Module 5: Equilibrium and Acid Reactions

Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

Inquiry question: What happens when chemical reactions do not go through to completion?
● conduct practical investigations to analyse the reversibility of chemical reactions, for example:
o cobalt(II) chloride hydrated and dehydrated
o iron(III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate
o burning magnesium
o burning steel wool (ACSCH090)
● model static and dynamic equilibrium and analyse the differences between open and closed systems
(ACSCH079, ACSCH091)
● analyse examples of non-equilibrium systems in terms of the effect of entropy and enthalpy, for
example:
o combustion reactions
o photosynthesis
● investigate the relationship between collision theory and reaction rate in order to analyse chemical
equilibrium reactions (ACSCH070, ACSCH094)

● Open systems can exchange both matter and energy with the surroundings. Closed systems can
only exchange energy with the surroundings.
● Irreversible reactions are reactions where products cannot reform reactants. They go to
completion.
● Reversible reactions are reactions where products can react again to form reactants. They do not
go to completion (in a closed system).
● If product particles collide with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy of the reverse
reaction, it is possible to reform reactant products, thus leading to a reversible reaction.
o Reactions where the activation energies for the forward and reverse reactions are similar
are likely to be reversible.
● Equilibrium is the state when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. At
equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products are constant and there are no
macroscopic changes.
o Dynamic equilibrium is a state when both the forward and reverse reactions are equal and
non-zero.
▪ The reaction has not gone to completion and all substances are present in the
equilibrium mixture at constant concentrations.
▪ At the microscopic level, there is still constant conversion from reactants to products
and vice versa.
▪ Dynamic equilibrium can only be achieved by reversible reactions in closed systems.
o Static equilibrium is a state when both the forward and reverse reactions are almost zero.
▪ There is virtually no interchange between reactants and products at the microscopic
level.
● Systems that are effectively irreversible never reach an equilibrium state and are called non-
equilibrium systems. Examples of non-equilibrium systems include combustion and photosynthesis.
 ● Yield refers to extent of reaction (the extent of conversion of reactants into products) and how far
right the equilibrium lies.
● Rate of reaction is a measure of the rate of change in concentration of the reactants and products.
It is separate from yield.
Calculating the Equilibrium Constant (Keq)
Inquiry question: How can the position of equilibrium be described and what does the equilibrium constant
represent?
● deduce the equilibrium expression (in terms of Keq) for homogeneous reactions occurring in solution
(ACSCH079, ACSCH096)
● perform calculations to find the value of Keq and concentrations of substances within an equilibrium
system, and use these values to make predictions on the direction in which a reaction may proceed
(ACSCH096)
● qualitatively analyse the effect of temperature on the value of Keq (ACSCH093)
● conduct an investigation to determine Keq of a chemical equilibrium system, for example:
o Keq of the iron(III) thiocyanate equilibrium (ACSCH096)
● explore the use of Keq for different types of chemical reactions, including but not limited to:
o dissociation of ionic solutions
o dissociation of acids and bases (ACSCH098, ACSCH099)

● The equilibrium constant (Keq) is a constant for a particular chemical reaction at a particular
temperature when the system is at equilibrium.
● For the equation aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD, the equilibrium expression is given by:

● The reaction quotient (Q) has the same expression as the equilibrium constant but can be
calculated at any stage of the chemical reaction. The reaction quotient is equal to the equilibrium
constant at equilibrium.
● PRODUCTS OVER REACTANTS
● Homogeneous reactions are reactions where all chemical species are in the same state.
● Heterogeneous reactions are reactions where chemical species are in different states.
● Pure solids and liquids are assigned a concentration of 1.
Value of Keq Position of Equilibrium
-4
Very small (Keq<10 ) Equilibrium lies far to the left
Between (10-4<Keq<104) Equilibrium lies in the middle
4
Very large (Keq>10 ) Equilibrium lies far to the right
● Equilibrium constant only changes with temperature.
Factors that Affect Equilibrium
Inquiry question: What factors affect equilibrium and how?
● investigate the effects of temperature, concentration, volume and/or pressure on a system at
equilibrium and explain how Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict such effects, for example:
o heating cobalt(II) chloride hydrate
o interaction between nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide
o iron(III) thiocyanate and varying concentration of ions (ACSCH095)
● explain the overall observations about equilibrium in terms of the collision theory (ACSCH094)
● examine how activation energy and heat of reaction affect the position of equilibrium
● The relative amounts of reactants and products at equilibrium is called the position of
equilibrium.
● An equilibrium can be disturbed by:
o changing the concentration of a reactant or product
o changing the pressure (through a change in volume) (for an equilibrium involving gases)
o dilution (for an equilibrium in solution)
o changing the temperature
● Le Chatelier’s Principle states that if a system at equilibrium is disturbed, it will shift in the direction
which minimises/opposes the disturbance.
● Concentration
o LCP: Increasing/decreasing the concentration of a chemical species causes the system to
shift in the direction which decreases/increases the concentration of the species and
minimises the disturbance.
o Collision Theory: Increasing/decreasing the concentration of a chemical species
increases/decreases the number of particles per unit volume that can collide with energy
equal to or greater than the activation energy. Frequency of successful collisions
increases/decreases and hence, rate of reaction of the corresponding direction
increases/decreases.
o Equilibrium Constant and Reaction Quotient: Increasing/decreasing the concentration of a
chemical species offsets the reaction quotient. For the system to reach equilibrium again,
the system must shift in the direction which increases/decreases the reaction quotient such
that it equals the equilibrium constant again.
● Pressure (and volume)
o LCP: Increasing/decreasing the pressure (through a decrease/increase in volume) causes the
system to shift in the direction with the least/most gaseous moles to decrease/increase the
pressure and minimise the disturbance.
o Collision Theory: (By Boyle’s Law, decreasing/increasing the volume increases/decreases the
pressure of the system.) Increasing/decreasing the pressure increases the number of
particles per unit volume that can collide with sufficient energy of the side with more/less
gaseous moles relative to the side with less/more gaseous moles. Frequency of successful
collisions increases and hence, the rate of reaction of the corresponding direction increases
relatively.
o If there are equal amounts of gaseous moles on both sides, pressure/volume changes do not
disturb the equilibrium.
o The addition of an inert gas does not change the partial pressures of the gaseous species
and hence, does not disturb the equilibrium.
● Dilution
o LCP: Adding water reduces the overall concentration of aqueous species and disturbs the
equilibrium. The system will shift in the direction which produces more aqueous moles to
increase concentration again and minimise the disturbance.
o Collision Theory: Adding water increases the number of particles per unit volume that can
collide with sufficient energy of the side with less aqueous moles relative to the side with
more aqueous moles. Frequency of successful collisions increases and hence, the rate of
reaction of the corresponding direction increases relatively.
 ● Temperature
o LCP: Increasing/decreasing the temperature causes the system to shift in the heat absorbing
endothermic/heat liberating exothermic direction to minimise the disturbance.
o Collision Theory: Increasing/decreasing temperature increases the proportion of particles
colliding with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy of the reactants of the
endothermic/exothermic direction relative to the reactants of the exothermic/endothermic
direction. Frequency of successful collisions increases and hence, the rate of reaction of the
corresponding direction increases relatively.
● The addition of a catalyst decreases the activation energy of both the forward and reverse
reactions equally. Hence, there is an equal increase in rate, and no change in the equilibrium
position and equilibrium constant. However, it will decrease the time at which the equilibrium is
attained.
Solution Equilibria
Inquiry question: How does solubility relate to chemical equilibrium?
● describe and analyse the processes involved in the dissolution of ionic compounds in water
● investigate the use of solubility equilibria by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples when
removing toxicity from foods, for example:
o toxins in cycad fruit
● conduct an investigation to determine solubility rules, and predict and analyse the composition of
substances when two ionic solutions are mixed, for example:
o potassium chloride and silver nitrate
o potassium iodide and lead nitrate
o sodium sulfate and barium nitrate (ACSCH065)
● derive equilibrium expressions for saturated solutions in terms of Ksp and calculate the solubility of
an ionic substance from its Ksp value
● predict the formation of a precipitate given the standard reference values for K sp

● When an ionic substance dissolves:

o The partially positive hydrogen atoms and the partially negative oxygen atoms of the water
molecules form ion-dipole forces with the anions and cations of the ionic substances
respectively.
o The ion-dipole forces overpower both the ionic bonds between ions and the hydrogen
bonding between water molecules, and the ions are dragged out from the lattice.
o More water molecules surround the dragged-out ions to form hydration spheres. At this
stage, the ions are solvated and have dissolved.
● Solubility is a measure of the maximum amount of solute which can dissolve per amount of solvent
at a specific temperature. Solubility varies due to the varying strength of ionic bonds and ion dipole
forces formed with water.
● A saturated solution is a solution containing the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
at a particular temperature.
o When a solution is saturated, the solid is at equilibrium with its dissolved, ionic constituents.
That is, the solid is dissolving at the same rate as the ions are crystallising.
● The solubility product (Ksp) is the equilibrium constant for the reversible dissolution reaction of a
particular ionic substance.
 o Ksp can only be used to compare the solubilities of salts which dissociate into the same
number of ions.
● The ionic product is the reaction quotient for the reversible dissolution reaction of a particular ionic
substance.
● When Q is greater than Ksp, a precipitate will form. If it is less than Ksp, then no precipitate will form.
● The common ion effect refers to the decrease in solubility of an ionic compound when its salt is
added to a solution with an ion in common.
● Aboriginal people in New South Wales used two leaching methods to detoxify cycads:
o briefly roasting the seeds and then leaching them in water for a short period of time.
o leaching the fruit for longer periods of time.
● Another method is ageing, whereby the seeds are laid underneath the trees for some months and
then collected. Alternatively, the seeds are dried and stored or buried for several months.
● Bitter yams are leached in running water to remove toxic oxalates. The constant removal of
aqueous toxins by the running water disturbs the equilibrium of the oxalates in solution and
continually shifts the equilibrium to the right, allowing more to dissolve.
 Module 6: Acid/Base Reactions
Properties of Acids and Bases
● investigate the correct IUPAC nomenclature and properties of common inorganic acids and bases
(ACSCH067)
● conduct an investigation to demonstrate the preparation and use of indicators as illustrators of the
characteristics and properties of acids and bases and their reversible reactions (ACSCH101)
● predict the products of acid reactions and write balanced equations to represent:
o acids and bases
o acids and carbonates
o acids and metals (ACSCH067)
● investigate applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday life and industrial processes
● conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of neutralisation (ACSCH093)
● explore the changes in definitions and models of an acid and a base over time to explain the
limitations of each model, including but not limited to:
o Arrhenius’ theory
o Brønsted–Lowry theory (ACSCH064, ACSCH067)

● Properties of acids and bases:

Acids Bases
● turn purple/blue litmus red ● turn purple/red litmus blue
● tend to be corrosive ● are caustic and feel slippery
● taste sour ● taste bitter
● react with bases ● react with acids
● solutions have a pH below 7.0 ● solutions have a pH above 7.0
● solutions conduct an electric current ● solutions conduct an electric current

● Common acids and their everyday uses:

Name Formula Uses
hydrochloric (monoprotic) HCl present in stomach acid for
(strong) breaking down proteins,
used as a cleaning agent for
brickwork
sulfuric acid (diprotic) H2SO4 used in car batteries and in
(strong) the manufacture of
fertilisers, dyes and
detergents
nitric acid (monoprotic) HNO3 used in the manufacture of
(strong) fertilisers, dyes and
explosives
ethanoic acid (acetic acid) CH3COOH found in vinegar, used as a
(monoprotic) preservative in the
manufacture of glues and
plastics
carbonic acid (diprotic) H2CO3 used to carbonate soft
drinks and beer
phosphoric acid (triprotic) H3PO4 used as a flavouring acid
and in the manufacture of
fertilisers and
 pharmaceutical products
citric acid (triprotic) C6H8O7 found in citrus fruits; used
as a flavouring and a
preservative

● Common bases and their everyday uses:

Name Formula Uses
Sodium hydroxide (caustic NaOH drain and oven cleaners,
soda) soap-making
Ammonia NH3 household cleaners,
fertilisers, explosives,
plastics manufacture
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 cement and mortar, garden
lime, food preparation
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 antacids such as milk of
magnesia, to treat
indigestion
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 manufacture of washing
powders, soap, glass, paper
● The Arrhenius theory defined:
o acids as substances which ionise in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+).
o bases as substances which dissociate in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH-).
● Strong acids ionise completely, while weak acids only ionise partially. Complete ionisation is shown
by a full arrow, while partial ionisation is shown by a reversible arrow.
● Advantages of the Arrhenius theory included:
o works for aqueous solutions, in which m tv ost acid base reactions occur.
o is simplistic and convenient.
o helped explain strong and weak acids.
o led to the development of the pH scale.
● Limitations of the Arrhenius theory included:
o acid-base reactions were restricted to aqueous solutions.
o could not explain why some salt solutions were neutral while some were acidic/basic.
o could not explain why metallic oxides and carbonate were basic but did not contain OH -.
o did not account for the role of the solvent.
● The Bronsted-Lowry theory classifies acids as substances which donates a proton (H+) to a base and
bases as substances which accept a proton from an acid.
o Acids are proton donors
o Bases are proton acceptors
● An acid-base reaction occurs when there is a proton transfer from acid to base.
● Hydronium ion: H3O+
● Advantages of the Bronsted-Lowry theory included:
o acid-base reactions were not restricted to aqueous solutions. e.g. HCl (g) + NH3(g) 🡪 NH4Cl (NH4+
+ Cl-)
● Limitations of the Bronsted-Lowry theory included:
o cannot explain some reactions involving non-metal oxides and metal oxides.
o cannot account for the acidic nature of some substances like AlCl 3 and BF3 which do not
contain hydrogen.
● A conjugate acid-base pair is two molecules or ions that differ by one proton (H+). The conjugate
acid forms the conjugate base by giving away a proton.
o e.g. HCl(g) + H2O(l) 🡪 H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
 o HCl and Cl- are a conjugate pair.
o H3O+ and H2O are also a conjugate pair.
● Substances that can either donate or accept a proton are called amphiprotic.
o e.g. HCl(g) + H2O(l) 🡪 H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
o NH3(aq) + H2O(l) 🡪 NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
o Here, H2O can both donate and accept a proton, making it amphiprotic.
● Substances that can act as either an acid or a base are called amphoteric.
o Amphiprotic substances are amphoteric in terms of Bronsted-Lowry theory.
● Monoprotic acids can only donate one proton.
o e.g. HCl:
▪ HCl(aq) 🡪 H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
● Polyprotic acids can donate more than one proton, and dissociate in multiple stages.
● Diprotic acids can donate 2 protons.
o e.g. H2SO4:
▪ 1st dissociation: H2SO4(aq) 🡪 H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)
▪ 2nd dissociation: HSO4+(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
● Triprotic acids can donate 3 protons.
o e.g. H3PO4:
▪ 1st dissociation: H3PO4(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + H2PO4-(aq)
▪ 2nd dissociation: H2PO4-(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + HPO42-(aq)
▪ 3rd dissociation: HPO42-(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
● Subsequent dissociations always occur to a lesser extent due to the greater energy required to
separate a positive hydrogen ion from a more negative charge.
● acid + active metal 🡪 salt + hydrogen gas
● acid + metal hydroxide 🡪 salt + water
● acid + metal carbonate/hydrogen metal carbonate 🡪 salt + water + carbon dioxide
● Neutralisation reactions involve the balancing of hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations by
reacting an acid with a base stoichiometrically.
● Enthalpy of neutralisation is the heat released in the reaction between an acid and a base
producing a salt and 1 mole of water.

● Applications of neutralisation reactions:

o Cooking:
▪ Some acids (e.g. tartaric acid) act as leavening agents, reacting with NaHCO 3 to help
cakes rise.
o Medication:
▪ Antacid tablets contain a base such as CaCO3 or Mg(OH)2 can relieve the symptoms
of reflux by neutralising excess acid secretions in the stomach.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) 🡪 CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl (aq) 🡪 MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
o Industry:
▪ Ammonia reacts with nitric acid or sulfuric acid to form excellent synthetic fertilisers.
NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) 🡪 NH4NO3(aq)
2NH3(g) + H2SO4(g) 🡪 (NH4)2SO4(aq)
▪ to clean up corrosive acid and base spills
▪ neutralise acidic/basic wastewater

Using Brønsted–Lowry Theory

● conduct a practical investigation to measure the pH of a range of acids and bases
 ● calculate pH, pOH, hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) and hydroxide ion concentration ([OH–]) for a
range of solutions (ACSCH102)
● conduct an investigation to demonstrate the use of pH to indicate the differences between the
strength of acids and bases (ACSCH102)
● write ionic equations to represent the dissociation of acids and bases in water, conjugate acid/base
pairs in solution and amphiprotic nature of some salts, for example:
o sodium hydrogen carbonate
o potassium dihydrogen phosphate
● construct models and/or animations to communicate the differences between strong, weak,
concentrated and dilute acids and bases (ACSCH099)
● calculate the pH of the resultant solution when solutions of acids and/or bases are diluted or mixed

● In terms of Bronsted-Lowry theory, the strength of an acid/base is the measure of its ability to
donate/accept a proton.
● The stronger an acid/base, the weaker its conjugate base/acid.
o A strong acid/base has an extremely weak conjugate base/acid.
o A weak acid/base has a weak conjugate base/acid.
● Pure water undergoes self-ionisation to a very small extent:
o 2H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
o At 25°C, the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- are 10-7 mol/L.
o ionic product of water: Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1.0 X 10-14 at 25°C

● For acids: pH < 7, [H3O+] > 1.0 X 10-7mol/L, [OH-] < 1.0 X 10-7mol/L
● For acids: pH > 7, [H3O+] < 1.0 X 10-7mol/L, [OH-] > 1.0 X 10-7mol/L
● Indicators are weak acids or weak bases which change colour depending on the pH of a substance it
is exposed to.
● The pH of a repeatedly diluted acid/base will tend to 7 from below/above.

Quantitative Analysis
● conduct practical investigations to analyse the concentration of an unknown acid or base by
titration
● investigate titration curves and conductivity graphs to analyse data to indicate characteristic
reaction profiles, for example:
o strong acid/strong base
o strong acid/weak base
o weak acid/strong base (ACSCH080, ACSCH102)
● model neutralisation of strong and weak acids and bases using a variety of media
● calculate and apply the dissociation constant (Ka) and pKa (pKa = -log10 (Ka)) to determine the
difference between strong and weak acids (ACSCH098)
● explore acid/base analysis techniques that are applied:
o in industries
o by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
o using digital probes and instruments
● conduct a chemical analysis of a common household substance for its acidity or basicity (ACSCH080)
, for example:
 o soft drink
o wine
o juice
o medicine
● conduct a practical investigation to prepare a buffer and demonstrate its properties (ACSCH080)

● describe the importance of buffers in natural systems (ACSCH098, ACSCH102)

● A primary standard should be:

o readily obtainable in pure form
o have a known chemical formula
o not absorb water from atmosphere
o be easy to store without deteriorating or reacting with the atmosphere
o have a high molar mass to minimise the effect of errors in weighing
o be soluble
● Examples of primary standards:
o acids
▪ oxalic acid dihydrate (H2C2O4 ·2H2O)
▪ potassium hydrogen phthalate (KH(C8H4O4))
o bases
▪ anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
▪ sodium borate (Na2B4O7 ·10H2O) 
● Preparing a Primary Standard Solution (e.g. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate)
1. Dry a sample of sodium hydrogen carbonate in the drying oven.
2. Place the dried sample in a desiccator and allow for it to cool to room temperature.
3. Weigh out 2.10g of the anhydrous sodium hydrogen carbonate in a clean, dry 100mL beaker.
4. Add distilled water to the beaker and stir with a clean stirring rod until all the sodium hydrogen
carbonate dissolves.
5. Rinse a 250mL volumetric flask with distilled water 3 times.
6. Transfer the solution from the beaker into the volumetric flask using a clean glass funnel.
7. Rinse any excess solution in the beaker, glass funnel and stirring rod into the flask using a wash
bottle filled with distilled water, removing the glass funnel afterwards.
8. Add distilled water to the volumetric flask until the bottom of the meniscus sits in line with the
graduated mark, using a Pasteur pipette for the final few drops.
9. Stopper the volumetric flask and invert 10 times.
● Titration is a form of volumetric analysis that is used to determine the concentration of an
unknown solution by titrating it against a standard solution of known volume.
● A volumetric flask holds a specific and accurately-known volume of solution.
● A pipette delivers a specific and accurately-known volume of solution.
● A burette delivers a variable but accurately-known volume of solution.
● During a titration, an acid/base is added to a base/acid until equivalence point is reached. At
equivalence point, the quantities of acid and base are stoichiometric and all the reactants have
reacted completely.
● The end point is the point during the titration at which the indicator changes colour permanently. It
is used to estimate the equivalence point.
● Acid-Base Titration (e.g. titrating hydrochloric acid against sodium hydrogen carbonate):
1. Rinse the 50mL burette 3 times with distilled water and then 3 times with the hydrochloric acid.
2. Rinse the 25.00mL bulb pipette 3 times with distilled water and then 3 times with the sodium
hydrogen carbonate solution.
3. Rinse 4 250mL conical flasks labelled 1-4 with distilled water 3 times each.
 4. Using the pipette bulb and the pipette, draw up sodium hydrogen carbonate solution until the
bottom of the meniscus sits in line with the graduated mark and transfer the drawn-up solution into
conical flask 1. Repeat for conical flasks 2-4.
5. Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator into each of the numbered conical flasks and swirl to mix
thoroughly.
6. Set up the burette, burette clamp and retort stand as shown in the diagram.
7. Fill the burette with hydrochloric acid using a clean, dry glass funnel until the reading is around
45mL, removing the glass funnel afterwards.
8. Run the tap into a separate beaker to remove any air bubbles, closing the tap afterwards.
9. Record the initial reading of the burette.
10. Place conical flask 1 under the burette tip with a white sheet of paper underneath, as shown in the
diagram.
11. Open the tap and slowly dispense the hydrochloric acid into flask 1 with constant swirling until a
colour change (yellow to orange) persists. Close the tap.
12. Record final reading on burette.
13. Repeat steps 8 to 13 for conical flasks 2, 3 and 4, but add the titrant more slowly as the amount of
liquid dispensed approaches the titre value (difference in final and initial reading) of the first
titration.
● The analyte/titrand is the solution with unknown concentration.
● The titrant is the solution with known concentration.
● The titre is the volume of titrant delivered by the burette. It is calculated by subtracting the initial
burette reading from the final burette reading.
● Solution for Rinsing Equipment:
Equipment Solution for rinsing
Volumetric Flask distilled water
Pipette distilled water, then solution it will be filled
with
Burette distilled water, then solution it will be filled
with
Conical flask distilled water
● The titration is repeated several times and the average titre is used to minimise errors. Usually,
three concordant titres (titres within a 0.10mL range) are used for the average.
● pH Ranges of Common Acid-Base Indicators:
Indicator Colour of acid form Colour of base form pH range
methyl orange red yellow 3.1-4.4
bromothymol blue yellow blue 6.0-7.6
phenolphthalein colourless pink 8.3-10.0
● Acid-base titrations are used:
o to determine the acid content of wine; an aliquot of wine (containing mostly tartaric acid
(H6C4O6)) is titrated against a standardised solution of sodium hydroxide.
▪ H6C4O6(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 🡪 Na2H4C4O6(aq) + 2H2O(l)
o to determine the acid content of fruit juice and soft drink; fruit juices (containing citric acid
(H8C6O7)) and soft drinks (containing phosphoric acid (H3PO4)) is titrated against sodium
hydroxide.
▪ H8C6O7(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) 🡪 Na3H5C6O7(aq) + 3H2O(l)
▪ H3PO4(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) 🡪 Na3PO4(aq) + 3H2O(l)
o in medicines such as to determine the acid content of aspirin or the basic content of
antacid.
● Many fruits, including native Australian fruits, contain acids such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C) whose
amount can be determined via titration.
Strong Acid – Strong Base Titration Curve

● Equivalence point occurs at a pH of 7: strong acids and strong bases produce very weak conjugate
bases and acids respectively, which do not react with water to an appreciable extent. This results in
a neutral solution.
● Initially, pH decreases slowly because there is an excess of OH -. However, near equivalence point,
the addition of a very small amount of titrant produces a large decrease in pH, due to the
logarithmic nature of pH. As H3O+ further increases, the pH decreases more slowly.

Strong Acid – Weak Base Titration Curve

● Equivalence point occurs at a pH lower than 7: weak bases produce weak conjugate acids and
strong acids produce very weak conjugate bases which do not react with water to an appreciable
extent. This results in an acidic solution.
● There is an initial rapid drop in pH, producing sufficient amounts of the weak base’s conjugate acid.
This results in a buffer forming, which resists change in pH as shown by the plateau in the graph.
Near equivalence point, there is a sharp decrease in pH, before it begins to decrease at a decreasing
rate.
Weak Acid – Strong Base Titration Curve
 ● Equivalence point occurs at a pH higher than 7: weak acids produce weak conjugate bases and
strong bases produce very weak conjugate acids which do not react with water to an appreciable
extent. This results in an basic solution.
● Initially the pH decreases slowly due to the excess of OH -. However, near equivalence point, there is
a sharp decrease in pH, before it begins to decrease at a decreasing rate.
Weak Acid – Weak Base Titration Curve

● The pH at which equivalence occurs depends on the acid and base used and the relative extents to
which the conjugate base and acid react with water.
● There is an initial rapid drop in pH, producing sufficient amounts of the weak base’s conjugate acid.
This results in a buffer forming, which resists change in pH as shown by the plateau in the graph.
There is no clear pH change at equivalence point.
● A sharp end point refers to when an indicator changes colour with the addition of only a small
amount of acid. They are useful for estimating equivalence point.
● In a conductivity titration, conductivity is measured over time by a conductivity meter and
represented by a conductivity curve. The equivalence point in a conductivity titration is indicated
by a sudden change in conductivity.
● H+ and OH- move faster through solution that other ions (e.g. Na+ and Cl-), resulting in their higher
conductivity.
Strong Acid – Strong Base Titration Conductivity Curve (HCl titrated against NaOH)
 ● Initially, there is a high conductivity due to the presence of H+ and Cl- ions. However, as NaOH is
added, H+ reacts with OH- to form non-conductive H2O molecules and is replaced by less conductive
Na+ ions, resulting in a decrease in conductivity.
● Equivalence point occurs at the point of lowest conductivity.
● As more NaOH is added, conductivity increases due to the excess of Na + and OH- ions.

Strong Acid – Weak Base Titration Conductivity Curve (HCl titrated against NH 3)

● Initially, there is a high conductivity due to the presence of H+ and Cl- ions. However, as NH3 is
added, H+ reacts with NH3 and is replaced by less conductive NH4+ ions, resulting in a decrease in
conductivity.
● Equivalence point occurs at the point where lowest conductivity is first reached.
● Conductivity does not change as more NH3 is added since it a weak base and dissociates to a very
small extent.

Weak Acid – Strong Base Titration Conductivity Curve (CH3COOH titrated against NaOH)

● Initially, there is a low conductivity because of the low concentration of H+ from the partial
ionisation of CH3COOH. As NaOH is added, conductivity increases from the addition of Na + and the
reaction of unionised CH3COOH molecules and OH- to form conductive CH3COO- ions.
● Equivalence point occurs when there is a sharp change in gradient.
● As more NaOH is added, conductivity increases due to the excess of Na + and OH- ions.
Weak Acid – Weak Base Titration Conductivity Curve (CH3COOH titrated against NH3)

● Initially, there is a low conductivity because of the low concentration of H+ from the partial
ionisation of CH3COOH. As NH3 is added, conductivity increases from the reaction of unionised
CH3COOH molecules and NH3 to form conductive NH4+ and CH3COO- ions.
● Equivalence point occurs at the point where highest conductivity is first reached.
● Conductivity does not change as more NH3 is added since it a weak base and dissociates to a very
small extent.
● The acid/base dissociation constant (Ka/Kb) is the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an
acid/base.

● The acid/base dissociation constant is a measure of an acid’s/base’s strength. The stronger the
acid/base, the larger it’s Ka/Kb and the smaller its pKa value.
● For weak monoprotic acids in the form of HA, it can be assumed that initial [HA] = equilibrium
[HA].
● Buffer solutions consist of similar amounts of a weak acid and its conjugate base or weak base and
its conjugate acid. They resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added.
o A weak acid and its conjugate base give an acidic buffer solution with a pH less than 7.
o A weak base and its conjugate acid give a basic buffer solution with a pH greater than 7.
● In an ethanoic acid/ethanoate buffer (CH3COOH/CH3COO-), an equilibrium is formed: CH3COOH(aq) +
H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
o When a small amount of acid is added, the concentration of H3O+ increases, disturbing the
equilibrium. By Le Chatelier’s principle, the system favour the reverse reaction to decrease
H3O+ concentration and minimise the change, thereby minimising the change in pH.
o When a small amount of base is added, the OH- produced reacts with the H3O+ and
decreases its concentration, disturbing the equilibrium. By Le Chatelier’s Principle, the
system will favour the forward reaction to increase H3O+ concentration and minimise the
change, thereby minimising the change in pH.
● Alternatively:
o When a small amount of acid is added, the added H3O+ reacts with the CH3COO- ions to
produce CH3COOH molecules: CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l). This minimises
the change in concentration of H3O+ and hence, the change in pH.
o When a small amount of base is added, the added OH- reacts with the CH3COOH molecules
to produce CH3COO- ions: CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l). This minimises the
addition of OH-, which would have reacted with H3O+: H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 🡪 2H2O(l), thus
minimising the change in H3O+ concentration and hence, the change in pH.
● Buffer capacity is a measure of the effectiveness of a buffer solution to resist a change in pH when
either a strong acid or strong base is added.
 ● Buffer capacity is greatest when:
o there is a high concentration of the weak acid and its conjugate base, since more can react
to compensate for equilibrium shifts.
o the concentrations of the acid and its conjugate base are equal.
● The carbonic acid buffer system regulates the pH level in the blood:
o H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
● The phosphate buffer system regulates the pH level in the internal fluid of all cells:
o H2PO4-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HPO42-(aq)+ H3O+(aq)
● Buffer systems in soils are important for maintaining pH ranges optimal for plant growth and
nutrient availability.

Module 7: Organic Chemistry

Structure and Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
● investigate the nomenclature of organic chemicals, up to C8, using IUPAC conventions, including
simple methyl and ethyl branched chains, including: (ACSCH127)
o alkanes
o alkenes
o alkynes
o alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary)
o aldehydes and ketones
o carboxylic acids
o amines and amides
o halogenated organic compounds
● explore and distinguish the different types of structural isomers, including saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons, including: (ACSCH035)
o chain isomers
o position isomers
o functional group isomers
● construct models, identify the functional group, and write structural and molecular formulae for
homologous series of organic chemical compounds, up to C8 (ACSCH035) :
o alkanes
o alkenes
o alkynes
● analyse the shape of molecules formed between carbon atoms when a single, double or triple bond
is formed between them

● Carbon has a valence of 4 and can form 4 covalent bonds.

● Bond energy is the amount of energy required to break one mole of a bond in gaseous phase. It is a
measure of bond strength.
o Bonds with the highest strength also have the highest stability.
● Structural formulae show the spatial locations of atoms relative to one another in a molecule as
well as the number and location of covalent bonds.
● Condensed structural formulae indicate the connections in the structure of a compound without
showing the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms. Double and triple carbon-carbon bonds are
shown.
o e.g. Ethanol
Molecular formula Structural formula Condensed Structural
Formula
C2H5OH CH3CH2OH

● A functional group is an atom or group of atoms which give the compound some characteristic
chemical properties.
● Isomers are molecules that contain the same number and types of atoms with different
arrangements.
o They can have different physical and chemical properties.
● There are three types of structural isomers (different arrangement of atom and different bonding
patterns):
● Chain isomers have different branching of the carbon chain.
o e.g. Three chain isomers of hexane:
▪ 2-methylpentane
▪ 3-methylpentane
▪ 2,2-dimethylbutane
● In position isomers, at least one functional group is positioned differently.
o e.g. Position isomers of butanol:
▪ 1-butanol
▪ 2-butanol
● Functional group isomers have different functional groups.
o e.g. Functional group isomers of C3H6O:
▪ propanal
▪ propanone
● Hydrocarbons contain only hydrogen and carbon.
● Homologous series are groups of compounds with the same functional group. They have:
o similar structures
▪ The members of a homologous series have increasingly longer chains. These chains
grow with the addition of -CH2 to the previous member of the series.
o similar chemical properties
o the same general formula
o a pattern to their physical properties
● Alkanes are molecules that contain only single carbon-carbon bonds.
o general formula: CnH2n+2.
o suffix: -ane
● Alkenes are molecules that contain one or more carbon-carbon double bonds.
o functional group: carbon-carbon double bond (C=C)
o general formula: CnH2n.
o suffix: -ene
● Alkynes are molecules that contain one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds.
o functional group: carbon-carbon triple bond (CC)
o general formula: CnH2n-2.
o suffix: -yne
● Alkanes are saturated molecules, while alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated molecules.
● The prefix is given by the number of carbon atoms
Number of Carbon Atoms Prefix
1 meth-
2 eth-
3 prop-
4 but-
5 pent-
6 hex-
7 hept-
8 oct-
9 non-
10 dec-

● Branches or side chains are alkane molecules missing one hydrogen atom. They are called alkyl
groups, and are named with the prefix indicating the number of carbon atoms and the suffix -yl.
● When naming alkenes and alkynes must be named, the position of the double/triple bond must be
specified with the lowest number possible (the carbon atoms are numbered starting from either
end).
● Rules for naming hydrocarbons:
o 1. Name the longest carbon chain.
o 2.Identify substituents and write them down in alphabetical order.
o 3.If the same substituent appears more than once, indicate using numbered prefixes (di, tri,
tetra, etc)
o 4. Add numbers to indicate the positions of every substituent such that the sum of the
numbers is minimised.
o 5. If the sum is the same, give the lowest number to the substituent which comes first in the
alphabet.
o NB: Dashes between numbers and letters, commas between numbers.
o NB: Major functional groups always gets the lowest number.
o NB: If the major functional group appears more than once, numbered prefixes are also used
(di, tri, tetra, etc). e.g. propadiene
● Haloalkanes are alkanes in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced with halogen atoms.
o functional group: halo functional group
Halogen Functional Group Name
Bromine Bromo
Chlorine Chloro
Fluorine Fluoro
Iodine Iodo
● Alcohols are organic compounds which contain the hydroxyl functional group (OH).
o functional group: hydroxyl group (OH)
o general formula (primary alcohol): CnH2n+1OH.
o suffix: -ol
● In primary alcohols, secondary alcohols and tertiary alcohols, the carbon bonded to the hydroxyl
group is bonded to one, two and three alkyl groups respectively.
● Primary amines are organic compounds that contain the amino functional group (NH 2).
o functional group: amino functional group (NH2)
o suffix: amine
● In primary amines, secondary amines and tertiary amines, the nitrogen is bonded to one, two and
three alkyl groups respectively.
● Aldehydes are organic compounds which contain a carbonyl functional group at the end of the
carbon chain. The carbon bonded to the oxygen is also bonded to a hydrogen.
 o functional group: carbonyl group (C=O) at the end of the carbon chain. It is written as CHO
o suffix: -al
● Ketones are organic compounds which contain a carbonyl functional group such that the carbon
within the functional group is bonded only to other carbons. The carbonyl functional group is never
at the end of the carbon chain.
o functional group: carbonyl group (C=O) not at the end of the carbon chain. It is written as
C(=O)
o suffix: -one
● Carboxylic acids are organic compounds which contain a carboxyl functional group (carbonyl group
attached to a hydroxyl group). The carboxyl group is always at the end of the carbon chain.
o functional group: carboxyl group (COOH)
o suffix: -oic acid
● Primary amides are organic compounds which contain a carbonyl functional group attached to an
amino functional group. The amide functional group (CONH2) is always located at the end of the
carbon chain.
o functional group: CONH2
o suffix: -amide
● Esters are produced by the reaction between a carboxylic acid with an alcohol. They contain a
carbonyl group attached to an oxygen which is linked another carbon.
o functional group: COO
o general form of name: alkyl alkanoate
▪ The -O- section of the ester is derived from an alcohol. It contributes to the first part
of the name, with the “-ol” changed to “-yl”
▪ The section containing the C=O is derived from a carboxylic acid. It contributes to the
second part of the name, with the “-oic acid” changed to “-oate”

Organic Compounds
Homologous Series Functional Group Condensed Naming Convention
Name Structural Formula
alkane suffix: -ane
alkene carbon-carbon double -C=C- suffix: -ene
bond
alkyne carbon-carbon triple -CC- suffix: -yne
bond
haloalkane halo -Br, -Cl, -F, -I prefix: bromo-,
chloro-, fluoro-, iodo-
alcohol hydroxyl R-OH prefix: -ol
amine amino (primary R-NH2 suffix: amine
amine) or prefix: amino-
carboxylic acid carboxyl R-COOH suffix: -oic acid
ester ester R-COO-R’ alkyl alkanoate
aldehyde carbonyl (at the end) R-CHO suffix: -al
ketone carbonyl (not at the R-C(=O)-R’ suffix: -one
end)
amide amide R-CONH2 suffix: -amide

Priority of Functional Groups

Functional Group Suffix Alternative name
(when needed)
highest priority carboxyl -oic acid
 amide -amide carbamoyl-
carbonyl (at the -al formyl-
end)
carbonyl (not at the -one oxo-
end)
hydroxyl -ol hydroxy-
amino -amine amino-
alkene -ene -an- becomes -en-
alkyne -yne -an- becomes -yn-
lowest priority halo halo-

Properties of Hydrocarbons and Haloalkanes

● construct models, identify the functional group, and write structural and molecular formulae for
homologous series of organic chemical compounds, up to C8 (ACSCH035) :
● conduct an investigation to compare the properties of organic chemical compounds within a
homologous series, and explain these differences in terms of bonding (ACSCH035)
● analyse the shape of molecules formed between carbon atoms when a single, double or triple bond
is formed between them
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of alkanes with reference to the
intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● describe the procedures required to safely handle and dispose of organic substances (ACSCH075)
● examine the environmental, economic and sociocultural implications of obtaining and using
hydrocarbons from the Earth

● The physical properties of hydrocarbons are determined by their intermolecular forces and the
size and shape of the molecules.
● For any homologous series, boiling point and melting point increase as the size of the molecule
increases.
o As the size of the molecule increases, there are more electrons, resulting in a higher
likelihood of uneven electron distribution. This leads to strong dispersion forces and a
higher boiling point.
o There is a step-like trend in melting point due to molecules with an even number of carbon
atoms packing more efficiently than molecules with an odd number of carbon atoms.
● Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are non-polar, resulting in only weak dispersion forces between
molecules. These weak dispersion forces are easy to overcome, giving them their relatively low
boiling points.
● Straight chained alkanes are able to fit more closely than branched chain isomers, resulting in a
higher boiling point.
● Haloalkanes contain polar bonds, allowing for the formation of strong dipole-dipole attractions
between molecules. This gives haloalkanes a higher boiling point than alkanes, alkenes and alkynes
with a similar number of carbon atoms.
● Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are insoluble in water due to their non-polar nature. However, they
can dissolve in non-polar solvents, since the strength of the dispersion forces between solvent-
solute molecules are similar to that of the solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules.
● Haloalkanes are slightly soluble due to their polar bond. The small influence of the polar bond
results in this low solubility.
● The solubility of haloalkanes decreases as the size of the molecule increases, due to the reducing
influence of the halogen.
● Burning fossil fuels has had both positive and negative economic, social and environmental impacts.
● Organic substances need to be disposed of properly because they can harm organisms and
environments.
Products of Reactions Involving Hydrocarbons
● investigate, write equations and construct models to represent the reactions of unsaturated
hydrocarbons when added to a range of chemicals, including but not limited to:
o hydrogen (H2)
o halogens (X2)
o hydrogen halides
o water (H2O) (ACSCH136)
● investigate, write equations and construct models to represent the reactions of saturated
hydrocarbons when substituted with halogens

● Combustion of Alkanes and Alkenes

o e.g. 2C8H18 + 25O2(g) 🡪 16 CO2(g) + 18H2O(l)
o e.g. C2H4(g) 🡪 3O2(g) 🡪 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
● Substitution Reactions of Alkanes (UV light)
o A substitution reaction occurs when an atom or functional group in a molecule is replaced
by another atom or group.
o Substitution reactions of alkanes using excess chlorine gas can result in a mixture of
chloroalkane products with varying levels of substitution.
o e.g. CH4(g) + Cl2(g) 🡪 CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
● Addition Reactions of Alkenes
o The double carbon-carbon covalent bond in alkenes is very reactive.
o In addition reactions, a small molecule is added to the double bond of the alkene.
▪ Two reactant molecules combine to form one product molecule.
▪ The carbon-carbon double bond becomes a single bond.
▪ The unsaturated compound becomes saturated.
● Alkenes can undergo four types of addition reactions:
o Reaction with Hydrogen (Hydrogenation) (Metal Catalyst)
▪ Alkenes react with hydrogen gas to form a saturated alkane.
▪ A metal catalyst such as nickel is required.
▪ e.g. C2H4(g) + H2(g) 🡪 C2H6(g)
o Reaction with Halogens (Halogenation)
▪ Alkenes react with halogens to form a haloalkane.
▪ e.g. C2H4(g) + Br2(g) 🡪 C2H4Br2(g)
Reaction with Hydrogen Halides
▪ Alkenes react with hydrogen halides (molecules that contain one hydrogen and one
halogen atom) to form a haloalkane.
▪ e.g. C2H4(g) + HBr(g) 🡪 C2H5Br(g)
o Reaction with Water (Hydration) (H2SO4 or H3PO4 catalyst)
▪ Alkenes react with water to form an alcohol.
▪ Dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or phosphoric acid (H3PO4) catalyst and a temperature of
300°C is required.
▪ e.g. C2H4(g) + H2O(l) 🡪 C2H5OH(l)

Alcohols
● investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional group including:
o primary
o secondary
o tertiary alcohols
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of alcohols with reference to the
intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● conduct a practical investigation to measure and reliably compare the enthalpy of combustion for a
range of alcohols
● write equations, state conditions and predict products to represent the reactions of alcohols,
including but not limited to (ACSCH128, ACSCH136):
o combustion
o dehydration
o substitution with HX
o oxidation
● investigate the production of alcohols, including:
o substitution reactions of halogenated organic compounds
o fermentation
● investigate the products of the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols
● compare and contrast fuels from organic sources to biofuels, including ethanol

● The hydroxyl group in alcohols, which contains an electronegative oxygen atom bonded to a
hydrogen atom, allows for the formation of hydrogen bonds between alcohol molecules. These
hydrogen bonds are relatively strong and require a lot of energy to overcome, resulting in a
relatively high boiling point.
o The boiling points of alcohols are higher than those of non-polar substances such as alkanes.
● Branching in alcohols both prevents molecules from packing closely to each other and restricts a
molecule’s ability to form hydrogen bonds. Thus, primary alcohols have a higher boiling point
than secondary alcohols, which have a higher boiling point than tertiary alcohols.
● Alcohols with short hydrocarbon chains are soluble in water due to the formation of hydrogen
bonds between the hydroxyl group of alcohol molecules and water molecules, which are stronger
than the hydrogen bonding between alcohol molecules and water molecules.
● However, as chain length increases, the non-polar nature of the molecule increases, resulting in a
decreasing solubility in water and an increasing solubility in non-polar, organic solvents.
● Substitution Reactions of Haloalkanes (OH-)
o Hydroxide ions can “attack” the positively charged carbon atom attached to the
electronegative halogen.
o e.g. CH3Cl(g) + OH- 🡪 CH3OH(l) + Cl-
o e.g. RX 🡪 ROH (catalyst OH-)
o Haloalkanes can also react with water, although a catalyst is required.
o e.g. CH3Cl(g) + H2O(l) 🡪 CH3OH(l) + HCl(aq)

● Fermentation of Carbohydrates (Yeast)

o Yeasts and bacteria make alcohols by fermenting carbohydrates.
o The most common alcohol produced is ethanol, derived from the fermentation of glucose:
C6H12O6(aq) 🡪 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
● Conditions optimal/required for fermentation:
o constant temperature between 15°C and 35°C.
o alcohol-tolerant yeast
o anaerobic environment
o low pH to kill bacteria
● Combustion of Alcohols
o e.g. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 🡪 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
● Oxidation of Alcohols (K2Cr2O7 or KMnO4)
 o Primary and secondary alcohols are oxidised in the presence of strong oxidising agents such
as potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
o Primary alcohols are oxidised into aldehydes, as the C-OH becomes C=O. The aldehyde is
then further oxidised into a carboxylic acid, as the hydrogen attached to the terminal
carbon is replaced by -OH.
o If the aldehyde is desired as a product, milder conditions such as lower temperature and
shorter reaction times are used. The aldehyde is distilled out of the reaction mixture as it is
formed.
o e.g. C3H7OH (1-propanol) 🡪 C3H6O (propanal)🡪 C3H5COOH
or C3H7OH 🡪 C3H5COOH

o Secondary alcohols are oxidised into ketones, as the C-OH becomes C=O.
o e.g. C3H7OH (2-propanol) 🡪 C3H6O (propanone)

o Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation.

● Dehydration of Alcohols (Al2O3 catalyst or concentrated H2SO4)
o Alcohols are dehydrated to form an alkene and water. The hydroxyl group is removed and a
C=C double bond forms.
o e.g. C2H5OH 🡪 C2H4 + H2O

● Substitution Reactions of Alcohols with Hydrogen Halides

o The hydroxyl group of alcohols is replaced by a halogen atom in the presence of a hydrogen
halide to form a haloalkane and water.
o e.g. C2H5OH + HBr 🡪 C2H5Br + H2O
● A fuel is a substance with stored energy that can be easily released for heat or power.
● Sustainable fuels are fuels which are produced as quickly as it is consumed (renewable) and ones
whose wastes during production or usage can easily be processed by the environment.
● Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) are non-renewable and unsustainable. They are formed from
the decomposed remains of ancient organisms.
● Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons which are mostly alkanes, and contains many useful
compounds. The components of crude oil are separated via fractional distillation, with each
component having a different use.
 ● Petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons, with the main component being octane.
● Petrodiesel consists of mainly alkanes ranging from C10H22 to C15H32.
● Natural gas is mostly composed of methane, with small amounts of other hydrocarbons such as
ethane and propane.
● Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) contains liquid butane and propane extracted from natural gas.
● Biofuels/biochemical fuels are renewable fuels derived from plant materials. The three main
biofuels are:
o Biodiesel: mixture of esters with long hydrocarbon chains.
o Bioethanol: produced from fermentation of carbohydrates, commonly sourced from crops.
It is a very sustainable fuel.
o Biogas: gas released in the breakdown of organic waste by anaerobic bacteria.
● Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, because it absorbs reflected energy from the Earth’s surface
and re-radiates it in a process called the greenhouse effect. The higher the concentration of
greenhouse gas, the more energy is trapped.
● Burning fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide, increasing the greenhouse gas
concentrations. This contributes to global warming and shifts in weather patterns and climate.
● The carbon dioxide released by ethanol is partially counteracted by the absorption of carbon
dioxide by the plants used to produce it.
o However, ethanol is not carbon neutral there are carbon dioxide emissions from growing,
transporting and refining the fuel.
● In the production of ethanol, intensive farming to grow the crops can lead to land degradation.

Fuel Advantages Disadvantages

natural gas ● more efficient than coal for ● non-renewable
electricity production ● limited reserves
● easy to transport through ● polluting but less than coal
pipes and petrol
● relatively high energy
content
biogas ● renewable ● low energy content
● made from waste ● supply of waste raw
 ● reduces waste disposal materials limited
● low running costs
● CO2 absorbed during
photosynthesis often
sustainable
petrol ● high energy content ● non-renewable
● ease of transport ● polluting but less than coal
● limited reserves
LPG ● low cost ● non-renewable
● easily separated from natural ● polluting but less than petrol
gas
● relatively high energy
content; fewer particulates
produced than petrol
bioethanol ● renewable ● limited supply of raw
● can be made from waste materials from which to
● CO2 absorbed during produce it
photosynthesis ● lower energy content than
● burns smoothly petrol
● fewer particulates produced ● may require use of farmland
than petrol otherwise used for food
production
● higher levels of ethanol
require engine
modifications.

Reactions of Organic Acids and Bases

Inquiry question: What are the properties of organic acids and bases?

Students:
● investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional group including:
o primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
o aldehydes and ketones (ACSCH127)
o amines and amides
o carboxylic acids
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of carboxylic acids amines and
amides with reference to the intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● investigate the production, in a school laboratory, of simple esters
● investigate the differences between an organic acid and organic base
● investigate the structure and action of soaps and detergents
● draft and construct flow charts to show reaction pathways for chemical synthesis, including those
that involve more than one step

● Aldehydes and ketones contain a polar carbonyl group, allowing for the formation of dipole-dipole
forces between molecules. This gives them a higher boiling point than alkanes and other non-polar
molecules of similar molecular weight.
● Amines, amides and carboxylic acids can all form hydrogen bonds between molecule, giving them
a higher boiling point than aldehydes and ketones of similar molecular weight.
● Alcohols have a higher boiling point than amines since the oxygen atom in the hydroxyl group is
more electronegative than the nitrogen atom in the amino group, producing a more polar bond and
stronger hydrogen bonding.
● Carboxylic acids can form dimers, which involves two hydrogen bonds forming between two
molecules. Dimers are stable species, and the increase in size increases the strength of the
dispersion forces between neighbouring dimers. Their formation of dimers and the more extensive
hydrogen bonding gives them a higher boiling point than alcohols of similar molecular weight.
● Amides have an even higher boiling point than carboxylic acids since they have more hydrogen
atoms that can form hydrogen bonds per molecule. This allows for more extensive hydrogen
bonding.

● Small amines, amides and carboxylic acids are soluble in water since the amino/carboxyl group
can form strong hydrogen bonds with water. Small aldehydes and ketones are also soluble in
water as the oxygen in the carbonyl group can form hydrogen bonds with the hydrogens in water
molecules.
o However, as chain length increases, the non-polar nature of the molecule increases,
resulting in a decreasing solubility in water and an increasing solubility in organic, non-
polar solvents.
● Condensation reactions involve the combination of two reactants and the liberation of a small
molecule such as water.
● Esterification is a condensation reaction where an ester is formed from a carboxylic acid and an
alcohol. (concentrated H2SO4)
o In an esterification reaction, the H from the hydroxyl group and the OH from the carboxyl
group combine to form water.
o A concentrated sulfuric acid catalyst is required.
● Esterification is often done via refluxing, which involves using a condenser with cool water flowing
through it.
o The condenser cools the gases down back into liquids, preventing loss of volatile reactants
and products. It also allows for the absence of a lid, which prevents the dangerous build-up
of gas pressure.
o An indirect heat source is used, such as a water bath heated by a hot plate. This prevents
the spontaneous combustion of flammable reactants and products.
o Heating the reaction mixture greatly increases reaction rate.
o Concentrated sulfuric acid is used as a catalyst and a dehydrating agent. Removing water
shifts equilibrium to the right to increase yield.
o Boiling chips are used to prevent superheating or bumping. It provides nucleation sites.
● Amides can be formed in a condensation reaction between carboxylic acids and amines.
 o The H in the amine combines with the OH from the carboxyl group to form water.
o Ammonia reacts with carboxylic acids to form primary amides. Primary amines react with
carboxylic acids to form secondary amides.
● Amines are weak bases. The electronegative nitrogen atom draws electron density away from the
rest of the molecule and stabilises the positive charge of the accepted proton.
o Amines dissociate in solution to a small extent as follows:
▪ e.g. CH3CH2NH2(aq) ⇌ CH3CH2NH3+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
● The electronegativity of oxygen in amides draws the electron density away from the rest of the
molecule and from the nitrogen atom, which prevents the molecule from holding onto a proton.
Thus, amides act as neither an acid or a base.
● Soaps (salt of a fatty acid) are formed from boiling animal or vegetable fats in NaOH/KOH solutions
in a process known as saponification.
o Saponification is an example of a hydrolysis reaction, and is the reverse reaction of
esterification.
● Triglycerides are a type of fatty ester consisting of a glycerol backbone and three fatty acids (long
chain carboxylic acid molecules).

● Soaps consist of a long hydrophobic, non-polar hydrocarbon tail and hydrophilic, polar charged
COO- head ionically bonded to an Na+ or K+ ion.
● The most common soap is sodium stearate (C17H35COONa)
● Soaps belong to a class of molecules call surfactants (surface acting agents).
o When soap dissolves in water, the anions accumulate at the surface and interfere with the
hydrogen bonding between water molecules, thereby lowering surface tension of the
water.
● When a soap-water mixture is added to oil/grease:
o The non-polar, hydrophobic tails of the soap molecules form dispersion forces with the non-
polar oil/grease particles.
o The polar, hydrophilic heads of the soap form hydrogen bonds with the polar water
molecules.
o With agitation, the grease particle lifts off the surface and more soap molecules surround
the particle to form a micelle. This stabilises the grease particles in water and forms an
emulsion (even dispersion of fine droplets of one liquid in another), where soap acts as the
emulsifier. The negative surfaces of the micelles repel each other, preventing the grease
droplets from coalescing again.
o The emulsion can now easily be washed away.
o Micelle:
 ● Soap will precipitate in hard water (water containing calcium and magnesium ions) to form an
insoluble scum.
o Ca2+(aq) + 2C17H35COO-(aq) 🡪 Ca(C17H35COO)2(aq)
● Synthetic surfactants (detergents) have largely replaced soaps as the main cleaning agents.
o Detergents have a similar structure to soap, except the head can be anionic, cationic or non-
ionic.
o The lathering action of detergents are unaffected by hard water.

Polymers
● model and compare the structure, properties and uses of addition polymers of ethylene and related
monomers, for example:
o polyethylene (PE)
o polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
o polystyrene (PS)
o polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (ACSCH136)
● model and compare the structure, properties and uses of condensation polymers, for example:
o nylon
o polyesters

● Polymers are covalent molecular substances formed by joining together many small molecules
called monomers.
● The process of combining monomers to form a polymer is called polymerisation. There are two
types of polymerisation processes:
o Addition polymerisation involves the linking of unsaturated monomers without the
generation of by-products. In addition polymerisation, double bonds break to allow for
covalent bonds to form between neighbouring monomers.
o Condensation polymerisation involves the linking of monomers with the generation of a
small molecule such as water. The monomers involved in condensation polymerisation
contain two functional groups, one at each end of the molecule.
● Polyethene/Polyethylene
o Many ethene monomers can undergo addition polymerisation to form polyethene or
polyethylene.

o Low-density polyethene (LDPE) contains many side branches that divide off from the main
polymer chain. LDPE chains are often much shorter than HDPE chains, and are formed under
high temperatures of around 300°C.
 o High-density polyethene (HDPE) consists of long chains with little side branching, which
allows them to pack more closely in a more ordered structure. They are formed with low
pressures using Ziegler-Natta catalysts.

● Poly(chloroethene)/Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

o Chloroethene monomers can undergo addition polymerisation to form
poly(chloroethene)/polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

● Polystyrene
o Phenylethene/ethenylbenzene/styrene monomers can undergo addition polymerisation to
form polystyrene. Styrene monomers contain a benzene ring substituent.

● Polytetrafluoroethene/Teflon
o Tetrafluoroethene monomers can undergo addition polymerisation to form
polytetrafluoroethene/Teflon.

● Polyesters are formed through condensation polymerisation between monomers that contain a
carboxyl functional group and a hydroxyl functional group. This typically involves combining a
dicarboxylic acid with a diol, which results in the liberation of water molecules.
● Polyethene terephthalate (PET)
 o Benzene-1,4-dioic acid/terephthalic acid and ethane-1,2-diol/ethylene glycol monomers
can undergo condensation polymerisation to form polyethene terephthalate (PET), which is
a polyester.

● Polyamides are formed through condensation polymerisation between monomers that contain a
carboxyl functional group and an amino functional group.
● Nylon refers to a group of polyamides in which the monomers are linear carbon chains. They are
typically formed by combining a dicarboxylic acid with a diamine, which results in the liberation of
water.
● Nylon-6,6
o Hexanedioic acid and hexane-1,6-diamine can undergo condensation polymerisation to
form nylon-6,6

● In general, polymers are lightweight, non-conductive of electricity, durable, acid-resistant and

flammable.
● Factors that affect the physical properties of polymers include:
o chain length: longer chained polymers exhibit greater dispersion forces and hence, higher
melting points, boiling points.
o extent of side branching: polymer molecules with more side branching cannot pack as
closely together, resulting in weaker dispersion forces and hence, lower boiling points,
melting points.
▪ Polymer chains with few branches can line up in a regular arrangement, creating
crystalline regions. Chains are packed more closely together, increasing the
intermolecular forces between them and strengthening the material.
▪ Amorphous regions form where the polymer chains are tangled. The chains cannot
pack closely, resulting in weaker intermolecular forces and a weaker, more flexible
material.
o functional groups: polar functional groups can affect the intermolecular forces between
chains. This determines melting point and hardness. Bulky substituents restrict movement
of polymers and decrease flexibility.
o additives: plasticisers can be added to polymers to soften them. UV stabilisers can increase
the resistance of polymers to UV radiation.
● Thermoplastic polymers contain no crosslinking between chains. They soften when heated, and
can be remoulded or recycled. There is no
● Thermosetting polymers contain cross-links, which makes the material hard and heat resistant.
They decompose or burn upon heating.
● LDPE consists of short chains with a high degree of branching, giving it weaker dispersion forces.
Thus, it is used in cling wrap and plastic bags.
 ● HDPE consists of long chains with a low degree of branching, giving it strong dispersion forces.
Thus, it is used in buckets, kitchen utensils, containers
● Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) contains electronegative chlorine atoms which results in polar C-Cl bonds.
This allows for the formation of strong dipole-dipole forces between chains, giving it a higher
melting point and more durability. Thus, it is used in pipes and water bottles.
o Plasticisers and UV stabilisers can be added to soften PVC and give it resistance to sunlight,
thus allowing it to be used in garden hoses.
● Polystyrene contains a large benzene ring substituent, which allows light to pass through
undiffracted. This gives polystyrene its transparency, allowing it to be used in CD and DVD cases.
o Polystyrene can have gas blown into it to create a softer polystyrene foam, which is
lightweight and shock absorbing. Thus, it is used in helmets and drink containers.
● The electronegative fluorine atoms in Teflon reduce the strength of intermolecular bonds with
other substances, giving it its non-stick properties and a low coefficient of friction. This allows it to
be used in non-stick frying pans.

Module 8: Applying Chemical Ideas

Analysis of Inorganic Substances
Inquiry Question: How are the ions present in the environment identified and measured?
● analyse the need for monitoring the environment
● conduct qualitative investigations – using flame tests, precipitation and complexation reactions as
appropriate – to test for the presence in aqueous solution of the following ions:
o cations: barium (Ba2+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), lead(II) (Pb2+), silver ion (Ag+),
copper(II) (Cu2+), iron(II) (Fe2+), iron(III) (Fe3+)
o anions: chloride (Cl–), bromide (Br–), iodide (I–), hydroxide (OH–), acetate (CH3COO–),
carbonate (CO32–), sulfate (SO42–), phosphate (PO43–)
● conduct investigations and/or process data involving:
o gravimetric analysis
o precipitation titrations
● conduct investigations and/or process data to determine the concentration of coloured species
and/or metal ions in aqueous solution, including but not limited to, the use of:
o colourimetry
o ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry
o atomic absorption spectroscopy
 ● Flame tests can be used to identify certain metal ions.
o The electrons in metal cations are excited to higher energy levels, releasing energy when
they fall back down. In some metal cations, this radiation lies in the visible light range.
● However, the accuracy of flame tests of relatively low due to the similarities in colours.
● Furthermore, flame tests only work on solutions with one metal ion.
Metal Flame Colour
Sodium yellow
Strontium scarlet
Copper blue-green
Barium apple-green
Lithium crimson
Calcium brick-red
Potassium lilac

● Precipitation reactions and the colour of solution can also be used to identify ions present in a
solution.
Cation Colour of SO42- OH- CO32-
Solution
Ca2+ colourless white white white
Ag+ colourless white brown yellow
Fe2+ pale green no precipitate green green
Fe3+ orange brown no precipitate brown brown
Cu2+ blue no precipitate blue green
 ● A complex ion consists of anions or small molecules (ligands) attached onto a central metal ion.
The process of forming a complex ion is known as complexation.
● Complexation occurs when bonds form between a transition metal ion and a lone pair of electrons
on each of the ligands.
● Complexation reactions can also be used to identify certain metal ions.
o e.g. Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq) ⇌ [FeSCN]2+(aq)
● Gravimetric analysis can be used to quantitatively determine the concentration of an ion in
solution. The ion must be able to form a precipitate.
1. Weigh the filter paper.
2. Prepare the sample solution.
3. Add the precipitating agent in excess amounts to completely precipitate the ion being analysed.
4. Filter the precipitate and wash to ensure no soluble components are trapped in it.
5. Test the filtrate with more of the precipitating agent to ensure all the ions have been completely
precipitated. If necessary, filter again.
6. Dry the precipitate in a drying oven, allow for it to cool to room temperature in a desiccator and
weigh it. Repeat until a constant mass is obtained.
● Precipitation titrations can also be used in quantitatively determining the concentration of an ion
in solution.
● Precipitation titrations can either use a CrO4- indicator or a conductivity meter.
● e.g. Titrating NaCl solution against Ag+ solution with CrO42- indicator.
o A solution containing Ag+ is added into the burette.
o An aliquot of a standard solution solution of NaCl is added into a conical flask.
o 3 drops of K2CrO4 is added to the flask as an indicator.
o When the Ag+ has completely precipitated the Cl- in solution, it will react with the CrO4- in
solution to form a reddish-brown precipitate: 2Ag+(aq) + CrO42- 🡪 Ag2CrO4(s). This indicates
endpoint.
● Alternatively, a conductivity metre can be used in a precipitation titration. Equivalence point occurs
at the point of lowest conductivity.
● Spectroscopy involves studying the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.
● The colour an object appears to be is caused by transmitted light (for transparent objects)or
reflected light (for opaque objects). The observed colour and absorbed colour are referred to as
complementary colours.
● Colorimeters and UV-Vis spectrometers measure the absorbance of light in the visible and
ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
● Colorimetry involves measuring the absorbance of light of a specific colour.
o A light source passes light through a coloured filter which selects one wavelength.
● In UV-Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy, the solution can be scanned over a range of wavelengths.
o A monochromator instead of a coloured filter is used.
o UV-Vis spectroscopes are more accurate than colorimeters.
● Beer-Lambert Law:

where:
● A = absorbance
● = molar absorption coefficient/molar absorptivity (Lcm -1mol-1)
● l = sample cell length (cm)
● c = concentration (M)
● Io = intensity of light entering sample cell
● I = intensity of light entering sample cell

● Steps for colourimetry or UV-Vis spectroscopy

 1. Select the wavelength of light absorbed most strongly by the sample.
2. Measure the absorbance of a series of standard solutions at the selected wavelength
3. Plot a calibration curve of absorbance vs concentration.
4. Measure the absorbance of the sample solution and determine the corresponding concentration.
● If a metal ion that is not strongly coloured is to be analysed, a metal complex (e.g. iron (III)
thiocyanate) may need to be formed.
● Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) can accurately determine the concentration of most metals
in samples of water and other substances. It measures the amount of light absorbed by a
vapourised sample at a specific wavelength.
o It is based on energy transitions of electrons when they absorb and emit energy.
1. A hollow-cathode lamp emits different wavelengths of light that are absorbed by the metal being
analysed. The lamp must be made with a filament of the metal to be analysed.
2. A solution of a sample is sprayed into the flame to create an atomic vapour.
3. A monochromator selects one wavelength of light for analysis.
4. A detector measures the amount of light that reaches it and a computer determines the amount of
light absorbed by the sample.
5. A calibration curve is used to determine the concentration of the metal ion.

Analysis of Organic Substances

Inquiry Question: How is information on the reactivity and structure of organic compounds obtained?
● conduct qualitative investigations to test for the presence in organic molecules of the following
functional groups:
o carbon–carbon double bonds
o hydroxyl groups
o carboxylic acids (ACSCH130)
● investigate the processes used to analyse the structure of simple organic compounds addressed in
the course, including but not limited to:
o proton and carbon-13 NMR
o mass spectroscopy (ACSCH19)
o infrared spectroscopy (ACSCH130)

● Bromine water (BrOH(aq)) can be used to test for the presence of a carbon-carbon double or triple
bond.
● Alkenes and alkynes decolourise the orange-red bromine water.
o e.g. C2H4 + BrOH(aq) 🡪 C2H4BrOH(aq) (colourless) or C2H4 + Br2 🡪 C2H4Br2 (colourless)
● Carboxyl functional groups can be detected by:
o a reaction of the substance with carbonates/hydrogen carbonates. If effervescence is
observed, the substance is a carboxylic acid. Alternatively, the presence of carbon dioxide
can be confirmed using the limewater test.
o indicators. For example, if the substance turns blue litmus red, it is a carboxylic acid.
o esterification with alcohol. An ester will produce a distinct smell.
● The hydroxyl functional group can be tested through a reaction with sodium metal. However,
water must not be present, since sodium reacts violently with water.
o e.g. Sodium and methanol produce sodium methoxide and hydrogen gas:
CH3OH(l) + Na(s) 🡪 NaCH3O(l) + H2(g)
● Primary and secondary alcohols will turn acidified yellow dichromate solutions and acidified purple
permanganate solutions green and colourless respectively. This occurs from the reduction of Cr2O72-
and MnO4- into Cr3+ and Mn2+. There will be no observed effect for tertiary alcohols:
 ● To distinguish between primary and secondary alcohols, the products should be tested. If it is a
carboxylic acid, the original substance is a primary alcohol. If not, it is a secondary alcohol.
● Mass spectrometry measures the mass to charge ratio of ions.
o ions are formed in the ionisation chamber, where the sample is bombarded by electrons.
o the ions are accelerated through a magnetic field, where they are separated based on mass
to charge ratio (m/z).
o The number of ions with different m/z values are measured by a detector, and the data is
displayed as a mass spectrum.

● The molecular ion is formed when the entire molecule loses an electron and becomes positively
charged. In ions with a charge of 1, the mass becomes equal to the m/z.
● In the ionisation chamber, high energy electrons ionise the sample by knocking an electron off each
molecule, producing a positive molecular ion. This can weaken the bonds within the molecule and
cause it to break in a process known as fragmentation.
● Common Positive Fragment Ions
m/z Formula
15 CH3+
17 OH+
29 CH3CH2+, CHO+
31 CH3O+
35 + 37 +
35 and 37 Cl , Cl
43 CH3CH2CH2+, CH3CO+
45 COOH+
79
79, 81 Br+, 81Br+,
● a mass spectrum consists of m/z on the x-axis and relative intensity on the y-axis.
● e.g. mass spectrum of ethanoic acid.
 ● The molecular ion lies farthest to the right of the mass spectrum.
● The base peak is the most intense peak, and is assigned a relative intensity of 100%.
● The relative intensities of peaks in the spectrum depend on:
o the energy of the ionising electrons
o the ease with which fragments can be formed
o the stability of the fragment ions formed.
● The mass spectrum indicates that the molecular ion (CH3COOH+) has a molecular mass of 60.
● Isotopes can lead to additional peaks in the mass spectrum of a molecule.
Element Isotopes Percentage Abundance
12
Carbon C 98.9
13
C 1.1
35
Chlorine Cl 75.8
37
Cl 24.2
79
Bromine Br 50.7
81
Br 49.3
● The peaks containing the isotopes have relative intensities reflective of their relative abundances.
That is:
o Carbon-12 and carbon-13 would produce peaks separated by 1 unit with ratio of intensities
99:1.
o Chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 would produce peaks separated by 2 units with ratio of
intensities 3:1.
o Bromine-79 and bromine-81 would produce peaks separated by 2 units with ratio of
intensities 1:1
● Molecules have discrete vibrational energy levels that involves the bending and stretching of
bonds. They can transition between these energy levels by absorbing and emitting electromagnetic
radiation.
● Infrared (IR) spectroscopy involves the analysis of infrared radiation interacting with a molecule,
and allows for identification of functional groups.
o The energy of infrared radiation is not enough to excite electrons to high energy levels but
enough to change the vibration of bonds in molecules. That is, the difference in energy
between vibrational energy levels corresponds to the infrared range of the spectrum.
o For a molecule to absorb IR radiation, the bending or stretching vibrations must change the
overall dipole of the molecule.
o When molecules absorb the radiation, the stretching and bending vibrations of the bonds
become more energetic.
o Frequency is usually represented by wavenumber, which equals . It usually has units cm-1.
o The strength of the bond and the atoms attached to a bond affect the frequency of IR
radiation absorbed. Weaker bonds and atoms with higher masses absorb lower frequencies.
o Bonds that vibrate at higher frequencies absorb higher frequency/wavenumber IR radiation.
● In an infrared spectrum, wavenumber is plotted on the x-axis decreasing from left to right.
Percentage transmittance is plotted on the y-axis.
● Where the molecule absorbs IR radiation, the spectrum dips. The inverted peaks are called
absorption bands.

● Absorption bands above 1400cm-1 are used to identify functional groups, while the region below
1400cm-1 (the fingerprint region) contains absorption bands unique to each compound.

● Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is used to determine the structure of complex
molecules.
o NMR spectroscopy uses electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency range.
o The nuclei of the atoms analysed must have nuclear spin. Only nuclei with an odd number
of protons, neutrons or nucleons have nuclear spin.
o Nuclear spin causes the nuclei to behave like tiny bar magnets. In the presence of an
external magnetic field, nuclei with spin will either line up with the field (lower energy) or
against the field (higher energy).
● In an NMR spectrometer, the nuclei usually align with the magnetic field in a lower energy state.
● A radio-transmitter is used to provide the energy to ‘flip’ the nuclei into the higher energy state.
● The nuclei flip back to the lower-energy state and release electromagnetic radiation, which is
measured and displayed as an NMR spectrum.
● The most common types of NMR are proton/1H NMR and carbon-13 NMR.
● An NMR spectrum provides information about the number and type of hydrogen and carbon nuclei
in an organic compound.
 ● The chemical environment of an atom consists of the atoms and electrons that surround it. Atoms
in the same chemical environment absorb and release the same energy, producing a single signal in
the spectrum.
o Chemically equivalent hydrogen atoms produce the same substance after substitution with
a chlorine atom.
● Molecules that contain symmetry contain fewer distinct chemical environments.
● Tetramethylsilane (TMS) Si(CH3)4 is a chemically inert reference compound to which NMR results
are compared. It only has one chemical environment and thus, only produces one signal.
● Chemical shift is the difference in energy needed to change spin states when compared to the
energy required to change spin states in TMS. It is measured in parts per million.

where:
● = chemical shift (ppm)
● The chemical shift of signals can be used to identify the chemical environment in which the
hydrogen atom is located.
● More deshielded atoms (electrons drawn away) have higher chemical shifts.
● The area under the signals in proton NMR is proportional to the number of hydrogen atoms
producing the signal.
● The number of peaks in a signal is given by n+1 where n is the number of hydrogen atoms on
directly adjacent carbon atoms. This is known as spin-spin coupling or signal splitting.
● Carbon-13 NMR is the same as proton NMR except area under signals has no significance. There is
also no spin-spin coupling/signal splitting.

Chemical Synthesis and Design

● evaluate the factors that need to be considered when designing a chemical synthesis process,
including but not limited to:
o availability of reagents
o reaction conditions (ACSCH133)
o yield and purity (ACSCH134)
o industrial uses (eg pharmaceutical, cosmetics, cleaning products, fuels) (ACSCH131)
o environmental, social and economic issues

● Many cosmetics and pharmaceuticals are synthesised.

o Emulsifiers, solvents, thickeners, etc are used to synthesise cosmetics.
● When choosing a location for industry, sources of raw materials, and environmental impact of
emissions and waste should be considered.
● Reagents must be chosen that are readily available and as cheap as possible.
● Reaction conditions should maximise rate of reaction and yield whilst still remaining safe and cost
effective. Thus, temperatures that are too high cannot be used.
o If increasing temperature/pressure increases rate but decreases yield or vice versa, a
compromise is used.
● A catalyst should always be used if it economically viable/beneficial.
● Reactants should be added in stoichiometric proportions to minimise waste and maximise yield.
● The product should be constantly removed to continually shift equilibrium to the right for
reactions that do not reach completion.
● Yield is the amount of product produced.
● Theoretical yield is the mass of product that can be formed if all reactants react.

● The atom economy for a chemical reaction is a measure of the percentage of atoms in the reactants
that end up in the desired product.
● Purity of the product must be consistently monitored.

● Waste is often produced during industrial processes and can sometimes be toxic. The disposal of
waste must be conducted in an environmentally friendly manner and one that does not detriment
the health of the population.
● Case Study: Haber Process
o N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
● The Haber process uses nitrogen and hydrogen gas to produce ammonia, which is extensively used
in fertilizers and explosives. It is an exothermic process.
● A low temperature favours the forward reaction and results in a high yield, but a low rate of
reaction. A high temperature favours the reverse reaction and results in a low yield, but a high rate
of reaction.
o Thus, a compromise of a moderate temperature of 400°C-450°C is used for a moderate
yield and a moderate rate of reaction.
o Moderate temperatures are also safe and economically beneficial.
● A high pressure favours the forward reaction and results in both a high yield and a high rate of
reaction, since there are less gaseous moles on the right.
o Thus, a high pressure of 200atm is used.
o However, the pressure cannot be too high due to safety and economic constraints.
● An iron catalyst is used to speed up the rate of reaction. It mitigates the decreased reaction rate of
using a moderate temperature instead of a high temperature.
● Nitrogen and hydrogen are added in a 1:3 ratio in accordance to the stoichiometric ratio.
● The product is periodically removed and the reactants are recycled if unreacted.
● Case Study: Contact Process
o S(s) + O2(g) 🡪 SO2(g)
o 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
o H2SO4(l) + SO3(g) 🡪 H2SO7(l)
o H2SO7(l) + H2O(l) 🡪2H2SO4(l)
● The Contact Process is used to manufacture sulfuric acid. First, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur
dioxide, which is then converted into sulfur trioxide in an equilibrium reaction. The sulfur trioxide is
then dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid to produce oleum (H 2SO7(l)), which is then converted
into sulfuric acid again.
● It is the reversible conversion of sulfur dioxide and oxygen into sulfur trioxide which is the focus for
reaction conditions. It is an exothermic process: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
● A low temperature favours the forward reaction and results in a high yield, but a low rate of
reaction. A high temperature favours the reverse reaction and results in a low yield, but a high rate
of reaction.
o Thus, a compromise of a moderate temperature of 400°C-450°C is used for a moderate
yield and a moderate rate of reaction.
o Moderate temperatures are also safe and economically beneficial.
● High temperatures would both shift equilibrium to the right and give very high rates of reaction.
However, even at relatively low pressures there is a 99.5% conversion of SO 2 into SO3, so the
economic expenses for producing high pressures is not worth it.
o Thus, a low pressure of 1-2atm is used.
● A vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5) catalyst is used to speed up the rate of reaction. Without the catalyst,
the reaction would proceed far too slowly.