⚛️

Electrostatics
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Chapter Overview
1. Electrical charge and its types.

2. Coulomb’s law for free space and other medium.

3. Electric Field, Its representation by field lines and electric field intensity.

4. Electric flux with mathematical conditions of maximum, negative and

minimum flux.

5. Gauss’s law and its general mathematical expression.

6. Mathematical expressions for electric field intensity due to infinite sheet of

charge.

7. Electric field intensity for opposite and similar charged parallel plates.

8. Electric potential and potential gradient.

9. Condition tp achieve for absolute potential.

10. Equipotential surfaces and the work done for these surfaces.

11. Relation of K.E with electrical potential difference.

12. Electron volt (eV) and its relation with joule.

13. Capacitor and capacitance.

14. Different types of capacitors with their basic structures.

15. Charging and discharging of capacitor through resistor (RC Circuits).

16. Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor (For Vacuum and other dielectric
medium).

Electrostatics 1
 17. Series and parallel combination of capacitor.

18. Some Practice MCQs.

Concepts
Electric charge
Electrostatics:
Branch of physics that deals with the study of properties of electric charges
at rest is known as electrostatics.
Electric Charge (Q):
The intrinsic property of some particles due to which they experience
force in electric or magnetic field is called “Electric Charge”.

Like charges repel

Unlike charges attract

Unit of Charge:

SI Unit of charge is Coulomb (C).

Q: Why some particles carry charge?

Answer: Some subatomic particles (like, Proton) are consist of Quarks.
These quarks are responsible for any charge on subatomic particles.

Also the loss of gain of electron by an atom create charge, called “Ion”.

Point & Test Charge

Electrostatics 2
 Point Charge:
A point charge is an electric charge located at single point in space OR
concentrated in a mathematical point, without spatial extent. It has no area
or volume.

Point charge has dimensions much smaller than the separations

between charges, that their size can be ignored.

A point charge is used to avoid complexities in calculations.

Test Charge:

Test charge is a positive charge used to test strength of electric field of any
source charge.

The magnitude of test charge must be so small that it can be negligible.

While testing original field the test charge must not disturb or alter it.

It is denoted by symbol qo .
​

Coulomb’s law
Statement:
The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to
the product of the magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the
square of distance between their centers.

Mathematical Expression:

q1 q2
F =k 
​ ​

r2
​ ​

where k is the Coulomb’s constant. Value of k is 9 × 109 Nm2 /C 2 ,

calculated as follows:

Electrostatics 3
 1
k= 4𝜋𝜀o​
 ​

Put the expression of

kin Coulomb’s force formula:

1 q1 q2
F= 
​ ​

4𝜋𝜀o r 2
​ ​ ​

𝜀o is called ‘Permittivity of free space’. Its value is 8.854 × 10−12 C 2 /Nm2
​

Permittivity of free space is the property of air or vacuum that measures

the opposition offered against the formation of an electric field.

4πr 2 shows the spherical geometry of electric field created around

charge. (Surface area of sphere is 4πr 2 ).

Vector form of the Coulomb’s Law:

q1 q2
F12 = k r^12 
​ ​

r2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Where r^12 is the unit vector in the directed from q1 to q2 .
​ ​ ​

Force Between Two Charged particles in a Medium:

When the two charged particles are not in a vacuum or have a medium
present in between them, then the force between the particles can be
expressed as follows:

1 q1 q2
F= r^ 
​ ​

4πϵ r 2
​ ​ ​

Here,

ε is the permittivity of any other medium (air, paper , etc.).

ε
εo εr = ε
​ ​
→ εr = ​

ε o (Relative permittivity of medium).

​
​

Hence,

1 q1 q2
F= r^ 
​ ​

4πϵ0 ϵr r 2
​ ​ ​

​ ​

Electrostatics 4
 Where ϵr is the relative permittivity of any medium.
​

Electric field
Electric Field
The space or region around any charge, in which it exerts forces of
attraction or repulsion on other charges, is called its electric field.

Electric Field Lines:

Electric field is a vector field and represented by “Field lines”.

Lines of forces never intersect.

The lines are closer where the field is strong, the lines are farther apart
where the field is weak.

Electric Field Intensity:

It is the measure of strength of electric field in any point in space

around source charge.

Electric field intensity around a source charge can be defined as:

“The electric force per unit test charge is called electric field intensity”.

F
E=  ​ ​

q0​

The SI Unit for E is N/C  OR V /m.

Electric field intensity is a vector quantity and its direction is same as the
direction of the force.

Electric Field Intensity Can also given as:

Electrostatics 5
 q
E=k r^ 
r2
​ ​

This is the expression of electric field intensity due to a point charge.

From the relationship it is clear that:

Electric field intensity at a point is directly proportional to the magnitude

of the source charge.

It is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the point

from the charge.

It is independent of the magnitude of test charge.

Depends upon the medium between the point and the source charge
(i.e. permittivity of the medium).

Electric flux
Q: What is Flux?

Answer: Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel through
a surface or substance.
Electric Flux :

The total number of electric field lines passing through a given area is
defined as the electric flux.

Electrostatics 6
 Electric Flux can also be defined as:

The dot product of electric field E and the vector area Ais called “Electric
Flux”.

It is denoted by symbol ∅e .
​

ϕ = E .A The magnitude of the electric flux is given by the following

​

relationship:

ϕ = EA cosθ  ​

θ =Angle between the electric field intensity E and the vector area A.
Electric flux is a scalar quantity.

The SI Unit for Electric flux is Nm2 /C  OR V .m.

Vector Area:
Vector area represents an oriented area in 3D space. Its area is equal to the
plane figure and its direction is perpendicular to the plane.

Electrostatics 7
 Conditions For Electric Flux:

1. Maximum Flux: If Surface is held perpendicular to electric field lines so

that vector area of surface becomes parallel to electric field, the flux
through the surface will become maximum.

Mathematically:
∅e = EACosθ
​

(∅e )max = EACos0o 

​ ​

(∅e )max = EA

​ ​

2. Minimum Flux: If Surface is held parallel to electric field lines, such that
vector area of surface becomes perpendicular to electric field, the flux
through the surface will become minimum.
Mathematically:

∅e = EACosθ
​

(∅e )min = EACos90o 

​ ​

(∅e )min = 0
​ ​

3. Negative Flux: If the electric field line penetrating through a surface in

such a way that the vector area A is antiparallel to electric field E, then

Electrostatics 8
 the electric flux will be negative.
Mathematically:
∅e = EACosθ
​

(∅e )−max = EACos180o 

​ ​

(∅e )−max = −EA

​ ​

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY:

The number of electric lines of forces passing perpendicular to the surface
per unit area of the surface is known as electric flux density the surface.
Since
ϕ = EA,
Therefore:

ϕ
E=  ​ ​

A
Gauss’s law
Statement:
The total electric flux passing through a closed surface of any shape is
equal to the net charge enclosed by the surface divided by the permittivity
of free space ϵ0 . ​

Mathematical Expression:
charge enclosed
Total flux = permitivity of f ree space  ​

Qenclosed
ϕ= 
​

​ ​

ϵ0 ​

Electric intensity due to thin sheet of charges

Electrostatics 9
 σ
E= 
2ϵ0
​ ​

Here, σ  is the charge density of the sheet ϵ0 is the permittivity of free
​

space.

This is the equation of electric field intensity at any point from an infinite
sheet of charges.

In vector form:

σ
E= r^ 
2ϵ0
​ ​

Where
r^is the unit vector in the direction of electric field intensity
• In case of positive sheet of electric charges it is directed away from the
sheet
• In case of negative sheet of electric charges it is directed towards the
sheet.

Note: Electric field intensity at a point from an infinite sheet of charges is

independent of the distance of the point from the sheet of the charges.

Electrostatics 10
 Electric intensity between two opposite charged
sheets

Consider two parallel thin sheet of charges of infinite extent placed face to
face with each other. Let plate Abe positively charged and plate Bbe
negatively charged. If P is a point in between plates Aand B. Then:
σ
EP = ​  ​ ​

ϵ0​

Where,

σ is the charge density

ϵo is the permittivity of free space
​

Electrostatics 11
 The expression above shows that the electric field intensity at any point
between two sheets of charges is:

Directly proportional to the surface charge density on the plates.

Depends upon the medium between two sheets of charges.

Independent of the distance from any one of the two sheets of charges.

In vector form:

σ
E= r^  ​ ​

ϵ0 ​

Where
r^is the unit vector in the direction of electric field intensity.
NOTE: Electric field intensity at point ‘P’ midway between two similar
charged plates is equal to zero, as the two fields cancel each other at
midway between the two plates.
Electric potential
Electric Potential
The work done per unit charge in moving it from one point to another point
in an electric field is called electric potential difference.

The SI unit of electric potential difference is Joule/Coulomb (J /C),

called Volt (V ). It is a scalar quantity.

ΔW
ΔV =  ​ ​

q0
​

Definition of Volt

If 1
C of charge is displaced against the electric field doing 1 J of
work in it then the electric potential is said to be 1 V .

Electric Potential Difference Between Two Points

Consider a test charge placed in an electric field created by positive source

charge. The force experience by test charge is F = qo E . External work is
​

Electrostatics 12
 required to move test charge against electric field thorough a distance ∆r .
This work is stored in the form of electric potential energy.

ΔW = F .Δr 
Since, force F is in the direction of the displacement Δr , work done can be
expressed as:

ΔW = qo E .Δr  ​

ΔW = qo E Δrcos180° ​

ΔW = −qo E Δr  ​

ΔW
qo​
​ = −EΔr 
ΔV = −EΔr 
E = − ΔV
Δr  ​

The above expression represents maximum rate of change of potential with

respect to the distance, known as “Potential Gradient”. Electric field
intensity can also be calculated from negative potential gradient.
Absolute potential
Absolute potential at a point in an electric field may be defined as the
amount of work done per unit charge when the charge is moved from
infinity to that point.

The point at infinity is outside the electric field. Hence it will be at zero
potential (no work done to move a test charge).

The formula for potential difference can be used to find Absolute potential
at point Bprovided that point Ais assumed to be at infinity (i.e. point Ais
at zero potential).
Taking rA ​
= ∞the absolute potential at point Bis given by:
VB = ​
q
(1
4πϵ0 rB ​
​

​
​
1
−∞ )
​ ∵ rA = ∞ and VA = 0
​ ​

1
as ∞ ​ = 0
VB =
q
( 1 )
4πϵ0 rB ​
​

​
​

Electrostatics 13
 1 q
VB = ( )
4πϵ0 rB
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

In general we can write this relation for any distance r from source
charge,

1 q
V = 
4πϵ0 r
​ ​ ​

For a positive charge, potential is taken as positive.

For a negative charge, potential is taken as negative.

Equipotential surfaces
In an electric field, there the points at which same electrostatic potential
exist. A surface passing through such points is known as equipotential
surface.

On such a surface, the potential energy of a charged particle remains

same at all points, so a charge can move on such a surface without
doing any work against electric field. It implies that an equipotential
surface must be perpendicular on the field at all points.

Work done to move a charge on a surface of equipotential surface is 0

J.
ΔW = 0

Relationship between kinetic energy and

potential difference
ΔW
Since, Potential difference is ΔV = 
q
​

ΔW is the work done, and it is also equal to the change in potential energy
ΔU . When a charge looses electrical potential energy it gains an equal
amount of kinetic energy and vice versa. Hence if a charge is allowed to fall
through or (accelerated by) a potential difference (ΔV )then it loses
potential energy which can be given by:
ΔW = qΔV 

Electrostatics 14
 OR
ΔU = qΔV 
At the same time the charge will gain an equal amount of kinetic energy.
Which can be expressed as:

ΔU = 12 mv2 
​

1
In other words : mv2 = qΔV
2
​

Electron volt
The electron volt is the unit of energy which is defined as the amount of
energy acquired or lost by an electron when it is displaced across two
points having a
potential difference of 1 V . It is denoted by eV .

1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J  ​

Capacitors and capacitance

Capacitor :
A capacitor is a device that can store electric charge or electrical energy.

A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between

its plates.

It consists of two metal plates placed near one another separated by air,
vacuum or any other insulator. When plates of a capacitor are connected
with a battery of voltage V , the battery places a charge +Q on the plate
connected with its positive terminal and a charge −Qon the other plate
which is connected to its negative terminal. It is found that amount of
charge on one plate of capacitor Qis directly proportional to the potential
difference.
Q ∝V
Q = CV  ​

Where, C is the constant of proportionality and is called capacitance of the

capacitor. Its value depends upon the geometry and medium between them.

Electrostatics 15
 Capacitance :
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is called capacitance of a
capacitor.

It can also be defined as the amount of charge on one plate necessary

to raise the potential of the plate by one volt with respect to the other.

Mathematically it is described as:

Q
C= ​ 
​

V
SI Unit is C/V . It is also called Farad (F ).

Submultiples of Farad are:

1μF = 10−6 F 
1pF = 10−12 F 
Unit of Capacitance: Farad (F )

When 1 C of electric charges is stored on the plates of the capacitor when
the potential difference on its plates is 1 V then the capacitance of the
capacitor will be 1 F .

Electrostatics 16
 Types Of Capacitors
1. VARIABLE CAPACITOR:
A variable capacitor is a device that can change its ability to store
electric charge by moving metal plates closer or farther apart and
changing the effective area of plates.

They used in various electrical circuits, e.g. radio circuits.

A variable capacitor generally consists of two sets of pole plates

insulated from each other: a fixed set of pole plates is called
a stator, and a movable set of pole plates is called a rotor.

2. FILM CAPACITOR:

A film capacitor is a non-polarized capacitor that uses polymer film as

the dielectric.

Film Capacitor is one of the most popular and widely used

capacitors due to its flexibility and inexpensive cost.

The dielectric used in this sort of capacitor can be any form of film.
‘Winded film capacitors’ contain a polymer film that is wound and
pressed, and inserted into a case. ‘Layered film capacitors’ contain
multiple layers of polymer film inserted into a case.

Electrostatics 17
 3. CERAMIC CAPACITOR:
A ceramic capacitor is a fixed-value capacitor where the ceramic
material acts as the dielectric. There are two types of ceramic
capacitors multi-layer and disc capacitors , hence also called ‘Disk
capacitors’.

This capacitor consists of more number of alternating layers of

ceramic and also a metal layer which acts as an electrode.

Ceramic capacitors are one of the most widely and commonly used
types of capacitors in electrical systems and circuitry.

Ceramic capacitors are generally made with very small capacitance

values that typically range from 1nF and 1µF.

4. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR:
An electrolytic capacitor is a sort of capacitor that utilizes an electrolyte
to obtain greater capacitance. An electrolyte is a gel or fluid in which
the concentration of ions is very high.

Electrostatics 18
 They have higher capacitance than other capacitors, which means
they can store more charge for a given voltage.

They are usually polarized, meaning they have a positive and a

negative terminal that must be connected correctly.

It is used in DC power supply circuits to reduce the ripple voltage.

Charging And Discharging Of Capacitors (RC

Circuits)
RC CIRCUITS :
RC circuits are electrical circuits that have both a capacitor (C) and a
resistor (R) , driven by a current/voltage source.
RC Circuit: Charging & Discharging Of Capacitor:

The charging and discharging of the capacitor is not an instant process but
takes some time.
Consider the resistor (R) and capacitor (C) are connected in series, with a
battery of potential difference (V) through a switch.

1. Charging Of Capacitor :

Electrostatics 19
 When the switch is at position 1, the capacitor begins to store charge Q.
If the maximum charge that can be stored on capacitor is Qo , it will
​

require an infinite time interval to charge capacitor. At any time t, the
charge stored on capacitor is given by the following equation:

Q = Qo (1 − e− RC )
t
​

where,
Q= charge stored at any time t.
Qo = maximum charge that can be stored.
​

RC = time constant.
Time constant 𝜏 :

RC (time constant) determines the rate at which capacitor charges

(or discharges) itself through a resistor.
τ = RC 
Mathematically:
If, t = τ = RC 
Q = Qo (1 − e− RC )
τ
​

Q = Qo (1 − e−1 )
​

Q = Qo (1 − 1/e)
​

Q = Qo (1 − 0.368)
​

Q = 0.632 Qo  ​ ​

which means 63.2% charge of its maximum charge Qo . Hence:​

“Time required for a capacitor to charge or discharge to 63% of its

maximum charge is called ‘time constant’ “.

Electrostatics 20
 2. Discharging Of Capacitor:

When switch is moved to position 2, i.e. battery disconnected, the

charge starts to move from capacitor to the resistor R.

Mathematically:
t
Q = Qo (1 − e− RC )
​
​

at, t = τ = RC 
Q = Qo (e− RC )
RC
​

Q = Qo e−1 
​

Q = Qo 1/e
​

Q = Qo (0.368)
​

Q = 0.368 Qo  ​ ​

Above equation shows that the charge left on the capacitor plates is
36.8% of its maximum charge Qo . ​

Electrostatics 21
 It can be also said that time required for a capacitor to discharge to
63% of its maximum charge is called time constant.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

Consider a parallel plate capacitor consists of two plane metal plates, each
of area A, separated by a distance das shown in figure below:

The expression of capacitance for a parallel plate capacitor, whose plates

are separated by air/vacuum is given as:

Aϵ0
C=
​

​ 
​

Electrostatics 22
 From the above equation it is clear that the capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor is:

Directly proportional to the area of cross section of the plates

Inversely proportional to the distance between the plates of the

capacitor

Depends upon the medium between the plates of the capacitor.

Independent of Qand V .

Effect of Dielectric Medium on the Capacitance of a Parallel Plate

Capacitor
The expression of capacitance of capacitor when a dielectric medium of
dielectric constant ϵr is placed between the plates of capacitor will be:
​

Aϵ0 ϵr
Cmed = 
​ ​

​ ​ ​

d
As ϵr ​ > 1, the capacitance of capacitor increases ϵr times when a
​

dielectric medium is placed between plates of a capacitor.

Capacitance Of A Compound Capacitor :

Compound capacitor is one in which the space between the plates is either
partially filled with dielectric medium and rest by air. Or it is filled two
separate dielectric media.

Electrostatics 23
 Let the separation of plates be dand the space between plates be filled by
dielectric medium of thickness twhere t < d. The remaining space (d − t)
will be filled with air. For this capacitor the actual air thickness is (d − t)and
t
equivalent air thickness will be .
ϵr
​

The capacitance of such a partially filled capacitor is given by:

Aϵ0
C= 
​

t
​ ​

(d − t) + ϵr

Combination of capacitors : parallel & series

When two or more capacitors are connected together to provide specific
values of capacitances, it is called a combination of capacitors.
There are two types of combinations for capacitors:

1. Parallel combination

2. Series combination

Parallel Combination Of Capacitors :

When two or more capacitors are connected across the same two points
(terminals of the battery) then capacitors are said to be in parallel
combination.

Electrostatics 24
 In a parallel combination, the potential difference across each
capacitor is the same, but each capacitor will store a different charge
according to its capacitance.

Equivalent Capacitance of Capacitors Connected in Parallel

Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1 , C2 and C3 connected in

​ ​ ​

parallel across a battery of voltage (potential difference) V as shown in the

circuit diagram above. The equation for their equivalence capacitance is
given as:

Ce = C1 + C2 + C3 
​ ​ ​ ​

When two or more capacitors are connected in parallel their equivalent

Capacitance is equal to the sum of the capacitances of each individual
capacitor. Hence, for parallel combination equivalent capacitance is
always greater than the largest individual capacitance (Ce > C).
​

Series Combination Of Capacitors :

Two or more capacitors are said to be connected in series if they are
connected end to end, as shown in figure.

In a series combination, the potential difference across each capacitor

is different, but each capacitor will store the same amount of charge.

Electrostatics 25
 Equivalent Capacitance of Capacitors Connected in Series

Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1 , C2  and C3 connected in

​ ​ ​

series across a battery of voltage V as shown in the figure. The equation
for their equivalence capacitance is given as:

1 1 1 1
= +​ + ​ ​ ​ 
​

Ce C1 C2 C3
​ ​ ​ ​

When two or more capacitors are connected in series the reciprocal of

their equivalent Capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocal
capacitances of each individual capacitor. That is why equivalent
capacitance for series combination is always smaller than the smallest
individual capacitance (Ce < C). ​

Questions
1. The SI unit of Product of resistance and capacitance is:
a) Second b) Newton c) Coulomb d) Weber

2. On equipotential surface, work done in moving a charge particle is:

a) Positive b) Negative c) Infinity d) Zero

3. Charge on a proton is:

Electrostatics 26
 a) 1.6 × 10−19 C  b) 1.6 × 10+19 C 
c)
9.1 × 10−31 C  d) 1.67 × 10−27 C
4. Which of the following expression is correct:
a)
ϵ = ϵo  ​ b) ϵ < ϵo 
​ c) ϵ > ϵo  ​ d) None of these

5. The numeric value of relative permittivity for air is consider as:

a) 0.1 b) 1 c) 0 d) 10

6. Electric flux through the surface of a sphere which contains a charge at its
center depends on the:

a) Amount of charge outside the sphere b) Surface area of the sphere.

c) Radius of the sphere d) Amount of charge inside the
sphere

7. 1 V/m = _______
a)
1 N/C  b) 3 × 1010 N/C  c) 109 N/C  d) None of these

8. With the introduction of a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor, its

capacitance:

a) decreases b) remains constant c) increases d) becomes

zero

9. If a charged body is moved in an electric field against the Coulomb force,

then:
a) Work is done by the electric field
b) Electric field intensity decreases
c) The total energy of the system decreases
d) Work is done on the body by an external agent

10. Joule per coulomb is called :

a) Farad b) Ampere c) Volt d) Henry

11. Electric field lines never:

Electrostatics 27
 a) Attract each other b) Repel each other
c) Intersect each other d) none of the above

12. When vector area is held perpendicular to the field lines, then the
magnitude of electric flux is:
a) Negative b) Maximum c) Infinite d) Zero

13. The relationship between frequency, capacitance, and capacitor reactance

is given by:
1
a) Capacitance reactance = 2πf c
 ​ b) Capacitance reactance =
1
2πf 
​

c) Capacitance reactance =
1 1
2f c

​ d) Capacitance reactance = 4πf c  ​

14. The electric intensity near an infinite plate of positive charge will be:
q σ q σ
a)  b)  c)  d) 
ϵ0 2ϵ0 A ϵ0
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

15. Absolute electric potential, due to point charge of 1 C at a distance of 1m is

given by:
a) 9 × 106 V  b) 9 × 107 V 
c)
9 × 108 V  d) 9 × 109 V 

16. Dielectric constant for a metal is:

a) Zero b) Infinite c) 1 d) 10

17. One electron volt is equal to:

a) 6.25 × 1018 J  b) 6.25 × 10−18 J 
c)
1.6 × 10−19 J  d) 9.1 × 10−31 J 

18. If a positive charge particle is allowed to move from positive to negative

plate, it will gain:
a) Kinetic Energy b) Gravitational Energy
c) Electric Potential Energy d) Chemical Energy

19. Which one is a polarized capacitor?

Electrostatics 28
 a) Ceramic capacitor b) Electrolytic capacitor
c) Silver capacitor d) Teflon capacitor

20. If ‘Q’ is the charge on either of the plates of a parallel plate capacitor of
area A, the surface charge density on the plate is given by:
A Q Q 2A
a) σ = Q
​
b) σ= 2A 
​
c) σ = A
​
d) σ = Q
​

Answer Key:

1. a 11. c

2. d 12. d

3. a 13. a

4. c 14. b

5. b 15. d

6. d 16. b

7. a 17. c

8. c 18. a

9. d 19. b

10. c 20. c

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Electrostatics 29