomic number
k  kinetic energy
Impact parameter: It is defined as the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity of the alpha particle
from the central line of the nucleus.
d 
b cot
2 2
Where d  distance of closest approach
  scattering angle
s
RUTHERFORD’S ATOM MODEL: (Postulates)
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1. Every atom consists of a central core, called the atomic nucleus, in which the entire positive charge and
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almost entire mass of the atom are concentrated.

2. The size of nucleus is of the order of 10-15m, which is very small as compared to the size of the atom
which is of the order of 10-10m.
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3. The atomic nucleus is surrounded by certain number of electrons which revolve around the nucleus in
various circular orbits as do the planets around the sun. The necessary centripetal force is provided by the
electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.
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4. As atom on the whole is electrically neutral, the total negative charge of electrons surrounding the nucleus
is equal to the total positive charge on the nucleus.
Limitations of Rutherford atom model

Failed to explain stability of atom , and the spectrum f radiation emitted by atom
BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

Postulates of Bohr atom model:
First postulate : An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of
radiant energy. Such orbits are called stationary orbits.
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Second postulate: Electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
h
momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of where h is planck’s constant.
2
h
That is L  mvr  n where n = 1 , 2 , 3…….
2
Third postulate: When an electron makes a transition from a higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit , the
E f  Ei
difference in the energies emitted as a photon of frequency  
h
Expression for radius of stationary orbits:
Consider an atom of atomic number Z
+Ze  the charge on its nucleus
m  mass of an electron
-e  charge on electron
r  the radius of the circular orbit
v  the linear velocity.
s
 0 n2 h2 te
rn 
 mze2
 0 n2 h2
rn 
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For H-atom Z = 1 ,
 me2
Note :
1] From the equation for radius, it follows that rn  n 2

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Then r1 : r2 : r3 : = : : = 12 : 22 : 32 = 1 : 4 : 9
This means electron orbits of an atom are not equally spaced.
2] The radius of the first orbit (n=1) of hydrogen atom is known as the Bohr’s radius, for hydrogen atom Z = 1
P
 0 h2
Bohr’s radius, r1  Substituting the values of , h, m and e
 me2
We get r1  0.53A0
Expression for Orbital Velocity of electron:

m  mass of an electron
v  the linear velocity
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130
ze2
vn 
2n 0 h
e2
For H-atom Z =1, vn 
2n 0 h
1
Note : From the equation for radius, it follows that vn
n
e2
For the 1st orbit of a hydrogen atom n = 1, v1   2 106 ms 1
2 0 h
This shows that the electron revolves around the nucleus with a very high speed
Expression for total Energy of electron:

s
m  mass of an electron te
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v  the linear velocity.
The electrons revolving around the nucleus possess
1 ze2
Potential energy U   1
4 0 r
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1  1 ze2 
Kinetic energy K  
2  4 0 r 
P
1 1 ze2
Total energy E  
2 4 0 r
mz 2e4
En   This is the equation for Total energy of electron
8 02 n 2 h 2
me4
For H-atom Z =1, En  
8 02 n 2 h 2
Where n is principal quantum number. i.e. n = 1,2,3,4,5,…………
Note:
1. The –ve sign indicates that, the electron is bound to the nucleus of an atom. Therefore energy must be
supplied (or) work must be done to remove electron.
2. As the orbit of electron increases (n), the energy of electron (En) also increases. This means electron in the
outer orbit has greater energy than the electron in the inner orbit.
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131
3. Neglecting the –ve sign, give the binding energy of electron, which decreases with the increase in the orbit
of electron.
Expression for wave number
1  1 1  me4
   Rz 2  2  2  where R   1.097  107 m1 called Rydberg constant
  n1 n2  8 0 ch
2 3
for H  atom z  1,
 1 1 
then   R 2
 2
 n1 n2 
Bohr’s explanation of spectral series of hydrogen atom

When hydrogen gas is heated, the electrons go to different excited states depending upon the amount of
thermal energy received by each electron. When they return to the lower energy states, they emit energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation giving rise to several spectral series.
 1 1 
  R  2
s
2
 n1 n2 
Following are the spectral lines formed in hydrogen
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1. Lyman series: This series obtained due to the transition of an electron from higher orbits to the first
orbit. i.e from n2 = 2,3,4,……..to n1=1. These spectral lines in the ultraviolet region of Electromagnetic
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spectrum.
2. Balmer series: this series is obtained due to the transition an electron from higher orbits to the second
orbit. i.e from n2 = 3,4,6…….. to n1=2. There spectral lines lie in the visible region. These spectral
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lines are called H

3. Paschen series: This series is obtained due to transition of an electron from higher orbits to the third
orbit. i.e from n2 = 4,5,6,7……to n1 =3. These spectral lines lie in the infrared region.
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4. Brackett series: This series is obtained due to the transition of an electron from higher orbits to the
fourth orbit. i.e from n2 = 5,6,7…..to n1 =4 . These spectral lines lie in the infrared region.
5. Pfund series: This series is obtained due to the transition of an electron from higher orbits to the fifth
orbit. i.e from n2 = 6,7,8… to n1 =5. There spectral lines lie in infrared region.
Note :
1] In a given series, first spectral lines has the maximum wavelength and last spectral line has shortest
wavelength.
2] By substituting n2 = in each of these spectral series, the series limits can be obtained. The series
limit con be obtained. The series limit corresponds to the last spectral line of the series. This spectral
line has lowest wavelength or highest frequency.
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Energy level Diagram:
Transition of electron from higher orbit to lower orbits are represented by diagrams know as energy
level diagrams. The energy of the electron in the nth orbit of a hydrogenation atom is given
s
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Excitation and Excitation Potential
Excitation: The process of transferring an electron from its orbit to a higher orbit is called excitation.
Excitation energy: The energy required to transfer an electron from its orbit to a higher orbit is known as
excitation energy.
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Excitation potential: The minimum accelerating potential which provided an electron energy sufficient to
jump from inner orbit to one of the outer orbits is known as excitation potential.
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Eg. For hydrogen atom, the energy required to raise the electron from n =1 to n = 2 state is
E = E2-E1
E = -3.4 – (-13.6) = +10.2ev
First excitation potential is +10.2V
Ionosation and Ionization Potential
Ionisation: of an atom is the process of removing electron from the atom.
Ionization energy: The energy required to remove an electron from the atom is called ionization energy.
Ionization potential: The minimum accelerating potential which provides an electron, energy sufficient just to
remove it from the atom is known as ionization potential.
Eg. Therefore Ionization potential of H2 atom=13.6 volt.
Ionisation energy of H-atom is =E∞ - E1 = 0-(-13.6) = 13.6ev the energy required to remove an electron out
of an atom is known as Ionisation energy.
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Demerits of Bohr’s theory:
1. Bohr’s theory is applicable only to hydrogen atom and hydrogen like atoms
2. Theory is not applicable to atoms having more than one electron
3. Bohr’s theory fails to explain the fine structure of spectral lines even in hydrogen atom.
4. It does not explain the relative intensity of spectral lines.
5. Bohr’s theory does not take into account wave nature of electrons
6. This model couldn’t explain stark effect and Zeeman effect.
de-Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s second postulate:

According to de-Broglie , the electron in its circular orbit must be seen as
a matter wave. We know that when a stretched string fixed at two ends is
plucked, the waves which survive are those which travel a total distance
down the string and back equal to integral number of wavelengths .
For an electron moving in the nth circular orbit of radius r with speed v
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Total distance travelled = circumference of the orbit = 2πrn.
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For a stationary orbit , 2πr = nλ where n = 1 , 2 , 3 ….
h
For a de-Broglie wave , the wavelength is 
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mv
h
2 r  n
mv
h
mvr  n
2
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Which is Bohr second postulate

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134
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON ATOMS
1. In a Geiger-Marsden experiment, what is the distance of closest approach to the nucleus of a 7.7
MeV α-particle before it comes momentarily to rest and reverses its direction?
[NCERT] Ans: 3.0 × 10–14 m
2. It is found experimentally that 13.6 eV energy is required to separate a hydrogen atom into a proton
and an electron. Compute the orbital radius and the velocity of the electron in a hydrogen atom.
[NCERT] Ans: 5.3 × 10–11 m, 2.2 ×106 m/s
3. Using the Rydberg formula, calculate the wavelengths of the first four spectral lines in the Lyman
series of the hydrogen spectrum.
[NCERT] Ans: λ21 = 1218 Å, λ31 = 1028 Å, λ41 = 974.3 Å, and λ51 = 951.4 Å.
4. What is the shortest wavelength present in the Paschen series of spectral lines?
[NCERT] Ans: 820 nm.
5. A difference of 2.3 eV separates two energy levels in an atom. What is the frequency of radiation
emitted when the atom make a transition from the upper level to the lower level?
[NCERT] Ans: 5.6 × 1014 Hz
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6. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential energies
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of the electron in this state? [NCERT] Ans: 13.6 eV; –27.2 eV
7. A hydrogen atom initially in the ground level absorbs a photon, which excites it to the n = 4 level.
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Determine the wavelength and frequency of photon. [NCERT] Ans: 9.7 × 10 –8 m; 3.1 × 1015 Hz
8. (a) Using the Bohr’s model calculate the speed of the electron in a hydrogen atom in the n = 1, 2,
and 3 levels. (b) Calculate the orbital period in each of these levels.
[NCERT] Ans: (a) 2.18 × 106 m/s; 1.09 × 106 m/s; 7.27 × 105 m/s
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(b) 1.52 × 10–16 s; 1.22 × 10–15 s; 4.11 × 10–15 s.
9. The radius of the innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3×10–11 m. What are the radii of
the n = 2 and n =3 orbits? [NCERT] Ans: 2.12×10–10 m; 4.77 × 10–10 m
P
10. A 12.5 eV electron beam is used to bombard gaseous hydrogen at room temperature. What series
of wavelengths will be emitted? [NCERT] Ans: Lyman series: 103 nm and 122 nm
11. In accordance with the Bohr’s model, find the quantum number that characterises the earth’s
revolution around the sun in an orbit of radius 1.5 × 1011 m with orbital speed 3 × 104 m/s. (Mass of
earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg.) [NCERT] Ans: 2.6 × 1074
12. The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom is about –3.4 eV.
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the electron in this state?
(b) What is the potential energy of the electron in this state?
[NCERT] Ans: + 3.4 eV, – 6.8 eV
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13. Calculate the shortest and longest wavelength of balmer series of hydrogen atom. Given R = 1.097
x 107m-1. [M-16]
14. The first member of the Balmer series of hydrogen atom has wavelength of 6563Å, calculate the
wavelength and frequency of the second member of the same series. Given: C=3x108ms-1.[M-17]
15. An electron transmission occurs from n=4 and n=1 energy level in hydrogen atom. Find the
wavelength of the emitted radiation if the energy of the electron in the ground state is -13.6 eV. To
which series does the spectral line belong?
16. Calculate the wave number, wavelength and frequency of spectral line of hydrogen for transition
n2 = 3 n1 = 2, R = 1.097 x 107 m-1 . Ans: (1.524 x 106 m-1 , 6563Å, 4.57 x 1014 Hz)
17. The wavelength of first member of Lyman series is 1215 Å. Calculate the wavelength of the third
member of Balmer series. Ans: (4543 Å)
18. The series limit of hydrogen spectrum in the visible region is 364.6 nm. Calculate the longest
wavelength of the region and the frequency of the corresponding line.
Ans: (656.3 nm, 4.571 x 1014Hz)
s
19. Calculate the wavelength of the first member and the series limit of Lyman series of hydrogen
spectrum (Rydberg constant = 1.096 x 107 m-1). Ans: (1217Å, 912Å)
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20. Calculate the wave number, wavelength and frequency of Hα , Hβ , and Hγ line of hydrogen
spectrum. Given R = 1.097 x 107 m-1. Ans: (2.057 x 106 m-1, 4861 Å, 6.171 x 1014 Hz, 6563 Å)
No
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P
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Nuclei
Nuclear physics deals with the study of properties and behavior of nucleus and its constituents.
Nucleus of an atom made up of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.
Both protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons
Atomic number(Z): The total number of protons present in the nucleus.
Mass number(A): The total number of both protons and neutrons.
(A-Z)  The number of neutrons.
Total number of nucleons = protons+ neutrons
A = Z+N
A typical nucleus is represented as z XA  proton Xproton  nuetron 
Classification of nuclei
1) Isotopes : Isotopes of an element are the atoms of the element which have same atomic number (Z)
s
but different mass number (A)
Eg: 1 H1 , 1 H2 & 1 H3 are the isotopes of hydrogen te
6 C10 , 6 C11 , 6 C12 , 6 C13 & 6 C14 are the isotopes carbon.
2) Isobars :are atoms of different elements which have the same mass number (A) but different atomic
No
number (Z)
Eg : 11 Na 22 & 10 Ne22 are isobars
3) Isotones: isotones are the nuclides which contain the same number of neutrons .
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Eg: 1 H3 & 2 He4 are isotones.
4) Mirror nuclei: are those nuclei in which the number of protons of one is equal to the number of
neutrons of the other.
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Eg.: 4 Be7 & 3 Li7 are mirror nuclei
General properties of nucleus

1.Nuclear size : -Scattering experiments showed that the mean radius of an atomic nucleus is about 10-15m.
Note: The volume of a nucleus is proportional to its mass number
VA
4 3
R  A
3
R3  A
RA
1
3
R  R 0A
1
3
Where R 0  constant Value of R 0  1.3fermi
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2. Nuclear density(  ): It is the mass per unit volume of the nucleus.
Note: mA  is the nuclear mass

Where m  average mass the nucleons
A  mass number
4
Volume of the nucleus V  R 3
3
mass of nucleus
Nuclear density 
volume of nucleus
mA mA
 
4 3 4 3
R R 0 A
3 3
m

4 3
R 0
3
  2.3  1017 kg 3
m
Nuclear density does not depend on the mass number (A) hence nuclear density is same for all nuclei
s
. te
Nuclear charge: Nucleus contains both protons & neutrons. Protons are positively charged and neutrons
are electrically neutral. The nucleus is (+ve).
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If Z is the number of protons then the charge one nucleus is (+Ze)
4. Nuclear mass: Mass of the nucleus is always equal to sum of the masses of nucleons present in it
Nuclear mass = total mass of protons + total mass of neutrons
M = [Z mp + (A-Z) mn]
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Where mp  mass of each proton, Z  atomic no.

mn  mass of each neutron, (A - Z)  no. of neutrons.
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5. Nuclear spin: The nucleons present in the nucleus have orbital as well as spin angular momentum. The
total angular momentum of the nucleus is the resultant of spin and orbital angular momentum of the
nucleons. The resultant angular momentum of the nucleus is called nuclear spin.
Properties of nuclear forces

1. Nuclear forces are strong attractive forces: The magnitude of nuclear forces is 100 times that of
electrostatic force and 1038 times that of gravitational force between nucleons.
2. Nuclear forces are short range forces: These act for a very short distances. When the distance between
nucleons is greater than 10 fermi, force become negligible.
3. Nuclear forces are non – central forces:the force existing between two nucleons doesnot act along the line
joining their centres.
4. Nuclear forces exhibit saturation property:each nucleon interacts only with a limited number of nucleons
nearest to it.
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5. Nuclear forces do not obey inverse square low
6. Nuclear forces are charge independent: The force of attraction between a proton and proton is the same
as the force of attraction b/n proton and neutron or a neutron and neutron.
7. Nuclear force depends on the spin of the nuclei: the force of attraction between two nucleons having
parallel spin is stronger than nucleons having anti-parallel spin.
8. Nuclear forces are exchange forces: the nuclear forces are brought into existence due to the exchange of
particles called meson.
9. Nuclear forces have a repulsive core: at too close distance (0.5 fermi) of approach between two nucleons
force becomes repulsive.
H. Yukawa s theory: There is a continuous exchange of meson between the nucleons. This results in
exchange force and keeps them bound together. A proton inside the nucleus emits meson and becomes
neutron. A neutron absorbs meson and becomes proton. A neutron emits meson and becomes proton.
A proton absorbs meson and becomes neutron.
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The attractive force between P-P and n-n develops due to the exchange of meson.
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Einstein’s mass – energy relation: Einstein showed that energy and mass are inter convertible i.e. mass can
be converted into energy and energy can be converted into mass.
No
The inter – conversion of mass and energy is governed by the mass – energy relation.
E = mc2
E  energy equivalent to mass m
C  speed of light
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Eg. 1) when an electron and a positron come close to each other they pair annihilate and destroy each other.
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Their mass converted into energy and released in the form of gamma rays.
2) During pair production energy is converted into mass. When a gamma ray of photon approaching a
nucleus, converted into a pair of particles- an electron and a positron.
3) During nuclear fission of heavy nucleus into smaller nuclei, there is a decrease in total mass. This
decrease in mass is converted into energy.
Atomic mass unit (amu):Atomic masses and nuclear masses are measures in an unit called atomic mass unit
Define 1 atomic mass unit: One atomic mass unit is defined as (1/12)th the mass of an atom of C -12 isotope.
Show that 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

From Avogadro hypothesis
6.023 x 1023 atoms of C-12 weigh 12 x 10-3 kg
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mass of 1 atom of C – 12 weigh 12 x 10-3 / 6.023 x 1023 kg
By the definition
1amu = 1/12 (mass of 1 atom of C-12 isotope)
1 amu = 1/12 [12 x 10-3 / 6.023 x 1023 ]
 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27kg
Electron – volt (ev) – It is the unit of energy.

Define 1 electron – volt: It is the energy gained by an electron, when accelerated through a p.d of one volt.
Work done = charge x potential
1 ev = 1.6 x 10-19 c 1v
1eV  1.6 1019 J
Relation between amu and eV (or) To show 1amu = 931Mev

According to Einstein mass – energy relation
s
E = mc2 Take m = 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27 kgte
E = 1.66 x 10-27 x (3 x 108)2
No
E = 14.944 x 10-11 J
E = 14.944 x 10-11 / 1.6 x 10-19 eV
E = 931 x 106 eV
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E = 931 M eV
Mass defect  m  : It is the difference between rest mass of a nucleus and sum of the mass of nucleons,
P
which forms nucleus.
Mass defect m   ZmP   A  Z  mn   M
Where Z  atomic number

A  Mass number
m P  Mass of each proton
m n  Mass of neutron
M  Mass of nucleon
This mass defect will be converted into energy, which is used to bound the nucleons in the nucleus called
Binding energy.
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Packing fraction (pf): It is the ratio of mass defect to the mass number of the given isotope
Mass defect  M  A 
P.F  
Mass number A
Binding energy: It is the energy required to bind (or) to separate the nucleons in the nucleus.
Specific binding energy (Binding energy per nucleon):
It is the ratio of the binding energy of the nucleus to the Mass number
It is also defined as average energy required to remove each nucleon from the nucleus.
Bin ding energy BE

Specific BE  
Mass number A
Binding energy curve: The curve obtained by plotting specific binding energy v/s mass number is called
B.E curve.
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No
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P
Some of the results obtained from the above graph are as follows
1) Average B.E/nucleon for light nuclei is very small.

2) Specific B.E increases with increase in mass number & becomes maximum (8.8 MeV) at A=56
3) Between A=56 & A=120 curve remains almost constant & all the nuclei lying in this region possess
high specific B.E &hence they are stable. In this region specific BE decreases slowly from 8.8 MeV
to 7.6 MeV
4) Above A=120 specific BE decreases rapidly & thus nuclei lying in this region are unstable.
5) Towards lighter nuclei side, nuclei like , etc…. which are having even & equal number
of proton & neutron are found to be highly stable & nuclei like , having add & equal number
of proton & neutron are found to be unstable
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Importance of B.E curve
It gives the information about how much energy is needed to fuse two nuclei
Or how much energy is liberated when a nuclei is broken .
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity: The spontaneous dis-integration of heavy nucleus with the emission of certain radiations is
called radioactivity.
The radiations emitted during radioactivity phenomenon are called radioactive radiations.
Elements which under goes radioactive phenomenon are called radioactive elements.
Example: Uranium, Thorium, Neptunium, Radium, Plutonium etc……..
The different radioactive radiations are radiations.
Note: Elements with atomic number and mass number A > 200 exhibit the phenomenon of
radioactivity naturally.
s
Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel te
Rrelation N  No et
Let No  be the number of nuclei present initially (t = 0)
No
N  be the number of nuclei present after time t

dN
Then the rateof disin tegration N
dt
dN
 N
S
dt
Where   Decay constant
negative sign indicate that the number of atoms will be decreasing with respect to time.
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Half life: The time required to disintegrate half the initial nuclei is called half life period.
0.693
Expression for half life: T12 

No
Note: At t  nT 1 N
2
2n
Thus after n half lives the number of atoms that remain unchanged is times the initial number of atoms.
Decay constant: It is defined as the reciprocal of the time during which 37 % of nuclei will be left
undisintegrated. (63%disintegrated)
Mean life: It is the ratio of the sum of the lives of all the individual atoms to the total number of atoms
present in the sample.
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Total life time of all the atoms
Mean life 
Total number of atoms present in the sample
1
Tm 

T12
Tm 
0.693
 Tm T12
Activity (A): The number of disintegration per second is called activity.
dN
 N
dt
A  N
Note: Activity A  Ao et Where A  Activity after time t
A0  Initial activity of the sample
s
SI unit of activity is Becquerel.
Note: 1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration/second.

te
1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegration/second.
No
1 Rutherfort = 106 disintegration/second.
Note :1) Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon. It is not affected by external factors such as temperature,
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pressure, electric and magnetic fields, chemical reactions etc.
2) The activity depends only on the radioactive substance and the number of atoms taken.
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Nuclear fission and Nuclear fusion
Nuclear Fission: It is the process in which a heavier nucleus breaks into two lighter nuclei of comparable
masses releasing large amount of energy .
Example: When U235 is bombarded with a neutron, it captures the neutron and becomes unstable compound
nucleus U236. The compound nucleus then splits into two fragments such as B141 & Kr92. In addition three
neutrons are produced together with large amount of heat energy.
U235  0 n1   92 U236   56 Ba141  36 Kr 92  3 0 n1  Energy

*
Example: 1. 92
U235  0 n1   92 U236   54 Xe140  38 Sr 94  2 0 n1  Energy

*
2. 92
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235
Chain reaction: When an atom of U undergoes fission, along with the fission fragments, about 2 to 3
neutrons are also produced, under suitable conditions, these neutrons can cause fission in the other atoms of
the sample & release more number of neutron. This process continues till all the atoms of the sample
undergo fission. This process is known as nuclear chain reaction.
There are two types of chain reaction

1) Controlled chain reaction  In the controlled chain reaction the neutron number is controlled using
cadmium rods
Example: Nuclear power reactor
2) Uncontrolled chain reaction  In this reaction the neutron number is uncontrolled
Example: Atom bomb
Critical size: The minimum size of the sample for which the sustained chain reaction takes place is called
critical size.
Note: For the chain reaction to be taken place the released neutron should not escape from sample. The
leakage of neutrons could be minimized by taking suitable shape of the fissile material in the form of sphere.
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Nuclear fusion: It is a process in which two or more lighter nuclei combine a heavier nucleus with the
release of large energy.
No
Example: 4 +2 + Energy
+ + + Energy
+ + + Energy
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Stellar energy: The nuclear fusion reaction are main responsible for large amount of energy produced in
stellar bodies like sun.
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The types of thermonuclear reactions have been postulated in the stars for fusion hydrogen into
helium along with emission of enormous amount of energy.
Proton – Proton cycle
2 1 H1  2 1 H1  2 1 H 2  2 1 e0  Energy
2 1 H1  2 1 H 2  2 2 He3  Energy
2 2 He3  2 He4  2 1 H1  Energy
The same cycle can be summed up as follows.
4 1 H1  2 He4  2 1 e0  Energy
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Difference b/n fusion and fission reaction
Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

1. It is a process of heavier nucleus splits into 1. It is process in which two lighter nuclei
two lighter nuclei of comparable masses with combined to form a stable heavier nucleus with
the release of large energy the release of energy
2. The energy released/ nucleon is less 2. The energy released/nucleon is more
3. It takes place at normal temp. 3. It takes place at very high temp.
4. It can be conducted artificially 4. It cannot be conducted artificially but take
place at stars
5. It can be controlled 5. It cannot be controlled
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NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON NUCLEI
Problems on Nuclei (BE and SBE)
1. Obtain approximately the ratio of the nuclear radii of the gold isotope and the silver isotope
197
Au 79
107
Ag 47
[NCERT] Ans: 1.23
2. Given the mass of iron nucleus as 55.85u and A=56, find the nuclear density?
[NCERT] Ans: 2.29 × 1017 kg m–3
3. Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and then in MeV. Using this,
express the mass defect of 8O16 in MeV/c2. [NCERT] Ans: 127.5 MeV/c2
4. Calculate the binding energy and binding energy per nucleon (in MeV) of nitrogen nucleus (7N14)
from the following data: Mass of proton=1.00783u, Mass of neutron=1.00867u and Mass of nitrogen
nucleus=14.00307u. [M-14]
5. Calculate the binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of oxygen nucleus (8O16 ) using the
following data in Mev. Mass of proton = 1.007825u, mass of neutron = 1.008665 u and mass of
s
oxygen nucleus =15.995u. [J-17]
te
6. A copper coin has a mass of 63.0 g. Calculate the nuclear energy that would be required to separate
all the neutrons and protons form each other. The coin is entirely made of atoms.
63
Cu 29
No
Mass of atom = 62.92960 u
63
Cu 29
Mass of proton = 1.00727 u
Mass of neutron = 1.00866 u

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Avogadro’s number = 6.022×1023 [M-20] Ans: 535.94MeV
7. We are given the following atomic masses:

P
= 238.05079 u = 4.00260 u
238 4
U 92 He 2
= 234.04363 u = 1.00783 u
234 1
Th 90 H 1
= 237.05121 u
237
Pa 91
Here the symbol Pa is for the element protactinium (Z = 91).
(a) Calculate the energy released during the alpha decay of

238
U 92
b) Show that can not spontaneously emit a proton.

238
U 92
[NCERT] Ans: 4.25 MeV, – 7.68 MeV, the Q of the process is negative and therefore it cannot
proceed spontaneously.
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8. Obtain the binding energy (in MeV) of a nitrogen nucleus , given m =14.00307 u
14 14
N 7 N 7
[NCERT] Ans: 104.7 MeV
9. Obtain the binding energy of the nuclei and in units of MeV from the following data:
56 209
Fe 26 Bi 83
Mass of = 55.934939 u Mass of = 208.980388 u

56 209
Fe 26 Bi 83
[NCERT] Ans: 8.79 MeV, 7.84 MeV
10. A given coin has a mass of 3.0 g. Calculate the nuclear energy that would be required to separate
all the neutrons and protons from each other. For simplicity assume that the coin is entirely made of
atoms (of mass 62.92960 u). [NCERT] Ans: 1.584 × 1025 MeV or 2.535×1012J
63
Cu 29
11. Find the Q-value and the kinetic energy of the emitted α-particle in the α-decay of
(a) and (b) Rn 86
226 220
Ra 88
Given mass of = 226.02540 u, mass of = 222.01750 u,

226 222
Ra 88 Rn 86
s
Mass of = 220.01137 u, = 216.00189 u, mass of = 4.00260 u
220 216 4
Rn 86 Po 84
te He 2
[NCERT] Ans: (a) Q = 4.93 MeV, Eα = 4.85 MeV (b) Q = 6.41 MeV, Eα = 6.29 MeV
No
12. The radionuclide 11C decays according to
 B5  e   T1  20.3min
11 11
C 6
2
The maximum energy of the emitted positron is 0.960 MeV.

S
Given the mass values: mass of =11.011434 u and =11.009305 u,

11 11
C 6 B 5
calculate Q and compare it with the maximum energy of the positron emitted.
P
[NCERT] Ans: 0.9671MeV
13. The nucleus decays by β– emission. Write down the β-decay equation and determine the
23
Ne 10
maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted. Given that:
=22.994466 u =22.089770 u [NCERT] Ans: 4.37MeV

23 23
Ne 10 Na 11
14. The Q value of a nuclear reaction A + b → C + d is defined by Q = [ mA + mb – mC – md]c2
where the masses refer to the respective nuclei. Determine from the given data the Q-value of the
following reactions and state whether the reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
H H  H1  H1
1 3 2 2
1 1
C C  Ne10  He 2
12 12 20 4
6 6
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Atomic masses are given to be
H = 2.014102 u, H = 3.016049 u, C = 12.000000 u, = 19.992439 u,

2 3 12 20
1 1 6 Ne 10
H =1.007825u, He = 4.002603u
1 4
1 2
[NCERT] Ans: 4.62Mev
15. Suppose, we think of fission of a nucleus into two equal fragments, . Is the fission
56 28
Fe 26 Al 13
energetically possible? Argue by working out Q of the process. Given m  Fe  = 55.93494 u and m
56
26
 Al  =27.98191 u.
28
13
[NCERT] Ans: -26.88728 MeV, the energy is negative so, fission is not
possible
16. The fission properties of are very similar to those of . The average energy released per
239 235
Pu 94 U 92
fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, in MeV, is released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure undergo
239
Pu 94
fission? [NCERT] Ans: 4.53X1026MW
17. The neutron separation energy is defined as the energy required to remove a neutron from the
s
nucleus. Obtain the neutron separation energies of the nuclei and from the following data:
41 27
te Ca 20 Al13
m  Al  =26.981541 u,
27
13
m  Al  = 25.986895 u,
26
13
m Ca  = 40.962278 u,
41
20
m  Ca  = 39.962591 u, m  n  =1.008665 [NCERT] Ans: 8.362MeV, 13.06MeV

40 1
No
20 0
18. Under certain circumstances, a nucleus can decay by emitting a particle more massive than an α-
particle. Consider the following decay processes:
 Pb 82  C 4
223 209 16
S
Ra 88
 Rn 86  He 2
223 219 4
Ra 88
Calculate the Q-values for these decays and determine that both are energetically allowed.
P
m  Ra  = 223.01850u,
223
88
m  Pb  =208.98107u,
209
82
m C  =14.00324u,
16
4
m  Rn  =219.948u, m  He  = 4.00260u.
219 4
86 2
[NCERT] Ans: 31.83MeV, 5.98MeV
24. Determine the mass of Na23 which has an activity of 5mCi. Half life of Na23 is 2.6 years. Avogadro
number = 6.023 x 1023 atoms. [M-15]
25. Calculate the half life and mean life of radium – 226 of activity 1Ci. Given mass of radium 226 is 1g
and 226g of radium consist of 6.023 x 1023 atoms. [J-15]
26. The activity of radioactive substance 4700 per minute. 5 minutes later the activity is 2700 per
minute. Find decay constant and half of radioactive substance. [J-16]
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27. The half life of a radioactive sample 38𝑆𝑟90 is 28 years. Calculate the rate of disintegration of 15 mg
of this isotope. Given Avogadro’s number = 6.023X1023 [J-18]
28. Half life of U-238 undergoing α- decay is 4.5X109 years. What is the activity of one gram of U-238
sample? [M-19]
29.The normal activity of living carbon (C-14) containing matter is found to be about 15 decays per
minute per gram of carbon. A specimen found in an archaeological excavation has an activity of 1.5
decays per minute per gram of carbon matter. Estimate the age of specimen.
Given : the half-life of carbon (C-14) is 5730 years. [M-22]
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE
CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION: Semiconductor electronics is a branch of Electronics which deals with the study of
manufacturing and operation of semiconductor devices.
Following are the advantages of semiconductor devices over their predecessor ’valves’ or vacuum tubes.
1. In a semiconductor device, the supply and flow of charge carriers are within the solid (Semiconductor)
itself. Whereas in a valve, charge carriers are supplied by heated cathode and they are made to move in an
evacuated space.
2. Semiconductor devices are small in size, consume low power, operate at low voltages and have long life
and high reliability. Whereas, valves are bulky, consume high power, operate generally at high voltages,
have limited life and low reliability.
On the basis of relative values of electrical resistivity, solids are broadly classified as –
(i) Metals (Or Conductors): Which possess very low resistivity of the order of 10-2 – 10-8 Ω m
(ii) Insulators: Which possess very high resistivity of the order of 1011 – 1019 Ω m and
(iii) Semiconductors: Which possess resistivity whose value is intermediate to that of conductors and
insulators (about 10-5 – 106 Ω m).
s
Band theory of solids : te
In a solid, the atoms are closely arranged. Due to interaction with electrons of neighboring atoms, each
discrete energy level of an electron splits into number of separate energy levels. Since these energy levels lie
No
very close to one another, they form an energy band.
The energy bands which are completely filled at 0K (zero kelvin) are known as valence bands. These are
occupied by valence electrons.
The energy bands with energies higher than valence bands are known as conduction bands. These may be
partially filled or empty.
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The energy difference between the highest level of valence band and the lowest level of conduction band is
known as 'Energy gap'.
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Classification of solids based on band theory of solids:

1. Conductors : In conductors, the valence and conduction bands Band
overlap on each other. Hence there is no energy gap between
them. Hence electrons can move easily from valence band to
conduction band even in the presence of a small applied field. Band
The energy band structure of a conductor is as shown.
2. Insulators : In insulators, the conduction band and the valence band are
separated by a large energy gap. Therefore electrons in the valence band
cannot go to the conduction band and hence insulators do not conduct
electric current.
The energy band structure of an insulator is as shown.
In an insulator, the valence band is completely filled while the conduction band is empty.
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3. Semiconductors : In semiconductors, the conduction band and the
valence band are separated by a small energy gap. At 0 K, the
semiconductor behaves as a insulator. But at room temperature, some
electrons in valence band acquire thermal energy and jump to the
conduction band. Hence semiconductors conduct electricity at room
temperature. But the conductivity is less than that of good conductors.
The energy band structure of a semiconductor is as shown.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between that of conductors and insulators. Silicon
and Germanium are the commonly used semiconductors.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
A pure semiconductor is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
Ge or Si are tetravalent elements. The atoms share their
valence electrons and form covalent bonds. No bond will
be broken at lower temperatures and hence there will be
no free electrons for conduction. Therefore, it behaves as
s
an insulator. As the temperature increases, due to
increased thermal energy, some bonds break creating
free electrons. The positions of free electrons in broken
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covalent bonds behave as particles with a positive charge
known as ‘holes’. Free electrons and holes will be equal
No
in number ( ). Hence an intrinsic semiconductor
is electrically neutral. As the charge carriers are small in
number, its conductivity is low.
Under the action of an external field, both free electrons and holes
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move in opposite directions constituting electron current ( ) and hole

current ( ) respectively. The total current in the solid, .
In an intrinsic semiconductor, at 0K, the valence band is occupied and
P
conduction band is empty. At temperatures greater than 0K, some

electrons jump into conduction band due to their thermal energies leaving
behind an equal number of holes in the valence band. The energy – band
diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor is as shown.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
A doped or an impure semiconductor is known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Doping: Doping is a process of adding impure atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor.
Dopant: The impure atoms added to an intrinsic semiconductor are known as dopants.
Types of extrinsic semiconductors:
1) p-type semiconductor
2) n-type semiconductor
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p – type semiconductor:
It is a type of extrinsic semiconductor in which holes are the majority carriers.
It is formed when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a trivalent atom like Boron, Indium or Gallium.
When Silicon is doped with Boron impurity, the crystal structure is as follows :
Boron provides electrons to fill only three covalent bonds and the vacancy in the
fourth bond constitutes a hole. The hole behaves like a positively charged
particle and attracts electrons from the neighboring covalent bond. A new hole is
created in the place of the displaced electron and in this way the hole moves in a
crystal.
Since the hole can accept one electron from the neighboring atom, the impurity
atom which contributes this hole is known as acceptor impurity and the
semiconductor is known as acceptor type semiconductor.
At any instant, the number of holes is greater than the number of free electrons.
Hence holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers in a p – type
semiconductor.
The energy band diagram (or structure) of a p – type semiconductor is as shown.
s
n – type semiconductors :
te
It is a type of extrinsic semiconductor in which electrons are the majority carriers.
It is formed when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent atom like Phosphorus, Arsenic
or Antimony.
No
When silicon is doped with Phosphorus impurity, the crystal structure is as follows :
Of the five valence electrons of a phosphorus atom, four electrons involve in
covalent bonding with four neighboring silicon atoms. The fifth electron is
loosely bound to its parent nucleus and can become a free electron even at room
S
temperature. In this way, a large number of free electrons can be generated by the
doping of small quantity of impure atoms.
Since each impurity atom donates a free electron to the semiconductor, the
P
impurity atom is known as donor atom and the semiconductor is known as donor-
type semiconductor.
At any instant, the number of electrons is greater than the number of holes.
Hence electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in a n – type
semiconductor.
The energy band diagram of a n – type semiconductor is as shown.
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Difference between n-type and p-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor
1. It is obtained when a pure semiconductor 1. It is obtained when a pure

is doped with pentavalent impurities. semiconductor is doped with trivalent
impurities.
2. Electrons are the majority charge 2. Holes are the majority charge carriers
carriers and holes are the minority charge and electrons are the minority charge
carriers. carriers.
3. The impurity added is called donor. 3. The impurity added is called acceptor.
4. Majority charge carriers are in the 4. Majority charge carriers are in the
conduction band. valence band.
5. Donor impurity level lies just below the 5. Acceptor impurity level lies just above
conduction band. the valence band.
s
P-N JUNCTION (SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE)
A p-n junction is formed by adding pentavalent impurity on

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one half of the pure semiconductor and trivalent impurity on
the other half of it.
No
Holes are the majority carriers in p-type region and electrons
are majority carriers in n-type. Due to concentration gradient
of majority carriers, few electrons diffuse from n-region to p-
region while holes diffuse from p-region to n-region
S
producing diffusion current. Hence a positive charge is

developed on n-side of the junction and a negative charge on
the p-side. The minority carriers are swept across the junction
P
plane, forming a drift current. When these two currents are

equal in magnitude, a potential difference is established across
the junction and is called junction potential difference or barrier potential difference (0.3V for Ge &
0.7V for Si) which prevents further diffusion of majority charge carriers. This potential is called junction
potential difference or barrier potential difference. The region at the vicinity of the junction which is
completely depleted of mobile charge carriers is called depletion region.
Biasing of p-n junction :

A p-n junction is said to be biased when an external voltage is applied across the
junction.
Forward Bias : A p – n junction is said to be forward biased, when positive
terminal of a battery is connected to the p – region and negative terminal of the
battery is connected to n – region of the p – n junction diode.
When the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential, the majority
carriers in both the regions acquire enough energy to cross over the barrier
potential across the junction. Hence a flow of electrons from n – region to p – region and holes from p –
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region to n – region begins. The diode offers low resistance for the flow of charges. Thus a continuous
current flows through the circuit.
Reverse Bias : A p – n junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of a battery is connected
to the n – region and negative terminal is connected to p – region of the p – n junction diode.
The negative potential at p – type region attracts the holes while the positive
potential at n – type region attracts the electrons. Due to this the junction widens
and the barrier potential increases. As there is no flow of majority charge
carriers across the junction, the diode does not conduct. But there will be a small
current through the circuit due to thermally generated minority charge carriers.
This current is known as 'Saturation current' (IS).
As the applied voltage is increased, the current through the circuit practically remains a constant. But when
the voltage becomes greater than 'break down voltage', the diode starts to conduct heavily due to Avalanche
effect.
Definitions :
1. Knee voltage : It is the applied voltage at which the forward current through a forward biased diode
starts increasing rapidly.
s
2. Saturation current : It is the small current through a reverse biased diode due to thermally generated
minority charge carriers. te
3. Break down voltage : It is the applied voltage at which the current through a reverse biased diode
abruptly increases due to Avalanche effect.
No
4. Dynamic Resistance : It is the ratio of small change in voltage to a small change in current i.e.
V – I characteristics of a diode:
The circuit arrangement for studying V – I characteristics of a diode is as shown.
S
P
A battery is connected to a diode through a rheostat so that the applied voltage can be varied. For different
values of voltage, the corresponding value of current is noted. For forward bias, a milliammeter is used
while for reverse bias, a microammeter is used in the circuit. A plot of values of V against I is obtained
using which the values of knee voltage, breakdown voltage and dynamic resistance of the diode can be
obtained.
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Rectifiers :
RECTIFIER: A device which converts alternating current into direct current is known as a 'rectifier'.
The process of converting an alternating voltage (or current) into a direct voltage (or current) is known as
'rectification'.
A diode can be used for rectification process because it conducts easily when forward biased and does not
conducts when reverse biased i.e., it has the property of unidirectional conducting.
Rectifiers are of two types namely — (i) half wave rectifier and (ii) full wave rectifier
Half wave rectifier (HWR) :
The rectifier which converts only one half cycle of input
AC into rectified output (DC) is known as a half wave
rectifier.
Circuit: The circuit consists of a diode D connected in
series with a load resistance RL across which the rectified
output is obtained. The AC to be rectified is fed to the
primary of a transformer and the transformer output from secondary S is applied between A and B to the
diode.
s
Working: When the voltage at A is positive i.e., during positive half cycle of transformer output, the diode
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D is forward biased and hence it conducts. There will be current through RL and hence a voltage across it.
During negative half-cycle, i.e., when voltage at A is negative, the diode is reverse biased and it does not
conducts. The voltage across RL is practically zero. Hence there is rectified output voltage only during
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positive half cycles of input AC to the diode. The rectified output will be unidirectional but varying in
nature.
The input and output waveforms of a half wave rectifier are as shown :
S
P
Full wave rectifier (FWR) :

The rectifier which converts the complete cycle of input
AC into rectified output (DC) is known as a full wave
rectifier.
Circuit: The circuit consists of two diodes D1 and D2
whose positive ends are connected to secondary of the
transformer. The negative ends are connected to the
centre-tap of the secondary through a load resistance
RL. The AC to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer. The centre-tap divides the
transformer output into two equal halves.
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Working: During positive half cycles of transformer output, A is positive and B is negative with respect to
C. Diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts and there will be current
through RL from M to N and hence an output voltage.
During negative half cycles, A is negative, B is positive Diode D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased.
Hence D2 conducts and there will be current through RL from M to N and hence an output voltage.
Therefore, during both half cycles, there is an output voltage across RL. Hence the circuit is known as full
wave rectifier.
The input and output waveforms of full wave rectifier are as shown :
Note: Filter circuits are used to convert pulsating dc into steady dc.
s
te
No
S
P
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II PUC - PHYSICS (33)
Time: 3 hours 15 min. Max Marks: 70
General Instructions:
1. All parts are compulsory.
2. Part – A questions have to be answered in the first two pages of the answer-booklet. For Part –
A questions, first written-answer will be considered for awarding marks.
3. Answers without relevant diagram / figure / circuit wherever necessary will not carry any
marks.
4. Direct answers to the numerical problems without detailed solutions will not carry any marks.
PART – B
III. Answer any FIVE of the following questions: 5 × 2 = 10
21. a) Define electric dipole, write its unit.
b) What is an equipotential surface? Write any two properties of equipotential surface.
c) What is electrostatic shielding? What ate the values of electric field and electric
potential inside the charged conductor.
s
d) Define polar and non-polar dielectrics? Give example for each.
te
e) Write the formula for potential energy of two charges separated by distance in air,
and explain the terms.
No
f) Mention any 3 factors on which capacitance of a conductor and capacitor depends.
g) Define dielectric strength. Write its SI unit.
h) Write the formula for energy stored in a capacitor and explain the terms.
dv
i) Derive the relation between electric field and electric potential. (Derive E  
S
)
dx
22. a) Write the formula for force on a charged particle. Mention the maximum and
P
minimum condition for force.

b) Write the SI unit of magnetic flux density (magnetic field), define 1 tesla.
c) What is the path of a charged particle, when it is moving 1) parallel or anti-parallel to
the field 2) perpendicular to the field 3) at an angle to the field.
d) What is Lorentz force, write the formula for it, and explain the terms.
e) What is cyclotron? Draw the labelled diagram, Write the working principle of
cyclotron, and mention its applications.
f) State and explain Ampere’s circuital law.
g) Write the formula for magnetic dipole moment of current loop, mention its SI unit.
h) Define current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity, write their SI units.
23. a) Write the formula for torque on a magnetic dipole, explain the terms, mention the
max and min condition for torque.
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157
b) State and explain Gauss’s law in magnetism.
c) Define intensity magnetisation, magnetic susceptibility, magnetic permeability and
write their units.
24. a) State and explain Faraday’s law of electro-magnetic induction.
b) State and explain Lenz’s law. Mention the importance of lenz’s law.
c) Define self -inductance and define 1 henry, on what factors self-inductance of a coil
depends.
d) Write the working principle of AC generator, Write the neat labelled schematic
diagram of AC generator.
25. a) Write the relation between rms value and peak value of voltage and current.
b) Define resonant frequency, derive an expression for resonant frequency.
c) Define power factor, write the formula and explain the terms.
d) Mention the working principle of transformer, mention the sources of power loss in
transformer.
s
26. a) What is displacement current, write the formula for it.
te
b) Mention the applications of X-rays, UV-rays, IR-rays and Radio waves.
c) Mention the wavelength range of all gamma-ray, X-rays, UV-rays, visible, IR-rays,
No
radio and Radio waves
d) Mention the properties of EM waves.
e) Write Ampere Maxwell’s equation and explain the terms.
27. a) What is wavefront, State Huygens’ principle of construction of wavefront.
S
b) Draw the wavefront for point source, infinite distant source, converging and
diverging wavefront.
P
c) What is coherent source. Give an example.

d) Write the condition for constructive and destructive interference in terms of path
difference and phase difference.
e) Difference between interference and diffraction.
f) State and explain Malus’ law.
g) Mention the applications of polaroids.
28. a) Mention the limitations of Rutherford atomic model.
b) Define excitation potential, excitation energy, ionisation potential and ionisation
energy.
c) Define impact parameter and distance of closest approach, write their formula and
explain the terms.
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158
29. a) What are isotopes, isobars and isotones, give an example for each.
b) Show that 1amu=1.66X10-27kg.
c) Show that 1amu=931MeV.
d) Mention the properties of nucleus.
e) Mention the properties of nuclear force.
f) Differentiate between nuclear fusion and fusion.
PART – C
IV. Answer any FIVE of the following questions: 5 × 3 = 15
30. a) Mention the properties of charge.

b) State and explain Coulomb’s law.
c) Write the properties of electric field lines.
d) Derive an expression for torque on a dipole. Mention the condition for min and max torque.
e) Derive an expression for electric field at a point due to charged infinite long straight
conductor.
s
31. a) Derive an expression for drift velocity of electrons.
b) Derive the formula j   E te
ne2
c) Derive the formula  
m
d) State and explain Ohm’s law. Mention the limitations of Ohm’s law.
No
e) Derive an expression for current drawn by an external resistor in terms of emf and
internal resistance.
f) State and explain KVL and KCL. Write the law on which these laws are based.
32. a) State and explain Biot-Savarts law.
S
b) How to convert galvanometer into ammeter.

c) How to convert galvanometer into voltmeter.
d) Derive an expression for magnetic field at a point due to long straight wire carrying
current.
P
33. a) Mention the properties of magnetic field lines.

b) Distinguish between para, dia and ferromagnetic material.
d) Mention the properties of bar magnet.
34. a) Explain Faraday’s coil-magnet experiment.
b) Derive an expression for motional emf.
c) Derive and expression for energy stored in an inductor.
d) Write the theory of AC generator.
R
35. a) Derive the relation f  for the reflection at mirror.
2
b) State Snell’s law of refraction. Write the limitations of Snell’s law.
c) Explain total internal reflection, define critical angle. Condition for total internal
reflection.
d) Draw the neat ray diagram of image formation by compound microscope, mention
the magnifying power formula.
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159
e) Draw the neat ray diagram of image formation by telescope, mention the
magnifying power formula.
f) Mention the applications/ illustrations of total internal reflection.
g) Mention the applications of optic fibres.
36. a) Mention expression for radius of nth orbit of an electron in H-atom.
b) Mention expression for total energy of nth orbit of an electron in H-atom.
c) Mention the demerits (limitations) of Bohr’s atomic model.
d) Mention the five spectral series of H-atom.
37. a) Numerical problem on nuclei. Formula to be used
R  R0 A 3
1
m   Zm p  ( A  Z )mn   M nucleus
m  (mass of reactants - mass of products)
BE  m (931) MeV
38. a) Differentiate between conductor, insulator and semiconductor on the basis of band
theory of solids.
b) Differentiate between n-type and p-type semiconductor.
s
c) Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
PART – D
te
V. Answer any THREE of the following questions: 3 × 5 = 15
No
39. a) Derive an expression for electric field at a point on an axial line due to an electric
dipole.
b) Derive an expression for electric field at a point on an equatorial line due to an
electric dipole.
S
c) Derive an expression for electric field at a point due to charged spherical shell.
40. a) Derive an expression for equivalent emf and internal resistance of two cells
connected in series.
b) Derive an expression for equivalent emf and internal resistance of two cells
P
connected in parallel.
c) Derive the balancing condition for whetstones bridge.
41. a) Derive an expression for magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil
carrying current.
b) Arrive at the expression for force per unit length between two infinitely long straight
parallel current carrying conductors. Hence define 1ampere.
c) Derive an expression for torque on a rectangular current loop placed in magnetic
field.
42. a) Derive lens makers formula.
b) Derive an expression for equivalent focal length of two thin lenses in contact.
sin( A D 2)
c) Derive prism formula. Derivethe relation n 
sin( A 2)
n2 n1 n2  n1
d) Derive the relation  
v u R
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160
43. a) Mention the 3 types of electron emission.
b) Explain Hallwach’s observation on the photo-electric effect.
c) Define the terms, threshold frequency, work function, threshold wavelength, stopping
potential.
d) Explain any 3 experimental observations of photo electric effect.
e) Write the Einstein’s photoelectric equation. Explain the terms.
f) Give Einstein’s explanation of laws of photoelectric emission.
g) Mention the properties of photon.
44. a) What is rectification?
b) Explain with neat diagram p-n junction diode as half wave rectifier.
c) Explain with neat diagram p-n junction diode as full wave rectifier.
VI. Answer any TWO of the following questions: 2 × 5 = 10
45. Numerical problem on electric potential and capacitance
VB  VA 1 q
WAB  V
s
q0 4 0 r
q K 0 A te
C C
V d
1 1 1 1
    ... CP  C1  C2  C3  ....
Cs C1 C2 C3
No
1
U  CV 2
2
46. Numerical problem on current electricity
S
l  R2  R1
R    
 A R1 (t2  t1 )
I  nAevd
P
1 1 1 1
    ... RS  R1  R2  R3  ....
RP R1 R2 R3

I V  IR
Rr
 equi  1   2   3  ... requi  r1  r2  r3  ...
 equi 1 2 3
    ...
requi r1 r2 r3
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161
I0 V0
I rms  Vrms 
2 2
1
X L  2 fL XC 
2 fC
Z  R2   X L  X C  Pavg  Vrms I rms cos 
2
47. Numerical problem on AC
R
cos   V  VR2  VL  VC 
2
Z
1 f0 1 L
fo  Q 
2 LC BW R C
48. Numerical problem on wave optics

D

d
n D
xn 
d
s
(2n  1) D
xn 
2d te
No
S
*****************
P
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MODEL QUESTION PAPER FOR 2022-23
II PUC - PHYSICS (33)
Time: 3 hours 15 min. Max Marks: 70
2. Part – A questions have to be answered in the first two pages of the answer-booklet. For Part – A
questions, first written-answer will be considered for awarding marks.
3. Answers without relevant diagram / figure / circuit wherever necessary will not carry any marks.
PART – A
I. Pick the correct option among the four given options for ALL of the following questions: 15 × 1 = 15
1. For large distances from a short dipole, the electric field due to it depends on the distance
from it as:
1 1
(A) (B)
(distance)2 (distance)3
(C) (distance)3 (D) (distance)2
s
2. Which one of the following is the unit of capacitance?te
(A) farad (F) (B) coulomb (C)
(C) volt (V) (D) tesla (T)
3. An example for polar molecule is:
No
(A) Oxygen (O2) molecule (B) Nitrogen (N2) molecule

(C) Hydrogen (H2) molecule (D) Water (H2O) molecule
4. The resistance of a carbon resistor is 12 × 10 5 ± 10% Ω. The colour of the first band of the
S
resistor is:
(A) Green (B) Black
(C) Brown (D) Silver
P
5. Force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field is maximum when the angle
between the velocity of the charge and the magnetic field is:
(A) 180° (B) 90°
(C) 45° (D) 0°
6. Identify the wrong statement among the following options about magnetic field lines:
(A) They form closed loops.
(B) The tangent drawn to the magnetic field line at any point gives the direction of
magnetic field at that point.
(C) They can intersect each other.
(D) Outside a magnet, they go from north pole to the south pole.
7. The law which gives the polarity of induced emf in electromagnetic induction is:
(A) Gauss’s law in magnetism (B) Ampere’s circuital law
(C) Faraday’s law (D) Lenz’s law
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8. The principle behind the working of AC generator is:
(A) Electromagnetic induction (B) Eddy currents
(C) Hysteresis (D) Torque on a current loop
9. In the case of alternating voltage applied to a resistor:
(A) the current leads the voltage by a phase angle of π/2
(B) the current lags behind the voltage by a phase angle of π/2
(C) the current and the voltage are in phase
(D) the current leads the voltage by a phase angle of π/4
10. Displacement current arises due to:
(A) time varying electric flux (B) constant electric flux
(C) change in magnetic flux (D) constant magnetic flux
11. In case of total internal reflection:
(A) light ray must be travelling from rarer medium to denser medium.
s
(B) light ray must be travelling from denser medium to rarer medium.
(C) the angle of incidence must be less than the critical angle.
te
(D) angle of refraction is 0° when the angle of incidence is equal to critical angle.
12. The phenomena of bending of light at the corners of an obstacle is called:
No
(A) refraction (B) polarization

(C) interference (D) diffraction
13. Davisson – Germer experiment proved:
S
(A) wave nature of electrons (B) particle nature of electrons

(C) wave nature of light (D) particle nature of light
14. Among the following, which set of nuclei are isotopes?
P
(A) 146𝐶 and 147𝑁 (B) 32𝐻𝑒 and 31𝐻

(C) 235 238
92𝑈 and 92𝑈 (D) 28 73
14𝑆𝑖 and 32𝐺𝑒
15. For an AND gate, which set of inputs A and B give a high output Y = 1?
(A) A = 0, B = 0 (B) A = 0, B = 1
(C) A = 1, B = 0 (D) A = 1, B = 1
II. Fill in the blanks by choosing appropriate answer given in the brackets for ALL the
following questions: 5×1=5
(Wavelength, Zener diodes, Coulomb’s law, Activity, Temperature)
16. Force between two point charges in vacuum is given by _______________.

17. The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to its
______________________.
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164
18. Resolving power of a microscope can be increased by decreasing the _____________ used.
19. SI unit of ___________________ is becquerel (Bq).
20. _____________________ are used as voltage regulators.
PART – B

21. What are the factors on which capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends?
22. Draw a neat labelled diagram of cyclotron.
23. State and explain Gauss’s law in magnetism.
24. What are eddy currents? Mention one of its uses.
25. List any two sources of energy loss in a transformer.
26. Mention any two uses of microwaves.
27. What is a wavefront? What is the shape of wavefront from a point source?
28. Give de Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s angular momentum quantisation postulate.
s
29. Write any two properties of nuclear forces. te
PART – C

No
30. Mention three basic properties of charges.

31. Derive the expression for drift velocity in terms of electric field and relaxation time.
32. With a circuit diagram, explain how a galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter?
S
33. Define the terms (i) Declination (ii) inclination and (iii) horizontal component of earth’s
magnetic field.
P
34. Derive an expression for motional emf induced in a rod moving in a magnetic field.
35. Draw ray diagram for the formation of image by a compound microscope. Write the
expression for magnification produced by the microscope for image formed at infinity.
36. Arrive at the expression for radius of nth orbit of electron in a hydrogen atom.
14
37. Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of 7𝑁 . Given: The rest masses of nitrogen
nucleus, proton and neutron are 14.00307 u, 1.00783 u and 1.00867 u respectively.
38. Write any three differences between p – type and n – type semiconductors.
PART – D
39. Derive the expression for the electric field at a point outside a uniformly charged spherical
shell. What is the value of the electric field inside the shell?
40. Obtain the condition for balance of a Wheatstone’s network using Kirchhoff’s laws.
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165
41. Arrive at the expression for the force per unit length between two infinitely long straight
parallel current carrying conductors. Hence define ampere.
42. Derive Lens maker’s formula.
43. (i) Define threshold frequency for photoelectric emission. (1)
(ii) Write any two experimental observations of photoelectric effect. (2)
(iii) Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain the terms. (2)
44. (i) What is rectification? (1)
(ii) Write the circuit diagram and input – output waveforms for a full wave rectifier. (2)
(iii) Explain the working of a full wave rectifier. (2)
45. ABCD is a square of side 2 m. Point charges of 50 μC, 100 μC and – 50 μC are placed at
corners A, B, C respectively. Calculate the work done in transferring a charge of 0.5 nC
s
from D to the point of intersection of diagonals.te
46. Two resistors of resistance 12 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel with a 12 V, 1 Ω cell.
(a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the combination of resistors.
No
(b) Obtain the current through the cell.
(c) Find the terminal potential difference across the cell.
47. A series LCR ac circuit has a pure inductor of inductance 5.0 H, a capacitor of capacitance
S
20 μF and a resistor of resistance 40 Ω. Find

(a) the frequency of the alternating voltage that drives the circuit into resonance.
(b) Sharpness of resonance and
P
(c) Bandwidth of resonance.

48. In Young’s double slit experiment, the distance of the screen from the double-slit is 2 m.
When light of wavelength 550 nm is incident on the double-slit arrangement, fringes of
width 2 mm are obtained on the screen. Determine the distance of separation between the
slits. Also find the fringe width when the source of light is replaced by a source of light of
wavelength 440 nm.
***********************
PRADEEP & SUNIL

166
GOVERNMENT OF KARNATAKA
KARNATAKA SCHOOL EXAMINATION AND ASSESSMENT BOARD
II PUC ANNUAL EXAMINATION : MARCH – 2023
Subject code: 33 SCHEME OF EVALUATION Subject: PHYSICS
2. Answers without relevant diagram / figure / circuit wherever necessary will not carry any marks.
PART – A
I. Pick the correct option among the four given options for ALL of the following
questions: 15 × 1 = 15
1. Physical quantity measured in terms of "coulomb" is
a) electric charge b) electric current c) electric flux d) electric field
Ans a) electric charge 1
2. The electric field inside the cavity of a charged conductor is zero, this is known as
s
a) charging b) grounding c) electrostatic shielding d) electrostatic induction
Ans c) electrostatic shielding te 1
3. An example for polar molecule is:
a) oxygen molecule b) nitrogen molecule c) water molecule d) hydrogen molecule
Ans c) water molecule 1
No
4. The magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field is :
a) mobility b) drift velocity c) relaxation time d) resistivity
Ans a) mobility 1
5. The device used to accelerate charged particle is
a) electroscope b) cyclotron c) galvanometer d) ammeter
S
Ans b) cyclotron 1
6. The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero is in accordance with
a) Gauss's law in magnetism b) Gauss's law in electrostatics
P
c) Ampere's circuital law d) Biot-Savart's law

Ans a) Gauss's law in magnetism 1
7. S.I. unit of mutual inductance of pair of coils is:
a) henry b) ohm c) farad d) ohm-metre
Ans a) henry 1
8. If the number of turns of a solenoid is doubled, the self inductance of the solenoid will
a) remains unchanged b) be doubled c) be halved d) becomes four times
Ans d) becomes four times 1
9. The relation between peak value of current (im) and rms value of current (I) is
𝒊𝒎 𝒊𝒎
a) 𝐼 = b) 𝐼 = 𝒊𝒎 𝟐 c) 𝐼 = 𝟐 𝒊𝒎 d) 𝐼 =
𝟐 𝟐
Ans 𝒊𝒎 1
a) 𝑰 =
𝟐
10. The ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies between
a) X-ray region and visible region b) Microwave region and radio-wave region
c) -rays region and X-rays region d) Visible region and microwave region
Ans a) X-ray region and visible region 1
PRADEEP & SUNIL
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11. Snell's law of refraction invalid at an angle of incidence(i) is
a) i = 300 b) i = 60o c) i = 0o d) i = 90o
Ans c) i = 0o 1
12. When a point source of light is placed at the principal focus of a thin convex lens, the shape
of the emergent wave front is
a) Spherical convergent wave front b) Spherical divergent wave front
c) Plane wave front d) Cylindrical wave front
Ans c) Plane wave front 1
13. C.J. Davisson – L.H. Germer experiment proved:
a) wave nature of electrons b) particle nature of electrons
c) wave nature of light d) particle nature of light
Ans a) wave nature of electrons 1
14. Function of moderator in a nuclear reactor is
a) to slow down fast neutrons b) to absorb the neutrons
c) to reduce heat energy d) to control the chain reaction
Ans a) to slow down fast neutrons 1
15. Energy gap (Eg) between the valence band and the conduction band for conductor is
a) Eg = 0 b) Eg < 3eV c) Eg > 3eV d) Eg = 3eV
s
Ans a) Eg = 0 1
II. Fill in the blanks by choosing appropriate answer given in the brackets for ALL
te
the following questions: 5×1=5
(Curie temperature, electric dipole, transverse, isotopes, zener diode)
No
16. A pair of equal and opposite point charges q and -q separated by a distance 2a is an ____________.
Ans electric dipole 1
17. Temperature of transition from ferromagnetism to paramagnetism is called ___________.
Ans Curie temperature 1
18. Phenomenon of polarisation proves the ___________ nature of light waves.
S
Ans transverse 1
19. Nuclei having same atomic number and different mass number are called ____________.
Ans isotopes 1
P
20. ____________ is used as voltage regulator.

Ans Zener diode 1
PART – B
21. On what factors does the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depend?
Ans (i) Area of plate (ii) distance between the plates (iii) dielectric constant or dielectric medium 1
between the plates (Any two, one mark each) 1
22. State and explain Ampere’s circuital law.
Ans Statement: The line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop is equal to 𝜇0 times the 1
current enclosed by the loop.
Explanation: 𝐁. 𝐝𝐥 = 𝜇0I ; B – Magnetic field, dl – line element/elemental length and I – current 1
23. Define magnetic dip and declination at a place.
Ans Magnetic dip: The angle between earth’s magnetic field and the horizontal in the magnetic 1
meridian at a place.
Declination: The angle between the magnetic meridian and geographic meridian at a place. OR 1
Declination is the angle between PRADEEP
the true geographic north and the north shown by a compass needle.
& SUNIL
168
24. What are eddy current? Mention any one use of it.
Ans When bulk pieces of conductors/metals are subjected to changing magnetic flux/field, induced
currents are produced in them. These currents are called eddy currents. 1
Uses: Magnetic braking in trains, electromagnetic damping, Induction furnace, electric power
1
meters, speedometer of vehicles, dead beat galvanometer (any one)
25. Write two sources of energy loss in a transformer.
Ans  Flux leakage/ Magnetic loss. 1
 Resistance of the windings/coils OR Copper loss. 1
 Eddy currents loss.
 Hysteresis loss. (any two)
26. What is displacement current? Give the expression for it.
Ans The current due to time varying electric flux (or field) is called displacement current. 1
dϕ E dϕ E dϕ E 1
Displacement current = ε0 OR id = ε0 OR Id = ε0
dt dt dt
27. Mention the expression for limit of resolution of a telescope and explain the terms.
0.61 λ 1.22 λ 1.22 λ 1
Ans Limit of resolution (θ or dθ) = OR θ = OR θ =
a 2a D
s
where  the wavelength of light and 2a or D is the diameter of the objective. 1
te
a is the radius of the aperture of objective.
28. Name the spectral series of hydrogen atom lies in
a) ultraviolet region and b) visible region of electromagnetic spectrum.
No
Ans a) Ultraviolet region : Lyman series 1
b) Visible region : Balmer series 1
29. Give any two differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Ans Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
 The process in which heavy nucleus splits  The process in which two lighter nuclei 1
S
into two nuclei of comparable masses with combine to form a single nucleus with the
release of energy is known as fission. release of energy is known as fusion. 1
 Fission can take place at room temperature.  Fusion takes place only at high temperature.
P
 Energy released per nucleon (or per unit Energy released per nucleon (or per unit
mass) of the reactant is less. mass) of the reactant is more.
 Energy released per reaction is more.  Energy released per reaction is less.
 Can be controlled.  Cannot be controlled.
(any two OR any other correct difference)
PART – C
30. Write any three properties of electric field lines.

Ans  Electric field lines start from positive charge and end at negative charge. 1
For a single charge, they may start or end at infinity.
 In a charge-free region, electric field lines are continuous curves without any break. 1
 Two field lines can never cross each other (never intersect each other). 1
 A tangent drawn to a field line at any point gives the direction of electric field at that point.
 Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. (any three)
PRADEEP & SUNIL

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31. Draw a labelled Wheatstone's bridge and hence write the balancing condition in
terms of resistances.
Circuit diagram 1
Ans
Labelling the four resistors and galvanometer 1
Balancing condition: 1
R2 R4 R 2 R1 R1 R 3 1
 OR  OR 
R1 R 3 R 4 R3 R2 R4
Note: Any other symbols used for resistors like P, Q, R, S

and any other order should also be considered and
balancing condition should be in accordance with the
resistors shown in the circuit.
32. How would you convert a galvanometer into an ammeter? Explain.
s
A galvanometer can be converted into a ammeter by
Ans 1
connecting a low resistance in parallel with it.
te
Diagram OR expression 1
RG – resistance of galvanometer G.
No
rs – shunt resistance in parallel with the galvanometer. 1
OR
R G rs
OR The resistance of the arrangement =
R G + rs 1
S
IG R G Ig G
OR Shunt resistance: rs = OR S=
I  IG I  Ig
P
33. Write three differences between diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials.

Ans Diamagnetic substances Paramagnetic substances
1 These are repelled by a magnet. These are attracted by a magnet. 1
2 The magnetic susceptibility is negative, χ < 0 The magnetic susceptibility is positive, χ > 0 1
3 The susceptibility (or permeability or The susceptibility (or permeability or
magnetisation) does not depend on the magnetisation) depends on the temperature.
1
temperature.
OR They do not obey Curie’s law OR They obey Curie’s law.
4 Magnetic field lines are expelled out, when the Magnetic field lines enter inside when the
diamagnetic substance is placed in an external diamagnetic substance placed in an external
magnetic field. magnetic field.
5 Relative permeability is less than one, μr < 1 Relative permeability is more than one, μr > 1.
(any three of these OR any other correct difference)
PRADEEP & SUNIL
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34. Derive an expression for motional e.m.f induced in a conductor moving
perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field.
Ans Labelled diagram (current not necessary in figure) 1
Magnetic flux enclosed by the loop PQRS is
B =BAcos0 = Blx 1
dB
Induced emf ε = 
dt
d dx
ε=  B l x   B l = B l v 1
dt dt
(because –dx/dt = v)
35. Arrive the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a spherical concave mirror.
Ans Labelled diagram with arrows 1
∠MCP = θ and ∠MFP = 2θ.
MD MD
tan θ = and tan 2θ = .
CD FD
For small angle θ, tanθ  θ and tan2θ  2θ.

MD MD MD CD 1
∴ 2θ = , 2 CD =  FD =
s
FD FD 2
For small θ , the point D is very close to the point P.

te
Therefore, FD = – f and CD = – R
𝐑
Focal length: f = 𝟐 1
36. Give the three postulates of Bohr's atomic model.
No
Ans  Bohr’s first postulate: An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the
emission of radiant energy. 1
 Bohr’s second postulate: An electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for
which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π, where h is the Planck’s constant. 1
 Bohr’s third postulate: An electron might make a transition from one of its specified non-
S
radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy
equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states. 1
37. Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of helium nucleus (2He4 ) using the
P
following data in MeV. Mass of proton 1.00727 u, Mass of neutron = 1.00866 u and
Mass of helium nucleus = 4.00260 u.
Ans Mass defect: Δ𝑚 = [𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴−𝑍) 𝑚𝑛] – M 1
Δ𝑚 = 2(1.00727) + (4 –2)(1.00866) − 4.00260 = 0.02926 𝑢 1
Binding energy : Eb = Δ𝑚×931.5 MeV = 0.02926×931.5 = 27.26 MeV OR 27 MeV 1
Note: Full marks should be awarded for taking 1u  931 MeV or 932 MeV.
38. Write the logical symbol and truth table of NAND gate.
Ans Logical Symbol: Logical Symbol 1
Truth Table: 2
Inputs Output
A B Y  AB
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
Note: For any two correct sets of truth values one mark each.
PRADEEP & SUNIL
171
PART – D
39. State Gauss's law in electrostatics. Derive an expression for the electric field at a
point due to an infinitely long thin charged straight wire using Gauss's law.
Ans 1
Gauss's law: The electric flux through a closed surface is times the charge enclosed by it. 1
ε0
Labelled diagram 1
The electric field is everywhere radial, flux through the two ends of
the cylindrical Gaussian surface is zero.
Let l  length of the cylinder and   linear charge density
The surface area of the curved part of the cylinder is 2πrl .
Magnitude of E is same through the curved surface of the cylinder.
The electric flux  through the Gaussian surface is
 = Electric field × area = E × 2πrl ……………. (1) 1
q
From Gauss’s law, electric flux:  = 1
ε0
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface: q = λl

then the flux:   …..............… (2)
s
ε0
te 
From eq (1) and eq(2) , E × 2πrl 
ε0
λ 1
Thus, the electric field: E =
2πε 0 r
No
ne 2
40. Derive the expression for conductivity of a material: σ = : where the terms have
m
their usual meaning.
Ans Diagram OR Explanation as given below: 1
S
Volume = A(Δx) = A vd (Δt)

Let ‘n’ be the number of free electrons per unit volume
(number density of free electrons) in the material, then
P
there are n vd (Δt)A electrons in this volume.

The electrons drift opposite to the electric field direction.
A  area of cross section and vd  drift velocity.
The amount of charge crossing the area A to the left in time Δt is, I (Δt) = neAvd (Δt)
OR Current: I = neAvd ................... (1) 1
Magnitude of drift velocity of electrons is vd    E
eτ
.................. (2)
m 1
e  magnitude of electron charge. τ  relaxation time.
E  electric field. m  mass of electron.
eτ  n e2 τ A 
Substituting vd from eq(2) in (1), I = n e A E =  E
m  m 
I  n e2 τ 
Thus, current density: j = =  E …………….(2) 1
A  m 
Also, j   E ……………….…….(3)
n e2 τ 1
Thus, from eq(2) and eq(3), conductivity: σ =
m
PRADEEP & SUNIL
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41. Obtain the expression for the force between two straight long parallel conductors
carrying current. Hence define "ampere".
Ans Labelled diagram 1
(Fab and Bb are not necessary in the figure)
The magnetic field at the location of ‘b’ produced
μ 0 Ia
by the conductor ‘a’ is, Ba  …........(1) 1
2πd
The magnetic force on a segment L of the

conductor ‘b’ due to ‘a’ is Fba= Ba Ib L sinθ 1
μ 0 Ia I b L
θ = 90o and using equn(1), Fba  . 1
2πd
This force Fba is towards conductor ‘a’.
Similarly, we can find the magnetic force Fab on a
segment L of the conductor ‘a’ due to ‘b’.
The force Fab is equal in magnitude to Fba, and
 
directed towards ‘b’ OR Fba   Fab
s
Definition of ampere: One ampere is that steady current which, when maintained in each of the two
te
very long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross-section and placed one metre apart in
vacuum (free space/air), would produce a force of 2×10–7 newton per metre length on each other. 1
No
(Note: Any other equivalent correct definition with necessary key terms should be considered)
42. Arrive at the expression for refractive index of the material of the prism in terms of
angle of minimum deviation and angle of the prism.
Ans Labelled ray diagram. 1
S
In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the angles (at the

vertices Q and R) are right angles. Therefore, the
sum of the other angles of the quadrilateral is 180o.
P
∠A + ∠QNR = 180o
In the QNR,
r1 + r2 + ∠QNR = 180o
Comparing the above two equations,
A = r1 + r2 ....................(1) 1
The total deviation (δ) is the sum of the deviations at the two faces,
δ = (i – r1 ) + (e – r2 ) ; (Using A = r1 + r2)
 δ = i + e – A .................(2) 1
At the minimum deviation position, δ = Dm, i = e and r1 = r2.
Eq(1) becomes A = 2r1  r1 = A/2 and eq(2) becomes Dm = 2i – A or i = (A + Dm)/2. 1
𝐴 +𝐷 𝑚 𝐴 +𝐷 𝑚
n2 sin 𝑖 sin 2
sin 2
From Snell’s law, refractive index: n21 = = = 𝐴 OR n = 𝐴 1
n1 sin 𝑟1 sin sin
2 2
PRADEEP & SUNIL
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43. a) What is meant by photo electric effect? (1)
b) Define work function. (1)
c) Write the three experimental observations of photo electric effect. (3)
Ans a) The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when light of suitable
frequency (or wavelength or energy) incident on it, is called as photo-electric effect. 1
b) Work function: The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the metal surface. 1
OR The minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface.
c) Experimental observations of photoelectric effect: (any three)
 Photo-electric effect is instantaneous process. 1
 For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the
incident light (called threshold frequency), below which no photoelectron emission takes place.
1
 For a given material and radiation above the threshold frequency, the photo-current is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light. 1
 Above the threshold frequency, the saturation current is proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
 Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential (or the maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted photoelectrons) increases linearly with the frequency of the incident light.
s
44. a) What is rectification? te (1)
b) Draw the circuit diagram and input-output waveforms of a full wave rectifier. (2)
c) Explain the working of a full wave rectifier. (2)
Ans a) The process of conversion ac into dc is called rectification. 1
No
b) Circuit diagram 1
OR
S
P
Waveform:
1
OR
c) During positive half cycle of AC input the diode D1 is forward biased and conducts, while D2
reverse biased, does not conduct. So the output current flows through RL as shown in the figure. 1
During negative half cycle of AC input D2 is forward biased and conducts while D1 is reverse
biased, does not conduct. Again the current flows through RL as shown in the figure. 1
Thus there is current flow through RL over the complete cycle of AC input in the same direction.
PRADEEP & SUNIL
174
45. Charges 2C, 4C and 6C are placed at the three corners A, B and C respectively
of a square ABCD of side X metre. Find the charge that must be placed at the
fourth corner so that the total potential at the centre of the square is zero.
Ans
Figure OR Explanation 1
Distance of centre (O) from each corner: AO=BO=CO=DO

Let q1 , q2 , q3 , q4 be the point charges at four corners A, B, C
and D respectively. The total potential at the centre due to the
configuration four charges is zero. V = 0
1 q
Formula: Electric potential V =
4πε 0 r
1
1  q1 q q q 
OR Total potential V=   2  3  4 0
4πε 0  AO BO CO DO 
s
 q1  q 2  q3  q 4  te 1
  0  q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 = 0
 AO 
q 4    q1  q 2  q3   (2  4  6)μC
1
No
1
q 4  12μC
Thus a charge of ‘–12C’ must be placed at fourth corner D to have zero potential at the centre.
Note: Any other correct detailed method/solution should also be given full marks.
S
46. Three resistors 2 , 3  and 6  are combined in parallel. What is the total
resistance of the combination? The combination is connected to a battery of emf
P
2V and negligible internal resistance. Determine the current through each

resistor and total current drawn from the battery.
Given R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 3Ω , R3 = 6Ω, emf: ε = 2 V, r  0, RP = ?, I1 = ?, I2 = ?, I3 =?, I = ?,
Ans
As Internal resistance is negligible, r  0 then terminal p.d. : V  ε = 2 V
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Total (effective) resistance RP is given by, = +  = + 
R P R1 R 2 R3 2 3 6
Total resistance of the combination: Rp = 1  1
Current through R1 is I1 = ε / R1 = 2/2 = 1 A OR I1 =V/R1 = 2/2 = 1 A 1
Current through R2 is I2 = ε / R2 = 2/3 A OR I2 =V/R2 = 2/3 A 1
Current through R3 is I3 = ε / R3 = 2/6 = 1/3 A OR I3 =V/R3 = = 1/3 A 1
Total current drawn from the battery is I = 1 + 2/3 + 1/3 = 2 A 1
 2
OR Total current drawn from the battery is I =  2A
RP  r 1 0
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175
47. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a
series LCR circuit in which R = 3 , L = 25.48 mH and C = 796 F.
Calculate: a) impedance of the circuit
b) the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current.
Ans Given, Peak voltage : vm = 283V, R = 3 , L = 25.48 mH, C = 796 F, Z = ? ,  = ?
3
a) XL  2L  2  3.14  50  25.48 10  8 
1
1 1
XC    4
2C 2  3.14  50  796  106
Impedance: Z  R 2  (XC  XL )2 1
Z  9   4  8  9  16  5  1
2
XC  X L  X  XL 
b) tan = OR  = tan 1  C  1
R  R 
 48 1  4 
 = tan  1.3333  53
1
Phase difference :   tan 1 
  tan 
1 o
 3   3 
R R  3
Alternatively, cos      cos 1    cos 1    53o
s
Z Z 5 te
Note : Full marks should be awarded for taking Z  R 2  (X L  XC )2 & getting Z=5 
 X  XC  4
and also for taking  = tan 1  L  = tan 1    53o
  3
No
R
48. Two narrow slits in Young's double slit experiment are 0.18 mm apart. When they
are illuminated by a monochromatic light, fringes of width 2.7 mm are obtained on
a screen 0.8m away. Find the wavelength of light used. If the source is replaced by
another source of wavelength 450nm, find the change in the fringe width.
S
Ans Given d = 0.18 mm = 0.18  10–3 m,  = 2.7 mm = 2.7  10–3 m, D = 0.8 m

D d
Fringe width :   OR  1
P
d D
2.7  103  0.18  103 1

0.8
1
Wavelength of light:   0.6075  10 6 m OR 607.5 nm
450  109  0.8
New fringe width : '  3
 2000  106 m  2mm 1
0.18  10
Change in fringe width:  =   ' = 2.7 mm  2mm = 0.7 mm 1
OR change in fringe width  = '   = 2 mm  2.7 mm =  0.7 mm is also considered.
If the change in fringe width is calculated directly without ' calculation,
then also full marks should be awarded as follows.
(607.5  109  450  109 )  0.8
  (1 M)
0.18  103
  700  106 m OR 0.7 mm (1 M)
Note: Any other alternate correct method/answer should be considered.
PRADEEP & SUNIL
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DEPARTMENT OF PRE-UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
II PUC SUPPLEMENTARY EXAMINATION, AUGUST-2022
SCHEME OF EVALUATION - PHYSICS (33)
Qn Question and Answer Marks
I Answer any ten of the following questions : (10 x 1 = 10)
1 Mention one method of charging a body.
1. By friction 1
2. By conduction
3. By induction
(Any one method)
2 How does the electrostatic force between two Point charges change, when a dielectric is
introduced in between them?
Electrostatic force between two point charges is inversely proportional to the dielectric 1
of the medium. OR
Force decreases.
3 Write the colour code for a resistor of resistance 45 ± 10% .
es
Yellow – Green – Black – Silver 1
4 Define electron mobility.
| | 1
Magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field ie μ = =
t
5 A charged particle enters a magnetic field in the direction of it. What is the nature of the
No
path traced by it?
The path of the particle is a straight line 1
6 State Curie law.
The magnetization of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the absolute 1
temperature T. OR Xm ∝
S
7 Mention any one use of an electromagnet.

Electric bells, loud speakers, cranes and telephone diaphragms. 1
P
(Any one)
8 What is motional emf?
The emf induced across the ends of a conductor due to its motion in a plane ⊥r to the 1
uniform magnetic field. OR
The induced emf E = Blv is called motional emf.
9 Who predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves?
Existence of electromagnetic waves were predicted by James Clerk Maxwell. 1
10 Give the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a spherical concave
mirror.
f= OR 1
Focal length = x Radius of curvature.

11 Why sky appears blue?
Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by the earth atmosphere. 1
DPUE/IIPUC/SUPPL. EXAM, AUGUST 22/PHYSICS (33)/SV Page 1
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177
OR
I∝
Hence light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue) are scattered much more than light of
longer wavelengths (Red, orange) in fact, violet get scattered more than blue having a
shorter wavelength. But our eyes are more sensitive to blue than violet. So that we see
the sky as blue.
12 For which angle of incidence reflected ray is completely polarised?
Polarising angle or Brewester’s angle of incidence. 1
13 Write the formula for Malus law.
I = I0 cos2θ or I ∝ cos2θ 1
OR
Intensity of the emergent light from the analyser Varies as the square of the cosine of
the angle between the plane of transmission (pass axis) of the analyser and the polarizer.
14 Define impact parameter.
It is defined as the ⊥r distance of the velocity vector of an α. Particle from the centre of 1
the nucleus, when it is far away from the atom.
15 Mention the SI unit of activity of radioactivity.
es
Becquerel (Bq) 1
Part – B
II Answer any five of the following questions : (5 x 2 = 10)
t
16 Draw equipotential surface for
No
a) positive point charge.
b) uniform electric field.
a) 1
S
P
b)
1
17 State and explain Ohm's law.

Statement: The electric current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to 1
the pd across its ends provided the temperature and other physical condition remains
constant.
Explanation: V ∝ I, OR I ∝ V, V = RI Where V → p.d, I → current through a conductor.
The constant of proportionality R is called resistance of the conductor. 1
18 Mention any two factors on which self inductance of a coil depends.
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Number of turns/unit length (n) 1+1
length of solenoid (l)
Area
geometry and on the permeability of the medium
(Any two factors)
19 If the peak value of alternating current is 4.24A, what is the root mean square value?
Irms = 1
√
Irms = 4.24/1.414 = 2.998A 1
20 What is transformer? On which principle it works?
It is a device to vary (Increase or decrease) AC voltages and hence currents. 1
Mutual induction. 1
21 Define power of a lens. How does the power of a lens vary with its focal length?
It is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a parallel beam
of light parallel to the principal axis. OR
Reciprocal of focal length expressed in metre ie P = 1
Inversely OR P ∝ 1
es
22 Mention the expression for limit of resolution of a telescope and explain the terms.
. . 1
△θ = =
λ → Wavelength of light
t
1
2a → diameter of the objective
No
23 Write the expression for de-Broglie wavelength of a charged particle and explain the
terms.
λ= = 1
√
m → electron mass
S
e → electron charge
v → accelerating potential 1
24 What are isobars? Give example.
P
Nuclides with same mass number A but different atomic number Z 1

3 3 40 40
H, He, Ar, Ca (Any one example) 1
1 2 18 20
25 Write the logic symbol of AND gate and write its truth table.
Truth table -
Input Output
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1
1 1 1
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Part – C
III Answer any five of the following questions: (5 x 3 = 15)
26 Obtain the relation between electric field and electric potential.
A and B are two equipotential surface with potential difference V and δ is the ⊥r
distance between them. Let E⃗ is the electric field normal to the surface work done to 1
move unit positive charge from B to A
dw = q(VA-VB) = 1[V-(V+ δV)] = −δV
But dw = Eδl
Eδ = −δV ∴ E = 1
27 Derive the expression for current in terms of drift velocity.
t es
No
Consider a metallic conductor through which current I is flowing

l → length of the conductor
A → area of cross section of the conductor
n → free electron density
S
e → charge on the free electron

E → electric field setup in the conductor
Vd → drift velocity of free electron
P
The total charge in the conductor Q = (nAl) e ----(1) 1

The time taken by the charge to travel the length of the conductor t = ----(2) 1
By the defn I = ----(3)
From equations (1) and (2) in equation (3)
I= = nAeVd
1
28 Explain with a circuit diagram how a galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter.
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A galvanometer can be converted in to a voltmeter by connecting high resistance in
series with it p.d across AB V = (R+G) Ig 1
Arriving R = −G 1
29 Define the terms a) declination b) Inclination or dip and c) horizontal component of
earth's magnetic field at the given place.
The angle between magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian or The angle 1
between true geographic north and the north shown by a compass needle.
Angle made by the total magnetic field by the earth (BE) with the horizontal (Surface of 1
the earth) in the magnetic meridian is called inclination or dip.
The component of earth’s magnetic field (BE) at a place along the horizontal direction in
the magnetic meridian. 1
30 What is hysteresis? Draw hysteresis curve for a ferromagnetic material.
Lagging of magnetic field B behind the magnetic intensity H in a ferromagnetic substance 1
during cycle of magnetisation.
es
t 2
No
(direction necessary)
x – axis H
S
y – axis B
otherwise deduct one mark.
31 What is displacement current? Write the expression for displacement current and
P
explain the terms.

The current due to changing electric field (or electric flux) with time is called 1
displacement current.
 1
Id = ∈0
 → electric flux through surface
∈0 → obsolute permittivity 1
32 Mention any three uses of optical fibres.
1. In telecommunication
2. For transmitting optical signals
3. In endoscopy
4. For measuring blood flow in hearts (photometric sensors)
5. To measure refractive index of liquids (refractometers)
(Any three uses) 1+1+1
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33 Using Huygens principle, show that angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
Showing DC = AB = Vt 1
∠ADC = ∠ABC and DC = AB
This ∆ ADC is congruent to ABC
∴ ∠DAC = ∠BCA ∴ ∠i = ∠r 1
(No diagram zero mark. Arrow mark not necessary)
34 Give any three differences between p-type and n-type semiconductors.
p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor
1. Semiconductor doped with trivalent 1. Semiconductor doped with
impurity pentavalent impurity
es
2. Holes are majority carriers 2. Electrons are majority carriers
3. Electrons are minority carriers 3. Holes are minority carriers
4. Impurity atom is called acceptor 4. Impurity atom is called donor
t
impurity impurity
5. Conductivity is relatively less 5. Conductivity is relatively more
No
(Any three differences) 1+1+1
35 Explain the working of p-n junction diode in forward bias.
S
1
P
Explanation: When external p.d is applied, holes in the p-region are repelled by the +ve
terminal of the battery and electrons in the n-region are repelled by the negative
terminal. Thus width of depletion region decreases. If applied p.d is greater than junction
p.d the holes and the electrons are acquires energy and cross the junction easily from
either side. Due to this large current flows, and offers small resistance. 2
Part – D
IV Answer any two of the following questions: (2 x 5 = 10)
36 State Gauss' law in electrostatics. Derive the expression for electric field at a point due to
an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire using Gauss' law.
Statement of Gauss law – The total electric flux through any closed surface in free space
is equal to ∈ times the algebraic sum of the charges enclosed by the surface. 1
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182
1
 = E x s = E x 2πrl
q = λl,  = ∈ = ∈ 1
1
Equating E x 2πrl = ∈
And final expression E = = 1

∈ ∈
37 Using Kirchhoff's laws, arrive the balancing condition of the Wheatstone's network.
t es
No
1
S
P
I = I1 + I2 1
Ig = 0 1
KVR to loop ABDA I1 R1 + Ig G – I3 R3 = 0 1
KVR to loop BCDB I3 R2 – I4 R4 – Ig G = 0
Showing I1 R1 = I3 R3
I3 R2 – I4 R4 1
And obtaining =
(No direction deduct 1m, No figure 0 mark)
38 Derive an expression for the force between two straight parallel conductors carrying
currents. Hence define ampere.
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183
1
B1 = 1
1
F2 = I2 lB1 (θ = 90o, sin90o = 1)
Substituting F2 =
F2 = 1
(force/unit length)
Defn. of ampere: Steady current which when flowing through each of two infinitely long
es
straight parallel conductors placed in vacuum at a distance of 1m apart produces force
both them equal to 2xco-7 N/m length. 1
39 Derive an expression for the alternating emf when a coil is rotating in a uniform magnetic
t
field.
No
1
S
P
B = BAcosθ = BAcoswt 1

E = -N = + NBAwsinwt 1
E0 = NABw 1
Arriving E = E0sinwt 1
V Answer any two of the following questions: (2 x 5 = 10)
40 Show that the voltage leads current by π/2 in an AC circuit containing pure inductor.
V = Vm sin wt 1
Applying KVR to the loop
Vmsinwt - =0
di = sinwtdt 1
Instantaneous current by integration ∫ =∫
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184
= (-coswt) 1
Arriving i = lm sin (wt-π/2) 1
41 Derive an expression for equivalent focal length of two thin lenses in contact.
Refraction at L1 − =
t es 1
No
Refraction at L2 − = 1
Adding equations (1) and (2)

− = +
S
Writing − = 1
Arriving − + 1
42 Using radioactive decay law, derive N = N0e-λt for a radioactive element where the
P
symbols have their usual meaning.

Decay law =−
1
=−
Integrating ∫ =− ∫
logeN = -λ t + c
At t = 0 N = N0 1
logeN0 = C 1
Simplification
Arriving final expression 1
N = N0e-λt 1
43 What is rectification? With relevant circuit diagram and waveforms, explain the working
of p-n junction diode as a half wave rectifier?
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The process of conversion of AC in to DC is called rectification 1
During +ve half cycle of AC input A is +ve w.r.t.B the diode D is formed biased and it 1
conducts. The output appears across RL
During the –ve half cycle of AC input A is –ve w.r.t.B diode D is reverse biased and it does
not conducts. Hence no output voltage appears across RL
The diode conducts only +ve half cycles of AC and hence its acts as a half wave rectifier 1
t es 1
No
VI Answer any three of the following questions: (3 x 5 = 15)

44 Two point charges qA = 3μC and qB = -3μC are located 20 cm apart in vacuum.
S
a) What is the electric field at the midpoint 'O' of the line AB joining the two charges?
b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 nc is placed at the point, what is the force
experienced by the test charge?
Given, qA = 3μC = 3x10-6C qB = -3μC = -3x10-6C
P
← → ⃗← →
In fig. AB = 20cm = 0.2m
20cm r = OA = OB = 10cm = 0.1m
E= 1
(a) EA = = = 2.7x106 N/C along AO 1

( . )
EB = = ( . )
= 2.7x106 N/C along OB 1
Resultant electric field at O = EA + EB

= 2.7x106+2.7x106
= 5.4x106N/C along AB 1
(b) q = 1.5x10-6C
F = qE = 1.5x10-9x5.4x106=8.1x10-3N along BA 1
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45 In a parallel plate capacitor, the area of each plate is 6 x 10-3 m2 and the distance
between the plates is 3mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is
connected to 100 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the capacitor?
Given: ∈0 = 8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1
Given, A = 6x10-3m2 d = 3x10-3m V = 100V
∈0 = 8.854x10-12 F/m
C = ∈0 A/d 1
. -12
C= = 17.71 x 10 F = 17.71 pF 1
Q = CV 1
Q = 17.71 x 10-12 x 102 = 17.71 x 10-10C
= 1.771 nC 2
46 Two cells of emf 2v and 4v and internal resistance I and 2 respectively are connected
in parallel so as to send the current in the same direction through an external resistance
of 10. Find the potential difference across 10 resistor.
t es
No
To the loop ABEFA

(I1+I2)x10+I1 = 2
11I1 + 10I2 = 2 -----------(1) 1
To the loop BCDEB
S
(I1+I2)x10+2I2 = 4
10I1+12I2 = 4
5I1+6I2 = 2 -----------(2) 1
P
from (1) and (2)

multiplying equation 1 x 5 and equation 2 x 11 and solving I2 = 0.75 A
1
using equation (1) I1 = -0.5 A
V = IR = (I1+I2) x R 1
Arriving V = 2.5 V 1
OR
r = Eeq = or = + 1
Eeq = = = V = 2.67 V 1
req =
= =  = 0.67 
1
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187
/ 1
I= = = 0.25 A
/
V = IR = 0.25 x 10 = 2.5 V 1
47 A 100 turn closely wound circular coil of radius 10 cm carries a current of 3.2A.
a) What is the magnetic field at the centre of the coil?
b) What is the magnetic moment of this coil?
N = 100 I = 3.2A R = 0.1m
(a) B = = 1
. 1
B= = 2 x 10-3 T
(b) m = NIA = NIπr2 1
= 102 x 3.2 x 3.14 x 10-2 2
= 10 Am2
48 In Young's double slit experiment, fringes Of certain width are produced on the screen
kept at a certain distance from the slits. When the screen is moved away from the slits by
0.1m, fringe width increases by 6 x 10-5m. The separation between the slits is 1mm,
calculate the wavelength of light used.
es
d = 1 x 10-3m, D1 = (D + 0.1), (β1 = (β + 6 x 10-5)
β= ---------(1) 1
1
t
β1 = ---------(2)
Dividing equation (2) by (1)
No
.
= = 1
.
=
-4
Β = 6 x 10 D
1
S
Using equation (1)
6 x 10-4 D =
1
P
λ = 6 x 10-7 m
49 Light of frequency 7.21 x 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons with a
maximum speed of 6 x 105 ms-1 are ejected from the surface. What is the threshold
frequency for photo emission of electrons? Also find the work function of the metal in
electron volt (ev).
Given: Planck's constant h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js.
Mass of electron me = 9.1 x 10-31 Kg.
= 7.2 x 1014 Hz
v = 6 x 105ms-1
h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js
me = 9.1 x 10 -31 kg
E = h = 6.625 x 10-34 x 7.21 x 1014
= 47.76 x 10-20 J
= 4.776 x 10-19 J 1
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188
Maximum KE = me v2
= x 9.1 x 10-31 x (6 x 105)2
= x 9.1 x 10-31 x 36 x 1010
.
=
= 163.8 x 10-21 J OR 1.638 x 10-19 J 1
OR
W = hv – (K.E)max = (4.776 – 1.638) x 10-19
= 3.138 x 10-19 J 1
h 0 = 3.138 x 10-19 J
.
0 =
.
= 0.4736 x 1015 Hz
= 4.736 x 1014 Hz 1
.
W=
.
= 1.9612 eV 1
es
50 The first member of the Balmer series of hydrogen atom has wavelength of 6563Ao.
Calculate the wavelength and frequency of the second member of the same series.
Given, c = 3x108 ms-1.
t
λ1 = 6563 x 10-10 m
C = 3 x 108 ms-1
No
First member of Balmer series n1 = 2 n2 = 3
= − 1
=R − =R -------(1)
S
For second member n1 = 2 n2 = 4

= − = --------(2) 1
Dividing Eqn (1) by Eqn (2)
P
= x =
2
= x 6563
= = = 4861.4Ao
.
1
= 6.171 x 1014 Hz
Note :
1) Any alternative and correct/suitable answer/solution should be considered.
2) For problem section No unit deduct 1m.
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II PUC ANNUAL EXAMINATION, MAY-2022
SCHEME OF EVALUATION - PHYSICS (33 NS)
Qn Question and Answer Marks
Part-A
I Answer any ten of the following questions: (10x1=10)
1 Name the apparatus used to detect electric charge on a body.
Gold leaf electroscope or Electroscope 1
2 Define ‘electric dipole moment’.
It is defined as the product of the magnitude of either charge and the separation (or the 1
distance) between the charges (or dipole length). OR if q is the magnitude of either charge
and 2a is separation between the charges (or dipole length), then dipole moment is
defined as
3 State Ohm’s law.
The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the pd across its ends. OR 1
If I is the current through a conductor and V is the pd across its end, then Ohm’s law states
s
4 The resistance of a carbon resistor with four coloured rings is ( ) . Identify the
colour of fourth ring.
Silver
te 1
5 What is the magnitude of the magnetic force on a charged particle moving anti-parallel to a
No
uniform magnetic field?
Zero 1
6 Define the magnetic declination at a place on the Earth.
The angle between the true geographic north and the north shown by the compass needle. 1
OR the angle between the geographic meridian and the magnetic meridian at that place.
S
7 Mention the significance of Lenz’s law.

Conservation of energy OR It gives the polarity of induced emf OR It gives the direction of 1
induced current. (Any one)
P
8 Write the expression for the natural frequency of oscillations in an LC circuit.

OR 1
√ √
9 Write the relation between the magnitude of the electric and magnetic fields in an
electromagnetic wave.
1
10 Name the type of electromagnetic rays lying between ultraviolet and gamma rays.
X-rays 1
11 What are coherent sources?
Two sources of light which emit light waves of same wavelength (or frequency) and 1
constant phase difference.
12 How does the resolving power of a telescope change on increasing the diameter of the
objective lens?
Increases 1
DPUE/IIPUC/ANNUAL EXAM, MAY 22/ PHYSICS (33)/SV Page 1
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190
13 What is meant by the ionization energy of an atom?
The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the atom (or to infinity or 1
infinite orbit).
14 Give an example for elemental semiconductor.
Silicon or Germanium (or Si or Ge) 1
15 Draw the logic symbol of NOT-gate.
Part-B
II Answer any five of the following questions: (5x2=10)
16 What are polar and non-polar molecules?
Polar molecule: A molecule in which the center of positive charge and the center of 1
negative charge do not coincide.
Non-polar molecule: A molecule in which the center of positive charge and the center of 1
negative charge coincide.
17 Show with schematic graphs, variation of resistivity with absolute temperature for
s
(a) Nichrome and (b) Silicon.
(a) (b)
te
1+1
No
18 The current in a coil falls from 25 mA to 0 mA in 1 ms and induces an emf of 10 V in it. Find
the self-inductance of the coil.
Formula: OR | | | | 1
S
1
Sub and Ans: 0.4 H
19 Give the working principle of AC generator. Why the current generated by it is called
alternating current?
P
Principle: Electromagnetic induction 1

The direction of current changes or reverses periodically 1
20 What is displacement current? Write its expression.
Current due to the changing electric field or changing electric flux. 1
1
21 Give the reasons for the following statements: (a) The sun is visible a little before the actual
sunrise & until a little after the actual sunset (b) The sky appears blue
Ans (a) Refraction of light through the atmosphere 1
Ans (b) Scattering of light by the atmospheric particles 1
22 Write any two uses of polaroids.
1. To produce and analyze the polarised light. Any two
2. In sun glasses or goggles. 1+1
3. To view 3-D pictures/movies.
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191
4. In window panes of trains and aero planes. Any two
5. To eliminate head light glares of vehicles.
Note: Any other correct use should be considered.
23 What are de Broglie waves? Name an expt which verified the wave nature of electrons.
de Broglie waves: Waves associated with moving material particles. 1
Experiment: Davisson and Germer experiment or G P Thomson experiment 1
24 Draw the labeled diagram representing the schematic arrangement of Geiger-Marsden
experiment for alpha-particle scattering.
Diagram 1
Labeling 1
s
25 Give any two advantages of LEDs over conventional incandescent low power lamps.
te
1. Low operational voltage and current and less power consumption.
2. Fast ON-OFF switching ability. Any two
3. Fast action. There is no warm up time 1+1
No
4. Long life (Durable) and ruggedness
5. The emitted light is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic.
Any two Note: Any other correct advantage should be considered
Part-C
S
III Answer any five of the following questions: (5x3=15)

26 Mention the three factors on which the capacitance of a dielectric parallel plate capacitor
depends.
P
1. Area of the plates 1+1+1

2. Distance between the plates
3. Dielectric constant of the material between the plates
27 Derive the expression for the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor in terms of their
relaxation time.
⃗⃗ 1
⃗ ∑ ⃗ and ⃗ ( )
Using ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 1
⃗⃗
Arriving at ⃗ or | ⃗ | 1
Note: Any other correct method should be considered
28 Write the two reasons to show that, ‘the galvanometer as such can not be used as an
ammeter’. Give the method of converting the galvanometer into an ammeter.
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1. It is a sensitive device 1
2. It is connected in series and it has high resistance 1
Method: By connecting low resistance in parallel with it OR by shunting the galvanometer 1
29 List any three properties of ferromagnetic substances
1. Their susceptibility is large and positive. Any 3
2. Their permeability is very large i.e., OR 1+1+1
3. As temperature increases, magnetization/susceptibility decreases.
4. Ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic when heated above critical
temperature.
5. They have strong tendency to move from weaker region to stronger region of magnetic
field OR they get strongly attracted by magnets.
6. When placed in magnetic field, field lines get concentrated inside the sample.
Note: Any other correct property should be considered
30 Write any three applications in which advantage of eddy currents are used
s
1. Induction furnace
2. Magnetic braking in trains te Any 3
3. Electromagnetic damping Any 3 1+1+1
4. Electric power meter Note: Any other correct application should be considered
31 Mention any three sources of energy loss in an actual transformer
No
1. Loss due to heating OR Copper loss OR heating of coils due to resistance

2. Loss due to flux leakage OR Magnetic loss Any 3
3. Loss due to eddy current OR Core or iron loss OR heating of core due to eddy currents 1+1+1
4. Hysteresis loss Any 3 Note: Any other correct source should be considered
S
32 Using Huygen’s principle, show that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection, when a plane wavefront is reflected by a plane surface.
P
Ray diagram 1
Showing and 1
( each angle is 90°) and ( each ) 1

Thus the triangle ABC is congruent to AEC. ∴ ∴
33 Write the three postulates of Bohr model of the hydrogen atom.
1. An electron in atom can revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant 1
energy.
2. An electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which its angular 1
momentum is an integral multiple of ( ), where h is the Planck’s constant.
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193
3. An electron can jump from higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit. In this process a
photon is emitted whose energy is equal to the energy difference between the initial 1
and final states.
34 Define ‘mass defect’ and ‘binding energy’ of a nucleus. Write the relation between them.
Mass defect: The difference between the sum of masses of nucleons and the nuclear mass. 1
Binding energy: Energy required to break the nucleus into its constituent particles
(nucleons). OR energy released when a nucleus is formed by constituent 1
particles/nucleons.
Relation: ( ) OR ( ) 1
35 Give any three differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
Any 3
1. It is a pure form of semiconductor. 1. It is a doped semiconductor.
2. It contains equal number of electrons 2. It contains un-equal number of electrons 1+1+1
and holes. (holes in VB=electrons in CB) and holes.
3. Electric conductivity is due to both 3. Electric conductivity is mainly due to
electrons and holes. majority charge carriers.
s
4. Conductivity depends only on 4. Conductivity depends both on
temperature.
5. At 0 K, charge carriers vanish.
te
temperature and impurity added.
5. At 0 K, majority charge carriers exist.
6. Conductivity is low 6. Conductivity is high
No
Any 3 Note: Any other correct difference should be considered
Part-D
IV Answer any two of the following questions: (2x5=10)
36 What is an electric field line? Write the four general properties of electric field lines.
S
An electric field line is a curve drawn in an electric field so that the tangent to it at
any point is in the direction of the net field at that point OR it is an imaginary path
P
along which a free test charge tends to move OR it is a way of pictorially/graphically 1

representing/mapping an electric field in a given region (or any other correct answer).
1. Electric field lines always start from positive charge and end at negative charge. If there
is single charge, they start or end at infinity.
2. In a charge-free region, field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any 1+1+1+1
breaks.
3. Two field lines never cross each other.
4. Electrostatic field lines never form closed loops.
Note: Any other correct property should be considered
37 Using Kirchhoff’s rules, obtain the expression for the balancing condition of Wheatstone
bridge.
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194
Circuit diagram 1
Current through the galvanometer 1
KVR to loop ABDA: 1

KVR to loop BCDB: 1
Showing: and
1
& Arriving at the condition:
38 With the help of a diagram, derive the expression for the torque on a rectangular loop
placed in a uniform magnetic field.
Diagram 1
s
The forces on arms AD and BC cancel each other (being collinear along the axis)
te 1
The forces on arms AB and CD: 1

Torque: 1
No
Final expression: ∴ 1
Note: When the magnetic field is in the plane of the loop should also be considered.
39 Derive the expression for the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point on the axis of a
S
current carrying solenoid. Hence show that it is equivalent to a bar magnet.

P
Diagram 1
( ) 1
Magnetic field at P due to this circular element: [ ( ) ]
Magnetic field at P due to whole solenoid: ∫ [ ] 1
Final expression: 1
This expression is same as the expression for the magnetic field due to a bar magnet at its
1
axial point. Thus the current carrying solenoid is equivalent to a bar magnet.
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195
V Answer any two of the following questions: (2x5=10)
40 Show that the current lags the voltage by π/2 in an AC circuit containing a pure inductor.
Draw the phasor diagram for it.
AC voltage applied across a pure inductor: 1
Applying KVR to the loop: ∴ 1
Instantaneous current by integration: ∫ ∫ ( ) 1
Arriving at ( ) ⇒ Current lags the voltage by π/2 1
Phasor diagram 1
41 Derive lens maker’s formula for a convex lens.
s
te
No
Ray diagram 1
Formula for refraction at I surface: 1
S
Formula for refraction at II surface: 1
Combining the two equations and simplification: ( )( ) 1

P
And using the condition ⟹

1
Arriving at lens makers formula: ( )( )
OR
Ray diagram 1
PRADEEP & SUNIL

196
Formula for refraction at I surface: 1
Formula for refraction at II surface: 1
Combining the two equations and simplification: ( )( ) 1
And using the condition ⟹

1
Arriving at lens makers formula: ( )( )
42 Define photoelectric work function. Write the 4 experiemntal observations of photoelectric

effect.
Work function: It is the minimum amount of energy required to liberate an electron from 1
the metal surface.
1. Photoelectric effect is instantaneous process.
2. There exists certain minimum cut-off frequency called threshold frequency below which
1+1+1+1
photoelectric emission does not take place.
s
3. The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation,
provided the frequency of incident radiation is greater than threshold frequency. Also
te
the saturation current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
4. The stopping potential or maximum KE of emitted photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident radiation but independent of intensity.
No
43 What is rectifier? With the suitable circuit diagram, explain the working of p-n junction
diode as a full-wave rectifier. Draw the input and the output waveforms.
Rectifier: It is a circuit (or a device) which converts AC into DC (or pulsating DC). 1
S
Circuit diagram 1
P
OR any other correct circuit diagram

During the positive half cycle of input ac voltage, becomes forward biased and
reverse biased. So conducts the current. The current flows through the load in the 1
direction .
During the negative half cycle of input ac voltage, becomes reverse biased and
1
forward biased. So conducts the current. The current flows through the load in the
direction .
Thus the current flows through the diode during both half cycles in the same direction.
Hence DC output is obtained.
Waveform diagram 1
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197
OR
VI Answer any three of the following questions: (3x5=15)

44 Two small charged spheres having charges of and are placed 3 cm
apart in vacuum. Find the electrostatic force between them. Find the new force, when the
distance between them is doubled. Given:
Formula for the Coulomb force: OR 1
Substitution and simplification: 1

( )
s
Force between the charges: 1
New force: ( )
te 1
Final answer with approapriate unit: 1

No
45 A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. Calculate the work done in taking a small charge
of from a point ( ) to a point ( ) via a point
( ). Given:
Formula for the potential at a point: OR 1

S
Potential at A: 1
P
Potential at B: 1
Work done: ( ) 1
Final answer with approapriate unit: ( )( ) 1
Note: should be considered
46 In the following circuit, find the current I
Formula for the Equivalent emf: OR 1
( ) ( )
1
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198
Formula for the Equivalent internal resistance: OR 1
Current with approapriate unit: 1
OR KCR to the junction A: 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 --------1
KVR to the loop L1: ( 𝐼) ( 𝐼 ) ⇒ 𝐼 𝐼 --------1
KVR to the loop L2: ( 𝐼 ) ( 𝐼) ⇒ 𝐼 𝐼 --------1
Solving the two KVR equations --------1
𝐼 𝐴 --------1
47 A circular copper coil of mean raduis 6.284 cm has 20 turns. If a current of 2 A is passed
through this coil, find the magnitude of the magnetic field at its centre. Also find the
magnetic dipole moment of this current coil. Given:
Formula for the magnetic field at the centre: 1
s
Substitution and simplification: te 1
Final answer with appropriate unit: 1

Magnetic dipole moment: 1
No
( ) 1
48 A ray of light passes through an equilateral glass prism such that the refracted ray inside
the prism is parallel to its base. Calcualate the (a) Angle of deviation of the ray and (b)
Speed of light ray inside the prism.
S
Given: the refractive index of glass = 3/2 and the speed of light in vacuum = .
( ) 1
P
(a) Formula for the minimum deviation:

( )
( ) ( ) 1
Substitution and simplification: ( )
( )
Angle of minimum deviation: OR 1

OR 𝐴 𝑟 ⟹𝑟 ………….. 1
𝑖 𝑖
𝑛 ⟹ ⟹𝑖 ……….…..1
𝑟
𝛿 𝑖 𝐴 OR 𝐷𝑚 ……………1
(b) Formula related to speed of light in a medium: 1
Speed of light in glass: 1
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199
49 Two slits separated by 1 mm in Young’s double slit experiemnt are illuminated by the violet
light of the wavelength 400 nm. The interference fringes are obtained on the screen placed
at 1 m from the slits. Find the fringe width. If the violet light is repleced by the light of the
wavelength 700 nm, find the percentage change in fringe width.
Formula for fringe width: 1
Sub, simpl and answer with appropriate unit: 1
Fringe width when light is replaced: OR 1
New fringe width: OR 1
Percentage change in fringe width = 1
50 The normal activity of living carbon ( ) containing matter in found to be about 15

decays per minute per gram of carbon. A specimen found in an archaeological excavation
has an activity of 1.5 decays per minute per gram of carbon matter. Estimate the age of the
specimen. Given: the half-life of carbon ( ) is 5730 years.
s
Formula related to decay constant:
te 1
Decay constant: 1
No
Formula for activity: OR ( ) 1
Sub and simpl: OR ( ) 1
Estimated age: Approximated to 2 SF 1

S
Note: Ans between 19000 to 19050 years may be considered

In minutes; and
P
In second; and
Any alternative and correct/suitable answer/solution should be considered
PRADEEP & SUNIL

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II PUC ANNUAL EXAMINATION : AUGUST – 2021
SCHEME OF EVALUATION
Subject code: 33 Subject: PHYSICS
General instructions:
a) All parts are compulsory.
b) Answers without relevant diagram/ figure/circuit wherever necessary will not carry any marks.
c) Direct answers to the numerical problems without detailed solutions and formula will not carry any marks.
Q.No. PART–A Marks
I Answer ALL the following questions: 10 × 1 = 10
1. Write the SI unit of electric capacitance.
farad (F) 1
2. Define mobility of free electrons.
Mobility is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field. 1
3.
s
A charged particle is moving uniform magnetic field. What is the magnitude of
force on it? te
Force is zero (F = 0) 1
4. State Gauss’s law in magnetism.
The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero. 1
No
5. Name the phenomenon in which electric current is generated by varying

magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction. 1
6. What kind of electromagnetic waves are used in radio-communication?
S
Radio waves 1
7. The following ray diagram shows a ray of
P
light passing through an equilateral prism

in minimum deviation position.
What is the value of ‘r’ in it?
At minimum deviation position: r = A/2 = 60o/2 = 30o (For equilateral prism, A = 60o) 1
8. Write the expression for de Broglie wavelength of a moving particle.
h h 1
de Broglie wavelength:  = OR  =
mv 2mK
9. Give Bohr’s first postulate about hydrogen atom.
An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant
energy. These are called the stationary states (orbits) of the atom. 1
10. What are isobars?
Nuclei with same mass number PRADEEP
are called isobars.
& SUNIL 1
201
PART–B
II. Answer any FIVE of the following questions: 5 × 2 = 10
11. What are electric conductors and insulators?
 The substances which allow passage of electricity (charges) through them are called conductors. 1
 The substances which do not allow passage of electricity through them are called insulators. 1
12. Write any two difference between polar and non-polar molecules.
POLAR MOLECULES NON-POLAR MOLECULES
(i)
The molecules in which, the centres of
The molecules in which, the centres of positive 1
positive charges and negative charges do not
charges and negative charges coincide.
coincide.
(ii) They have permanent (intrinsic) dipole 1
They do not have permanent dipole moment.
moment.
13. Define ‘emf’ and ‘internal resistance’ of cell.
 Electromotive force (emf – ε): emf is the potential difference between the positive and negative 1
electrodes in an open circuit, i.e., when no current is flowing through the cell.
 Internal resistance (r): internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by the electrolyte of
1
the cell when the electric current flows through it.
s
14. What is toroid? Write the expression for the magnetic field inside a current carrying
te
toroid.
 The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of an insulated wire are 1
closely wound and it produces magnetic field when current is passed through windings.
No
μ0 N I
 The magnetic field B inside the toroid : B = 1
2πr
15. Give the method of converting galvanometer into (a) a voltmeter (b) an ammeter.
a) A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a suitable high resistance in series 1
S
with it.
b) A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a suitable low (small) resistance in 1
parallel to it.
16. Define magnetic ‘declination’ and ‘dip’.
P
 Magnetic Declination: The angle between the true geographic north and the north shown by a compass 1
needle is called the magnetic declination.
OR The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian is called declination.
 Magnetic dip: It is the angle made by the total magnetic field of earth with the horizontal in the magnetic
1
meridian.
17. Write any two uses of eddy currents.
Magnetic braking in trains, Induction furnace, Electromagnetic damping, 1
Electric power meters, Speedometers of vehicles, Dead beat galvanometer. (Any two) 1
18. What is meant by ‘wavefront’ ?

Give the shape of wavefront from point source at a finite distance.
 The locus of points which oscillate in the same phase is called a wavefront. 1
OR A wavefront is defined as surface of constant phase.
 Spherical wave front. 1
PRADEEP & SUNIL
202
PART – C
19. Write the three basic properties of electric charge.
(i) Additivity of charge. 1
(ii) Quantisation of charge. 1
(iii) Conservation of charge. 1
20. Two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series. Obtain the expresion for the
effective capacitance of the combination.
Let two capacitors with capacitances C1 and C2 joined in series.
In the series combination, charges on the two plates (±Q) are
the same on each capacitor. The total potential drop V across
the combination is the sum of the potential drops V1 and V2
across C1 and C2, respectively.
Q Q  1 1 
Then V = V1 + V2 = + = Q +  …….... (1) 1
C1 C2  C1 C2 
(since Q = C1 V1 = C2 V2  V1 = Q/C1 and V2 = Q/C2)
The combination has an effective capacitance Cs with charge Q and potential difference V.
s
The effective capacitance of the combination is Cs = Q/V  V = Q/Cs ……………..... (2) 1
Comparing Eq. (2) with Eq. (1), we get

Q  1
= Q
te
+
1 
 
1
=
1
+
1
1
CS  C1 C2  CS C1 C2
21. State Ohm’s law. Give its any two limitations.
No
 Ohm’s law: The electric current (I) flowing through a substance (conductor) is directly
proportional to the voltage (potential difference– V) across its ends provided the temperature
and other physical conditions remains constant (same). 1
Limitations of Ohm’s law:
 Ohm’s law fails, if the current varies non-linearly with voltage (potential difference). 1
S
 Ohm’s law fails, if the relation between voltage and current is not unique (In GaAs). 1
 Ohm’s law is not applicable to conductors at very low temperature (superconductors) and
high temperature.
P
 Ohm’s law fails, if the relation between voltage (V) and current (I) depends on the sign of
voltage.
 Ohm’s law is not applicable to non-ohmic devices (semiconductors- diodes, transistors,
vacuum tubes etc.) (Any two)
22. Obtain the exression for ‘drift velocity’ of electrons in terms of ‘relaxation time’.

Let an electric field is applied E to a conductor. Electrons will be accelerated due to this field by

 eE
a= ; Where ‘– e’ is the charge and ‘m’ is the mass of an electron. 1
m
Consider again the ith electron at a given time t. Let ti be the time elapsed after its last collision.
 
If vi was its velocity immediately after the last collision, then its velocity Vi at time tiis

  eE 1
V i = vi  ti
m

The average velocity of the electrons at time ti is the average of all the vi ’s.

The average of vi ’s is zero since immediately after any collision, the direction of the velocity
of an electron is completely random. ‘τ’ is the average time between successive collisions is
called relaxation time. The average velocity is called drift velocity.
  
  
Drift velocity:  
vd  Vi
average
 
 PRADEEP
vi
average
eE
 &
m
 t i SUNIL
average
=0 
eE
m
τ= 
eE
m
τ
1
203
23. State Ampere’s circuital law. Using it obtain the expression for magnetic field
due to an infinite straight conductor carrying current.
 
Ampere’s circuital law: The line integral of B  dl over the closed loop is equal to μ0 times
the total current passing through the surface. 1
 
OR  B  dl = μ 0I , where I – current, B – magnetic field and dl – elemental length.
Derivation: Let P be a point at a distance r from the straight wire.

Consider a circle of radius r around the wire passing through P as an
Amperian loop. The magnetic field B at P due to the current in the
wire is along the tangent to this circle. Hence magnetic field B is
parallel to the line element dl at P.
 
From Ampere’s circuital law,  B  dl = μ 0I
 
 Bdl =  B dl cos0 = B × 2r
o
1
Thus B×2πr = μ0I
s
μoI 1
The magnetic field at a distance r outside the wire is B =
te 2πr
24. Give any three reasons for energy losses in actual transformer.
 Loss due to flux leakage/Magnetic loss. 1
No
 Ohmic loss (heating) due to the resistance of the windings (wires)/Copper loss. 1
 Loss due to eddy current. 1
 Loss due to hysteresis/Iron loss. (Any three)
25. Write any three features of nuclear force.

S
 The nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge (Charge independent). 1
 Nuclear forces are the strongest known forces in nature. 1
 Nuclear force is a short range force.
P
1
 Nuclear forces show the property of saturation.
 Nuclear forces are exchange forces.
 Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
 Nuclear forces are spin dependant. (Any three)
26. What is logic gate? Draw the logic symbol for (a) NOT gate and (b) AND gate.
 A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows certain logical relationship between the input and
the output voltages. 1
(a) Logic symbol of NOT gate (b) Logic symbol of AND gate
1+1
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204
PART – D
IV. Answer any TWO of the following questions: 2 × 5 = 10
27. Derive an expression for electrostatic potential at a point due to a point charge.
FIGURE WITH ARROWS 1
Consider a point charge +Q at the origin (O).

Let P be a point with position vector r from
the origin, where we need to find the electric
potential due to this charge Q.
At some intermediate point P′ on the path
between P and infinity, the electrostatic force
 1 Q×1 
on a unit positive charge is F = r' ; Where r̂  is the unit vector along OP′.
4 π ε 0  r '2 1
  
Work done against this force in moving +1C from r ' to r ' + Δ r ' is
1 Q
W = F   r  = r .................(1)
4 π ε 0  r '2
Total work done (W) by the external force is integrating the equation (1) from r′ = ∞ to r′ = r, 1
r
Q 1 Q 1 1 1
W=   4πε  r ' dr =   r ' dr   
r
; since
4πε 0  r  
 + C,
2 2
r
s
 0
Q 1 1  1 Q
W  

4πε 0  r   4πε 0 r
te 1
 1 Q
But, the work done is the electric potential at P, V(r) =
4πε 0 r 1
No
28. A circular conducting loop of radius R carries a current I. Using Biot-Savart’s law,
derive the expression for the magnetic field at a point on its axis.
LABELLED DIAGRAM WITH ARROWS 1
(θ is angle between r and R)
The magnitude of the magnetic field dB due

S
to dl is given by the Biot-Savart’s law,

 
  
 μ 0   I dl × r  and r2 = x2 + R2.
dB =   1
 4π   r 
3
P
 
Any element of the loop will be perpendicular
to the displacement (distance) vector from the
 
element to the axial point. Hence dl × r = r dl.
μ0 I dl R R
Thus dB = ……… (1) and from the figure cos θ =  ……… (2)
4π x 2
+R 2
 r

x2 + R2 
12
dB has an x-component dBx and a component perpendicular to x-axis, dB⊥ . When the components 1
perpendicular to the x-axis are summed over, they cancel out and we get a null result.
μ 0 I dl R
From eq (1) &(2), dBx =dB(cosθ) = .
 
32
4π x2 + R2
μ 0 I dl R
Thus, the total magnetic field at P is B = dBx   
x 
32
4π 2
+ R2 1
The summation of elements dl over the loop gives 2πR, the circumference of the loop. i.e.,  dl = 2πR
 μ0 I R 2
Thus, the magnetic field at P due to the entire circular loop is B = Bx ˆi = ˆi 1
 
32
2 2
2 x +R
PRADEEP & SUNIL
205
29. Obtain the expression for instantaneous emf induced in an ac generartor.
Represent the variation of this emf with time graphically.
LABELLED DIAGRAM 1
Expression for Induced EMF:
Let the coil is rotated with a constant
angular speed ω, the angle θ between the
magnetic field vector B and the area vector
A of the coil at any instant t is θ = ωt
Due to rotation, the effective area of the coil exposed to the magnetic field lines changes with
time. The magnetic flux at any time t is ΦB = B ∙ A = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt 1
From Faraday’s law, the induced emf in the rotating coil of N turns,
dΦB d 1
ε = −N = −NBA (cos ωt)
dt dt
ε = NBAω sin ωt Where NBAω= ε0 is the maximum value of the emf,
s
Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf ε = ε0 sin ωt
1
te
Graphical representation of variation of emf with time:
No
1
S
V: Answer any TWO of the following : 2 × 5 = 10

P
30. Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are kept in contact co-axially.
Obtain the expression for the effective focal length of the combination.
Ray diagram with arrows for light direction 1
For the image formed by the first lens A,
1 1 1 1
 = ........... (1)
v1 u f1
For the image formed by the second lens B,

1

1
=
1
........... (2) 1
v v1 f2
1 1 1 1
Adding equations (1) and (2), we get  =  ……....... (3)
v u f1 f 2
If the two lens-system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length f,
1 1 1 1
 = …….............. (4)
v u f
1 1 1 1
Comparing (3) and (4) we get, = + , for two thin lenses (f – effective focal length).
f f1 f2
PRADEEP & SUNIL
206
31. What is meant by Photo-electric emission? Write the four observations of its
experimental study.
Photo-electric emission: The process of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when 1
light (electromagnetic radiation) of suitable frequency illuminates (incident on) it is called as
Photo-electric emission.
Observations of experimental study:
1
(i) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
(ii) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, the photoelectric
1
current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
(iii) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, the saturation current 1
is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation but stopping potential is independent of
its intensity.
1
(iv) For a given photosensitive material, there exists a minimum cut-off frequency of the incident
radiation called threshold frequency, below which no photoelectrons are emitted.
s
(v) Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or the maximum kinetic energy of the
te
emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity. (Any four)
32. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the working of half wave rectifier.
No
Draw the input and output waveforms in it.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 1
WAVEFORM 1
S
WORKING: During the positive half cycle of the

input ac signal, the diode D is forward biased and
P
hence it conducts, a current flows through D, An

1
output voltage is obtained across load resistance RL .
During the negative half cycle of the input

AC signal, the diode D is reverse biased
and hence it does not conduct. The output 1
voltage is zero across load resistance RL
Thus, only during one half cycle of the

input AC, an output is obtained in half
wave rectifier. 1
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207
VI. Answer any THREE of the following: 3 × 5 = 15
33. An electric dipole contains two charges +10 C and –10 C separated by 5.00mm
apart. What is the electric ‘dipole moment’?
Calculate the electric field at a point P 1m away from the dipole, when P is on the
a) axial line and
b) equatorial line of the dipole.
Dipole moment: p = (2a) q = 5 × 10–3 × 10 × 10–6 = 5 × 10–8 C m 1
1 2p
a) Electric field at at a distance1m on axial line is Eax = 1
4πε 0 r 3
 2  5  108  1 1
Eax = 9  109  3  = 900 N C or V m 1
 1 
1 p
b) Electric field at a distance1m on equatorial line is Eeq =
4πε 0 r 3 1
 5  108  1 1
Eeq = 9  109  3  = 450 N C or V m 1
 1 
34. A Wheatstone’s bridge is shown in the following figure.
Find the current through the galvanometer.
s
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop ABDA,
te–100 I1 – 15 Ig + 60 I2 = 0 ….…. (1) 1
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop BCDB,
– 10(I1 – Ig) + 5 (I2 + Ig ) + 15 Ig = 0 1
No
i.e., – 10 I1 + 30 Ig + 5 I2 = 0 …….. (2)

Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop ADCA,
– 60 I2 – 5 (I2 + Ig ) + 10 = 0
S
i.e., 65 I2 + 5 Ig = 10 …..….. (3) 1

Solving the equations (1), (2) and (3), 1
The current through the galvanometer: Ig = 0.00494 A 1
P
35. An AC source of 230V, 50Hz is connected in series with 50 Ω resistor, 7/44 H

inductor and (7/22) × 10–4 F capacitor. Find the phase angle between the
current in the circuit and source voltage in the circuit.
State whether the current leads or lags behind the voltage in the circuit.
Given V = 230 V, υ =50 Hz, R = 50 Ω, L= 7/44 H and C = (7/22) × 10–4 F.
1
Inductive reactance : XL =2πL= 2(22/7)(50)(7/44) = 50 Ω
1 1 1
Capacitive reactance: XC    100 
2 π  C 2(22/7)(50)(7/22) 104
 X  XL  1
Phase difference between current and voltage:  = tan 1  C 
 R 
 100  50  1
  tan 1    tan 1  45
1 o
 50 
As XC > XL , the current leads the voltage. 1
PRADEEP & SUNIL
208
Two narrow slits seperated by 0.2mm are illuminated by a light of wavelength
36. 400nm. An interference fringe pattern is obtained on a screen placed 2m from
the slits. Find a) fringe width and
b) new fringe width when the slits separation is halved.
Also find the change in fringe width.
Given d = 0.2 mm = 0.2 × 10–3 m, D = 2 m, λ = 400 nm = 4 × 10–7 m
D 1
(a) The fringe width :  
d
D 4  107  2
  
 4  103m  4mm 1
d 0.2  10 3
(b) New slit separation: d' = d/2 = 0.1 mm = 0.1  103m

1
D
New fringe width : ' 
d'
4  107  2
'  3
 8  103 m  8 mm 1
0.1  10
Change in fringe width : '    8 mm  4 mm  4mm 1
s
37. Calculate the wavelength of series-limit of Balmer series of hydrogen.
te
State the region of electromagnetic spectrum to which this series belongs.
Take Rydberg constant = 1 × 107 m–1
Rydberg constant: R = 1×107 m–1
No
1  1 1 
= R 2  2  1
λif  nf ni 
For series limit of Balmer series, transitions takes place from ni = ∞ to nf = 2 1
S
1  1 1 
= 1  107  2  2  1
λ 2 2  
P
 Wavelength of series-limit: λ  2  4  107 m or 400 nm 1
This series belongs to visible region of electromagnetic spectrum. 1
Note: Any other alternate correct method/answer should be considered.
PRADEEP & SUNIL

209
II PUC ANNUAL EXAMINATION : MARCH – 2020
SCHEME OF EVALUATION
Subject code: 33 Subject: PHYSICS
General instructions:
a) All parts are compulsory.
b) Answers without relevant diagram/ figure/circuit wherever necessary will not carry any marks.
c) Direct answers to the numerical problems without detailed solutions will not carry any marks.
Q.No. PART–A Marks
I Answer ALL the following questions: 10 × 1 = 10
1. Write the SI unit of electric flux.
N C–1 m2 OR V m OR J C–1 m 1
2. Graphically represent the variation of resistivity of a semiconductor with
absolute temperature.
s
te
No
3. Give any one use of electromagnet.
In electric bells / In loudspeakers(speakers)/ In telephone diaphragms/In cranes/In motors / 1
In generators/ In MRI machines/In hard disks. (Any one)
4. What is the significance of Lenz’s law?
• Conservation of energy. 1
S
• It gives polarity of induced emf.

• It gives direction of induced current. (Any one)
5. How does capacitive reactance vary with frequency?
P
Capacitive reactance varies inversely as the frequency. (XC ∝

1
OR XC ∝
1
) 1
υ ω
OR When frequency increases capacitive reactance decreases and vice versa.
6. Arrange the following electromagnetic waves in ascending order of their
wavelength: Radio waves, Gamma rays, infrared waves, X-rays.
Gamma rays, X-rays, Infrared waves, Radio waves. 1
7. Why does sky appear blue?
Due to scattering of light OR Rayleigh scattering. 1
8. Mention a method to increase the resolving power of a microscope.
• Using a medium of higher refractive index between object and objective. 1
• Using light of shorter wavelength. (Any one)
9. Write the nuclear reaction equation for alpha decay of 92 U 238
α - decay
238
92 U → 234
92 U → 90 X + 2 He
+ 42 He OR 238
90Th
234 4
OR
238
92 U  → 234
90Th
1
10. Draw the logic symbol of NOR gate.
1
PRADEEP & SUNIL
210
PART–B
II Answer any FIVE of the following questions: 5 × 2 = 10
11. State and explain Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.
Statement: The electrostatic (or electric) force between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. 1
Explanation: Let q1, q2 be the two point charges separated by a distance r in vacuum, then
magnitude of electrostatic force (F) between the charges is
qq 1
F = k 1 2 2 ; where k = 1 is a constant.
r 4 π ε0
12. A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a capacitance C.
What will be the capacitance if
a) The distance between the plates is doubled?
b) The space between the plates is filled with a substance of dielectric constant 5?
K ε0 A 1
Capacitance: C = ⇒ C∝ and C ∝ K
d d
a) C/2 OR capacitance is halved. 1
b) 5C OR capacitance becomes 5 times the initial value. 1
13. Write two limitations of Ohm’s law.
s
• Ohm’s law fails, if the current varies non-linearly with voltage (potential difference). 1
• Ohm’s law fails, if the relation between voltage and current is not unique (In GaAs).
te 1
• Ohm’s law is not applicable at very low temperature and very high temperature.
(Any
• Ohm’s law fails, if the relation between voltage(V) and current(I) depends on the sign two)
of voltage. OR Ohm’s law is not applicable to non-ohmic devices (In diode/ triode, etc.)
No
 
14. In a region, an electric field E =5 × 103 j NC −1 and a magnetic field of B =0.1k T are
applied. A beam of charged particles are projected along X-direction. Find the
velocity of charged particles which move undeflected in this crossed fields.
E
S
Velocity: v = 1
B
5 × 103 1
v= = 5 × 104 m s −1
0.1
P
15. Define “retentivity” and “coercivity”.

• The value of magnetic field B when magnetic intensity H = 0 is called retentivity. 1
• The value of magnetic intensity H when magnetic field B = 0 is called coercivity. 1
(Any other correct definition/s should be considered)
16. Mention two sources of energy loss in transformer.
• Loss due to flux leakage/Magnetic loss. 1
• Ohmic loss (heating) due to the resistance of the windings (wires)/Copper loss. 1
• Loss due to eddy current.
• Loss due to hysteresis/Iron loss. (Any two)
17. What is displacement current? Give the expression for it.
The current due to changing electric field/flux is called displacement current. 1
 dφ 
Displacement current: id = ε0  E  1
 dt 
18. An alpha particle, a proton and an electron are moving with equal kinetic energy.
Which one of these particles has the longest de Broglie wavelength? Give reason.
h 1
=
de Broglie wavelength: λ ⇒ λ ∝ for equal kinetic energy
2mK m
Electron has the longest de Broglie wavelength
PRADEEP SUNILit has least mass.
&because 1+1
211
PART – C
19. Establish the relation between electric field and electric potential.
DIAGRAM 1
Work done to move unit positive charge from P to A is
W = F δl
For unit positive charge, q =1 C, force F=E,
W = E δl 1
Also, work done W = q(VA–VB) = [V−(V+δV)] = – δV
Thus, E δl = – δV
δV
∴ E=− 1
δl
(Any other correct diagram/method should be considered)
20. Derive the expression for the energy stored in a charged capacitor.
Let C be the capacitance of the capacitor.
At intermediate situation, the plate-1 and plate-2 have charges Q′ and –Q′ respectively.
Q′ 1
The potential difference between plates is, V′=
s
C
 Q′ 
Work done to move a charge δQ’ from plate-2 to plate-1 is δW = V′ δQ′ =   δQ′
te C
Q′
Q
The total work done in building the charge from Q′ = 0 to Q′ = Q is W = ∫ dQ′ 1
0
C
No
Q2
W=
2C
Q2 1
This work done is stored as potential energy in the capacitor: U =
2C
(Any other correct method should be considered)
S
21. Give the principle of cyclotron and draw the neat labeled schematic diagram of cyclotron
PRINCIPLE: 1
• The frequency/time period of revolution of a charged particle in the magnetic field is
P
independent of its velocity/energy/radius.

• The charged particle is made to move in the perpendicular magnetic and electric fields
(crossed fields), the electric field accelerates the charged particle and the magnetic field
deflects the charged particle. (Any one)
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM 1
LABELLING THE PARTS 1
PRADEEP & SUNIL

212
22. Mention three properties of diamagnetic materials.
• Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnet. 1
OR They tend to move from a region of stronger magnetic field to the weaker magnetic field.
• Magnetic susceptibility of the substance is negative ( χ < 0). 1
OR Relative permeability of is less than 1 (µr < 1) OR Permeability of the substance µ < µ0
• In a diamagnetic material, the magnetic dipole moment of an atom is zero. 1
OR Atoms of diamagnetic material have no un-paired electrons.
• They develop a net magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the applied field.
OR They are magnetised in a direction opposite to the applied field.
• The magnetic field lines are repelled/expelled/flow out of the material when place in an external field.
• The susceptibility/permeability/magnetization is independent of temperature.
OR They do not obey Curie’s law. (Any three)
23. Arrive at the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a spherical
concave mirror.
DIAGRAM 1
C → Centre of curvature
F → Principal Focus
R → Radius of curvature
f → focal length of the mirror.
s
MD MD
∠MCP = θ and ∠MFP = 2θ Now, tan θ =te and tan2θ =
CD FD
MD MD
For small θ, tanθ ≈ θ and tan2θ ≈ 2θ. Then, = θ and = 2θ 1
CD FD
MD MD CD
i.e., = 2� � ⇒ FD =
No
FD CD 2
For small θ, the point D is very close to P. Applying sign conventions, FD = – f and CD = – R
Thus, f = R/2 1
Note: Full marks should be awarded for substituting, FD = + f and CD = + R also.
24. Using Huygen’s principle, show that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection when a plane wave front is reflected by a plane surface.
S
DIAGRAM 1
MN → Reflecting plane surface (mirror)

P
i → angle of incidence
r → angle of reflection
v → speed of light wave
Let τ be the time taken by the wave front to travel from the point B to C, then distance BC= vτ.
In order the construct the reflected wave front, a sphere of radius = vτ, is drawn from the point A
as shown in the above figure. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this
sphere. Then AE = BC = vτ , ∠ABC= ∠CEA = 90o and AC is common. 1
The triangles ABC and CEA are congruent. Thus i = r. 1
25. Define work function. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain the terms.
Work function: The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the metal surface. 1
Einstein’s photoelectric equation: Kmax = hν − φ0 OR Kmax = hν − hν0 OR eVo = hν − φ0 1
Kmax→ Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
ν → Frequency of incident light. 1
h → Planck’s constant.
φ0 → Work function of the metal.
PRADEEP
(Any & SUNIL
other equivalent correct equation should be considered)
213
26. Give three differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor
1. Semiconductor without doping. Semiconductor doped with impurity atoms. 1
(It is pure semiconductor). (It is impure semiconductor).
2. Conductivity is low. Conductivity is high. 1
3. Number of free electrons (ne) is equal to the Number of free electrons (ne) and number of
1
number of holes (nh). OR ne = nh holes (nh) are unequal. OR ne ≠ nh
4. Conductivity depends only on temperature. Conductivity depends both on temperature
and impurity added.
5. Conductivity due to electrons and holes is Conductivity is mainly due to majority charge
nearly equal. carriers.
6. It does not conduct at zero kelvin. It conducts at zero kelvin.
(Any three)
PART – D
IV. Answer any TWO of the following questions: 2 × 5 = 10
n e 2τ
=
Derive the expression for conductivity of a material σ ; where the terms
s
27. m
have their usual meaning. te DIAGRAM OR 1
EXPLANATION AS GIVEN BELOW
No
S
Volume = A(Δx) = A vd (Δt)

Let ‘n’ be the number of free electrons per unit volume (number density of free electrons) in the
material, then there are n vd (Δt)A electrons; A → area of cross section and vd → drift velocity.
P
The amount of charge crossing the area A to the left in time Δt is, I (Δt) = neAvd (Δt) 1
Current: I = neAvd
eτ
Magnitude of drift velocity of electrons is vd =   E ……..…….(1) 1
m
e → magnitude of electron charge. τ → relaxation time.

E → electric field. m → mass of electron.
eτ  n e2 τ A 
Substituting vd from eq(1), I = n e A  E =  E
m  m 
I  n e2 τ 
Thus, current density: j = =  E …………….(2) 1
A  m 
But j = σ E ……………….…….(3)
n e2 τ 1
=
Thus, from eq(2) and eq(3), conductivity: σ
m
PRADEEP & SUNIL
214
28. Obtain the expression for the force between two straight long parallel conductors
carrying current. Hence define “ampere”.
FIGURE 1
 
( Fab and Bb are not necessary in the figure)
μ 0 Ia
The magnetic field at the location of ‘b’ produced by the conductor ‘a’ is, Ba = …...(1)
2πd 1
The magnetic force on a segment L of the conductor ‘b’ due to ‘a’ is Fba= Ba Ib L sin90o
μ 0 Ia I b L
Using equn(1), Fba = . This force Fba is towards conductor ‘a’. 1
s
2πd
Similarly, we can find the magnetic force Fab on a segment L of the conductor ‘a’ due to ‘b’.
 
te
The force Fab is equal in magnitude to Fba, and directed towards ‘b’. Thus Fba = − Fab 1
Definition of ampere: One ampere is that steady current which, when maintained in each of the two
No
very long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross-section, and placed one metre apart in
vacuum (free space), would produce a force of 2×10–7 newton per metre of length on each other. 1
(Note: Any other equivalent correct definition with required key terms should be considered)
29. With the help of a labeled diagram, derive the expression for instantaneous emf
induced in an AC generator.
S
DIAGRAM 1
Labelling coil and magnet (N, S) is enough.
P
Let the coil having N turns be rotated with a constant angular speed ω, the angle θ between the
magnetic field B�⃗ and the area vector �A⃗ of the coil at any instant of time t is θ = ωt
The magnetic flux at any time t is ΦB = B �⃗ = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt
�⃗ ∙ A 1
From Faraday’s law, the induced emf in the rotating coil of N turns,
dΦB 1
ε = −N � �
dt
d
= −NBA (cos ωt) = NBAω sin ωt 1
dt
Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf ε = ε0 sin ωt 1
where ε0 = NBAω is the amplitude&
PRADEEP (peak/maximum
SUNIL value) of the emf.
215
V: Answer any TWO of the following : 2 × 5 = 10
30. Obtain the expression for the fringe width of interference fringes in Young’s
Double Slit experiment.
DIAGRAM 1
(Arrow marks are not necessary)
S1 & S2 → Slits
d → Slit separation
D → Distance of screen
from the plane of slits
  d
2    d
2 
From the figure , S2 P 2 − S1P 2 =  D 2 +  x +   −  D2 +  x −  = 2 x d 1
  2    2 
2xd
⇒ S2 P − S1P =
S2 P + S1P
(S2 P + S1P) ≈ 2D
s
Since P is very close to O and d << D,
2xd xd
∴ Path difference: S2 P − S1P = = ................(1) te
2D D
Let λ be the wavelength of light, for a bright fringe at P, Path difference: S2 P − S1P = n λ …..…..(2) 1
xd  λD 1
=nλ ⇒ For n th bright fringe: xn =
No
Thus, from (1) and (2), n 
D  d 
 λD
For (n+1) th bright fringe: xn+1 = (n+1)  
 d 
λD 1
Fringe width: β = x n+1 − x n =
d
S
Note: Alternate method using sinθ and tanθ should be considered.

31. Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for the radius of nth stationary
orbit of electron in hydrogen atom. Hence write the expression for Bohr radius.
P
Consider an electron revolving around the nucleus of hydrogen atom. The electrostatic force of
attraction, between the revolving electron and the nucleus provides the required centripetal
m v2 1 e2
force to keep the electron in its orbits. i.e., = 1
r 4 π ε0 r 2
e2
⇒ mv r=
2
4 π ε0
e2
For an electron in the nth orbit, m v 2n rn = ……………....(1)
4 π ε0
nh
From Bohr’s II postulate, angular momentum: L n = mv n rn = 1
2π
n2h2
Squaring, m 2 v 2n rn2 = ……….…..…..(2)
4 π2
Eq(2) n 2 h 2 4 π ε0 1
⇒ m rn = × 2
Eq(1) 4 π2 e
ε0 n 2 h 2 1
Radius of n th stationary orbit of electron: rn =
π m e2
1), r1 = ε 0 &
h 2
The Bohr radius (n = 1
PRADEEP π m e 2 SUNIL
216
32. What is rectification? Explain the working of a p-n junction diode as a half
wave rectifier. Draw the input and output wave forms.
• Rectification: The process of conversion of ac in to dc. 1
CIRCUIT 1
DIAGRAM
WAVE FORM 1
Working: During the positive half cycle of the input ac signal, the diode is forward biased and
hence it conducts and a current flows through it. There is a potential drop/voltage across RL. 1
During the negative half cycle of the input ac signal, the diode is reverse biased. It does not 1
conduct. Hence no current flows through it and no voltage across the load resistor RL .
VI. Answer any THREE of the following: 3 × 5 = 15

33. Two point charges qA = 5µC and qB = –5µC are located at A and B separated by
0.2 m in vacuum.
a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line joining the charges?
b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 2nC is placed at O, what is the force
s
experienced by the test charge?
te Diagram is not
necessary.
No
1 qA
a) Electric field at O due to qA : E A = 1
4πε0 r 2
Magnitude of electric field at O due to each charge is
  9  5×10
−6
 1
S
−1
E= A E= B 9×10  2
= 5
 45 × 10 NC
 0.1 
1
Net electric field at O is E = E A + E B = 90 × 105 N C−1 OR 9 × 106 N C−1
1
P
b) Magnitude of force experienced by the test charge: F = q E

= × 10−9 × 90 × 105 180 × 10−4 N
F 2= OR 1.8 × 10−2 N 1
a) Three resistors 3Ω, 4 Ω and 12 Ω are connected in parallel.
34. What is the effective resistance of the combination?
b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 6V and internal resistance
0.5 Ω, find the current drawn from the battery and terminal potential difference
across the battery.
1 1 1 1
a) Effective resistance RP is given by = + + 1
R P R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1 1 4+3+1 8 2
Substituting , = + + ⇒ = = =
RP 3 4 12 RP 12 12 3
1
Effective resistance of the combination: Rp = 3/2 Ω = 1.5 Ω
ε 1
b) Current drawn from the battery is, I =
RP + r
6 1
=I = 3A
1.5 + 0.5
Terminal potential difference: V = ε – I r = 6 – 3(0.5) = 4.5 V 1
PRADEEP
OR Terminal potential difference: V = I R&p =SUNIL
3 (1.5) = 4.5V
217
A series LCR circuit contains a pure inductor of inductance 5.0 H, a capacitor
35. of capacitance 20µF and a resistor of resistance 40 Ω.
a) Find the resonant frequency of the circuit.
b) Calculate the quality factor (Q-factor) of the circuit.
c) What is the impedance at resonant condition?
1 1
a) Resonant Frequency: ω0 = OR f o or υ0 = 1
LC 2π LC
1
s −1
1
= = 100 rad = = 15.9 Hz 1
−6
5 × 20 × 10 2(3.14) 5 × 20 × 10−6
ω0 L 1 1 L
=
b) Quality factor: Q = OR Q Q= 1
R ω0 R C R C
100 × 5 1 5
=Q = 12.5 = Q = 12.5 1
40 40 20 × 10−6
c) Impedance at resonance: Z = R = 40 Ω 1
At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of an equilateral
36. prism, so that it just suffers total internal reflection at the other face?
The refractive index of the material of the prism is 1.5
1
Critical angle: ic = sin −1   1
n
s
−1  1 
= =
ic sin 
−1
 sin = ( 0.6667 ) 41o 49' 1
 1.5  te
Angle of incidence on the second face: r2= 41o 49’
Angle of refraction at the first face: r1= A − r2
= 60o − 41o49’ = 18o 11’ 1
No
sin i
Applying Snell's law to the first face : n = [OR using n1sini = n 2sinr1; n1 =1, n 2 =1.5] 1
sin r1
⇒ sin i =
n sin r1
⇒ sin i =
1.5 sin18o 11' = 1.5 (0.3121) = 0.4682
S
Angle of incidence on the= =

first face: i sin −1
( 0.4682 ) 27o55' 1
(Award full marks for the answers rounded off to 2 significant figures: 1/1.5=0.67, ic=42o, i=28o )
37. A copper coin has a mass of 63.0 g. Calculate the nuclear energy that would be required
P
to separate all the neutrons and protons from each other. The coin is entirely made of
63 63
29 Cu atoms. Mass of 29 Cu atom = 62.92960 u Mass of proton = 1.00727u
Mass of neutron = 1.00866 u Avogadro’s number = 6.022 × 1023
Mass defect per copper nucleus: ∆m = Zmp + (A −Z) mn − MCu 1
∆m = (29 × 1.00727) + (34 × 1.00866) – 62.92960
∆m = 0.5757 u 1
Energy required to separate neutrons and protons in one nucleus (is equal to binding energy)
Eb = ∆m × 931.5 MeV
Eb = 0.5757 × 931.5 = 536.3 MeV 1
Number of atoms in the copper coin (mass = 63g) is N = 6.022 × 1023 1
Total energy required to separate all neutrons and protons in the coin = Eb × N
E = 536.3 × 6.022 × 1023
= 3230 × 1023 MeV OR 3.23× 1026 MeV 1
OR E = 5.17 × 1013 J
Note: 1) Full marks should be awarded if 931 MeV or 932 MeV is used while finding binding energy.
2) Full marks should be awarded if MCu = [Mass of copper atom − 29× mass of electron] is used.
i.e., Mass of copper nucleus: M or MCu = 62.92960 − (29× 0.00055) = 62.9136 u
Mass defect: ∆m = 0.59167 u, B.E.: Eb = 551.1 MeV and Total energy: E = 3319×1023 MeV
Note: Any other alternate correct method/answer
PRADEEPshould & SUNILbe considered.
218

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PS NOTES

Electrification: The process of charging a body is known as electrification.

COULOMB’S LAW (J-15, M-17, M-19, M-20)

PRADEEP & SUNIL

Where 0  absolute permittivity of free space.

The magnitude of force is

Let the position vectors of charges q1 and q2 be r1 and r2

Unit of charge (M-14, J-16)

Definition of unit charge (or) (one coulomb): (M-14, M-15)

PRADEEP & SUNIL

The concept of field was introduced first by ‘Faraday’

SI unit of electric field intensity is N/C (or) V/m.

PRADEEP & SUNIL

where ̂ is the unit vector from q2 to P and so on.

ELECTRIC DIPOLE: (M-16)

PRADEEP & SUNIL

Consider an electric dipole consisting of 2 point charges –q and +q -q +q

Step II. Suppose E 2 is the electric intensity at P due to charge +q , then

Step III. The resultant intensity E at P is

The direction of E is along BP produced.

PRADEEP & SUNIL

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges

Step I. Electric intensity at P due to charge –q is

Step II. Electric intensity at P, due to charge + q is

PRADEEP & SUNIL

Consider an electric dipole

Let this dipole be held in a uniform external

Torque = Force x perpendicular distance between two forces

2. Electric field lines do not form continuous closed loops.

PRADEEP & SUNIL

SI unit of flux is Nm2C-1 (M-20)

PRADEEP & SUNIL

Step I. The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q = λ l .

∅=  E.ds +  E.ds +  E.ds

∅=  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() ………(2)

[  ds = area of curved surface of cylinder]

PRADEEP & SUNIL

Therefore total flux through the surfaces can be written as

 Eds cos() +  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() ………(2)

Step III. Equate (1) and (3), we get

PRADEEP & SUNIL

To find ‘E’ at a point P. Imagine concentric sphere of radius r.

  E 4 r 2 ………(2) [  ds =surface area of spherical Gaussian surface = 4 r 2 ]

II. E at a point lie on the surface of the spherical shell:

For a point on the surface of the sphere =

III. E at a point inside the spherical shell:

Let P be a point inside the sphere at a distance r from the centre.

PRADEEP & SUNIL

PRADEEP & SUNIL

PRADEEP & SUNIL

PROBLEMS ON GAUSS THEOREM

PRADEEP & SUNIL

Electrostatic potential difference ( V ): Electrostatic potential difference between two points in an

Consider a point charge +q at O. Let P be a point at a distance r from O.

Consider some intermediate point A at distance x from O.

PRADEEP & SUNIL

Note: Potential due to a +ve charge is +V and due to –ve charge is -V

Step I: Potential at P due to –q is, V1 

 Potential at P due dipole, V  V1  V2

PRADEEP & SUNIL